Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017)

SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/

Proclivity of Political Participation among Wakaidesu (若いです) Japanese

Ahmad, N. S. Y.1*, Syed, M. D.2 and Sani, M. A.3 1Department of Anthropology and Sociology, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, 2Department of Media Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 3School of International Studies, COLGIS, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia

ABSTRACT Wakaidesu (若いです) or Young Japanese have been seen as being indifferent to politics and do not seem to regard political parties as representing their concerns. This is a blow to the Japanese democracy as the great majority of youth are politically apathetic and they are distancing themselves from active participation in politics. This paper describes the growing political apathy among young Japanese citizens aged between 20 and 35 that needs to be changed. Policies of the state should advocate for issues of interest to younger voters. The engagement of Japanese youth is reflected in three major issues: the feminist movement, community service and environmental protection, all of which will be discussed in this paper. The country urgently needs more young Japanese to be engaged in issues concerning the relationship between the economic and political state of the nation. The paper argued that the political involvement of young Japanese is not being attended to seriously. Instead, political parties are busy securing votes from the largest group of voters, ignoring the young. This has led to the increase of political apathy among young voters, bringing the Japanese democracy into decline. Finally, the paper will also discuss a cultural ethnographic study on the use of the media among Malaysian youth as a comparative analysis to show how self-identity and social identity can be built.

Keywords: Political apathy, political participation, young Japanese, voter ARTICLE INFO Article history: Received: 23 July 2016 INTRODUCTION Accepted: 03 December 2016 E-mail addresses: Political participation reflects the way [email protected] (Ahmad, N. S. Y.), [email protected] (Syed, M. D.), people with various attitudes utilise their [email protected] (Sani, M. A.) * Corresponding author opportunities. Civic involvement is indeed

ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Ahmad, N. S. Y., Syed, M. D. and Sani, M. A. necessary to reach the ‘expectation’ institutional political processes is relatively of democratic ideals. Among political low when compared to older citizens across activities which society is involved in are the globe. People under the age of 35 are the conventional, which is limited to vote rarely found in formal political leadership casting and political campaigning, and positions. This has led to discussion of the unconventional such as protests and political leadership in democratic Japan. women’s participation, and the recent civil Eligibility for service in Parliament starts at activities such as volunteering and social 25 years of age or older and it is common engagement. These forms of participation practice to refer to politicians as ‘young’ if are consistent with actual civic engagement they are below 35 to 40 years of age (UNDP, practices. 2013, p. 13). Youth are not represented According to the United Nations adequately in formal political institutions Development Programme (UNDP) (2013, and processes such as Parliament, political pp. 17–18) opportunities for youth to engage parties, elections and public administration. in governance and participate in political According to Takahashi and Hatano and decision-making processes depend (1999, p.225–230), Japanese youth largely on the political, socioeconomic and engagement has focused on three major cultural contexts where social norms in issues: feminist movement, community many parts of the world result in multiple service and environmental protection. The forms of discrimination against young movements are indirectly political matters. women. Since the Arab awakening, many The first began in the 1890s and involved youth in the region have remained politically protests against pollution from various active through “political movements” sources, including mining. The second, instead of engaging with political parties. antinuclear protests, began in 1954 and Young men and women are traditionally became one of the more active political active politically in universities (when movements in which youth participated. allowed) but very often disillusioned with Takahashi and Hatano added that those political leadership and political institutions involved in environmental protection and excluded from policy development. This generally are not directly political because has resulted in political activism of youth they focus primarily on consumer concerns not being organised according to formal such as food additives, natural food and groupings. organic farming methods. They note Furthermore, both formal and informal that at least some young people regard engagement can be understood as political environmental protection to be an economic participation, and both are beneficial for a and political issue. Takahashi and Hatano vivid and resilient democracy and should (1999, p.232) concluded that “a great be supported. There is strong evidence that majority of youth are indifferent to politics” the participation of young people in formal, and did not regard political parties as

124 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017) Proclivity of Political Participation representatives of their concerns. Their important alternative source of information argument has been supported by Hayes for audiences. (1995, p.144), who stated that “the great However, this paper also argues that majority of students are politically apathetic despite the fact that new media such as and do not participate actively in politics.” Facebook have a certain effect on the According to White (1994, p.11), youth formation of identity and the ideology of are defined by marital and employment status Malaysian youth, this technology is not a rather than by age, and such institutional determinant of the total. Traditional media, definitions have more weight than social and especially television, are still considered psychological identities. The regulatory and relevant and have an effect of its own. For protective functions of institutions such as example, the importance of television was family and school still dominate the lives of realised by opposition political parties, Japanese youth into their 20s. who use the Internet now as a platform for However, in Malaysia, media channels disseminating their political and ideological such as Facebook and the medium of agenda to avoid constraints placed on them television are popular among Malay youths, by the police and the government. One who make use of these outlets particularly example of is TV Selangor, an opposition for news content, entertainment and religious news channel available online. texts. Satellite television in particular plays The main discussion of this paper a very important role in assisting the focuses on the propensity or tendency development of ideology, including social, of young Japanese to avoid involvement political and cultural thought among youth. in political parties and how they react to At the same time, the government frequently political involvement, and includes a short makes television its primary medium in analysis of the role of Malaysian youth as a highlighting political agenda and social comparative study on political participation and cultural rights on an ongoing basis. of youth in both countries. However, the popularity of new media has led the government to believe the idea that LITERATURE REVIEW Malaysian youth today are not established Historical Experience or nurtured through any political statement in any traditional media like television and The historical period of Japanese newspapers. They believe that Malaysian development brought tremendous change youth today tend to see and believe what to the political system. Utter (2011, p.108– is disseminated through new media such as 109) found that Japan faced economic Facebook, Blog, YouTube, Twitter and so reversal in the 1990s as well as scandals on. At the same time, new media technology involving government officials, bankers and is considered popular and has become an industrialists. This brought a new paradigm to the Japanese economic sector, which

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017) 125 Ahmad, N. S. Y., Syed, M. D. and Sani, M. A. experienced tremendous change. He added has been placed on party platforms and party that after Japan lost 3 million lives in World leaders, nationwide campaigns and more (but War II and suffered the atomic bombing of not completely) homogeneous parties and the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, it weakened factions. Factions, especially in became a parliamentary democracy with a the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), which largely symbolic hereditary monarch, the represents special interests, previously Emperor. played a dominant role in Japanese politics. After the death of Emperor Hirohito They added that the campaigns are more in 1989, the monarchy passed to his issue-orientated, with parties seeking to son, Akihito, who succeeded the throne. attract “the mythical median voter” rather Immediately after the war, the Allied powers than depending on the support of particular governed Japan through the US military segments of the population, such as farmers. commander, General Douglas MacArthur. Although the LDP and the Democratic A new constitution went into effect in May Party of Japan (DPJ) have become the two 1947, which established the structure of dominant political parties, the proportional Japan’s government, guaranteed certain representation aspect of elections allows rights, such as universal adult suffrage, third parties to gain representation in the and prohibited the development of a large Diet. The emergence of the DPJ as a rival military. The nation has a parliamentary to the LDP, which dominated the electoral form of government, with a two-house scene for more than three decades, may legislature, the Diet, consisting of a House provide young citizens greater incentives of Representatives, whose representatives to participate in the electoral process. must be at least 25 years old, and a House However, Hayes (1995, p.145) emphasised of the Councillors (参議院, Sangiin), whose that campaign activities that are taken for representatives must have reached the age of granted in the United States are extensively 30. Every four years, an election is held to restricted in Japan, which may tend to fill all seats in the House of Representatives. discourage citizens from engaging in the The electorate choose half the members electoral process. of the House of the Councillors every Political involvement of young people three years. In addition to parliamentary in Malaysia has long been discussed by local elections, there are also elections every four and international academics. Young leaders years for the 47 regional prefectures and like Tun Dr. Ismail, who was appointed for municipal governments. The minimum deputy president of his political party at voting age is set at 20. the age of 36 years, are well known and While Rosenbluth and Thies (2010, respected for their leadership credibility. p.101) concluded that the 1994 electoral Even foreign leaders have acknowledged reform has led to a more consolidated, their caliber; for instance, the late Lee Kuan bipartisan political system, greater emphasis Yew, the first Prime Minister of Singapore,

126 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017) Proclivity of Political Participation praised Tun Dr. Ismail for his firm stance 10) describe how young Japanese women’s and courage in his book, Singapore Story central posting in media imagery and (1998). Indeed, Malaysia has a long list cultures of consumption are an invasion of of interesting young leaders like Tun Dr. their weak position in the labour market. The Mahathir, Tun Musa Hitam, Datuk Seri research focuses on the consumption and Anwar Ibrahim, Tan Sri Muhammad Muhd. style, particularly of youth street cultures, Taib and Tan Sri Rahim Chik. in which young Japanese women have taken However, there is a significant difference the lead. Even though the research looks in the involvement of young people in at the political culture of young women, politics today. Khairy Jamaludin, Mukhriz it revealed that women’s participation has Mahathir, Razali Ibrahim, Reezal Merican brought an advantage to Japanese politics Naina Merican, Rosnah Abdul Rashid, Wee because of its marginal status. Ka Siong, Mah Hang Soon, T. Mohan, Lim Arai (2011) stated that in Japan and other Guan Eng, Tony Pua Kiam Wee, Anthony countries that have adopted a parliamentary Loke Siew Fook, Nurul Izzah, , democracy, voters select representatives , , through election. The elected representatives Gwo-Burne Loh Yeow Tseow Suan, Nik then form a parliament and make political Nazmi Nik Ahmad, Mohd Yusmadi Mohd. decisions. He focused on the marked Yusoff and Nasrudin Hassan were among political apathy among young voters. Data politicians who started to join politics at showed that the voter turnout for national young age. These high-spirited young elections after WWII decreased significantly leaders are working tirelessly for change in the 1990s for both the Lower House and and justice in Malaysian politics despite Upper House of Parliament. In the 2000s, ideological differences among them. The voter turnout increased and remained younger generation as listed earlier has constant between approximately 60% and never stopped fighting for the political 80%. He agreed that voters in their 20s were issues. Young are interested fewer than those from any other group after in politics and are eager to lead. More and examining voter turnout by age group in the more young leaders are now in the forefront 2010 national election. He stated that a low of Malaysian politics. voter turnout among young people means that it is increasingly difficult to reflect the Cultural Politics/Political Participation opinion of the youth in parliament. It is obvious that this situation requires reform. Post-war Japanese urban culture has This problem of lack of participation of featured a succession of highly visible but young people in politics is not only apparent transient youth subcultures, often led by in Japan but also in South Korea. South Korea young women as mentioned by Ito (2005, is now encouraging its young people to get p.131–138). Skov and Moeran (1995, p.1–

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017) 127 Ahmad, N. S. Y., Syed, M. D. and Sani, M. A. involved in politics especially as voters. with the important task of making it easier The political alienation of youth has led to for companies to hire people like the young a new dilemma that requires re-examination Japanese as well as fire them. He stated that of the popular political. The South Korean for people who like job security, there would 9 government has introduced many strategies, probably be plenty of opportunities to earn working through universities, high schools pocketthe money. young Japanese as well as fire them. He stated that for people who like job security, there and youth organisations in the country to would probably be plenty of opportunities to earn pocket money. promote youth involvement. However, due to the country’s education system, young South Koreans are more attached to study and tend not to be involved in politics. Figure 1 shows the pattern of low voter turnout in Japan since 1967. As reported by Colin Jones in The Japan Times, December 10, 2014, “Antei wa, kibō desu” (“Stability … is Hope”) (“Electoral dysfunction leaves

Japan’s voters feeling impotent”). That Figure 1. Voter turnout for Japan 1960–2004 is the vaguely Orwellian slogan of the Figure 1. Voter turnout for Japan 1960–2004 Source: http://www.idea.int/vt/countryview.cfm?id=114 Source: http://www.idea.int/vt/countryview. conservative Komeito, Abe’s sometime- cfm?id=114 political ally. This simple message holds For example, the 2008 Candlelight Protests of Korea was very significant in portraying a certain appeal for those whose actuarial the political environment among South Korean youth. Many challenges and advanced Fortechnologies example, have driven the the 2008 youth community Candlelight to be engaged in politics. Due to historical hope horizons do not extend beyond the perspective with the people of North Korea, young South Koreans have embraced a different next decade, and who may want nothing new Protestsview of of ethnicKorea nationalism was. Thevery increase significant in usage of new mediain show that youth are using them from the 21st century other than perhaps a portrayingas a platform the politicalto gain political environment information and this among has brought a higher degree of sociopolitical South interestKorean among themyouth. (Noor Sulastry Many & Ki challengesSoo-Eun, 2012 pp. 208). robotic exoskeleton for the caregiver to help Research done by Deutsches Institut für Japanstudien, “Happiness in Japan: Continuities lift them or their even older parent out of and advancedand Discontinuities technologies” (Figure 2) clearly haveidentified drivenone of the indicators of happiness in Japan as bed (www.japantimes.co.jp). He emphasised the youthbeing political community participation and to happiness. be engaged In this research, in the concept of political participation politics.aim Dueed at influencing to historical decision-making perspective in the political with process and at controlling political elites. that to young people, dreaming of disruptive It can be understood as the participant’s contribution to take an active part in improving society innovation or meaningful social change, the peopleor the individual’s of North own life.Korea, Political youngparticipation South could, therefore , contribute substantially to however, this may sound like an exhortation Koreans have embraced a different view of to just give up. ethnic nationalism. The increase in usage of Indeed, there does not seem to be much new media show that youth are using them in Japan’s election for the young or even as a platform to gain political information middle-aged. Abe brought up the question and this has brought a higher degree of of economy and financial issues regarding sociopolitical interest among them (Ahmad taxes and the GDP-to-national-debt ratio. & Eun, 2012, pp.208). If Abe wins a suitable mandate from the Research done by Deutsches Institut status-quo crowd, he can presumably get on für Japanstudien, “Happiness in Japan:

128 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017) Proclivity of Political Participation

Continuities and Discontinuities” (Figure In this case, the family institution plays 2) clearly identified one of the indicators a very important role; the father as head of happiness in Japan as being political of the family must show good leadership participation and happiness. In this research, over all members of the family. Schools are the concept of political participation also important; teachers are the best model aimed at influencing decision-making in for educating and shaping the younger the political process and at controlling generation into being useful individuals. political elites. It can be understood as Likewise, in universities, lecturers are the participant’s contribution to take an responsible for helping to prepare students active part in improving society or the for leadership in society to avoid social individual’s own life. Political participation imbalance and lack of knowledge and drive could, therefore, contribute substantially among citizens. to subjective feelings of well-being and With the explosion of information happiness. The concept of procedural technology, cyber politics is becoming utility (Frey, Benz, & Stutzer, 2004, p.387) increasingly popular among the younger supports this idea as it states that the results generation in Malaysia, who are resorting of decision-making and how decisions are to alternative media to seek answers to reached matter for the well-being of the their questions about national politics. people concerned. This has led to a drop in popularity for the ruling political party, . The opposition are making use of cyberspace to provide information and to interact with Internet users, especially the youth. This has allowed the opposition to overcome the political constraints laid on them by the government. The use of cyberspace for political activation has led to the formation of a group of people who are more open- minded and liberal as they are free and face Figure 2. Happiness in Japan continuities and no restrictions when reading information discontinuities from a blog or website. Most online users are youth of aged 21 In Malaysia, the younger generation to 40 years, and they come to alternative has not stepped into the political arena in media for answers to political issues. Even real, to lead a political party, be elected though many mainstream media take the as representatives of the people or stand initiative to provide online newspapers, they for election. However, from an early age, have not been able to attract the younger they are exposed to political talk at home. generation. With one click, Internet users

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017) 129 Ahmad, N. S. Y., Syed, M. D. and Sani, M. A. are exposed to a variety of sources such as fanatical support for the national team in , Malaysia Today and Harakah World Cup Soccer tournaments, the singing Daily. of the national anthem ‘Kimi ga yo’ in The initiatives taken by the younger unison, the ‘Japanese language boom’, the generation to follow the political increase in young people worshipping at development of the country is a paradigm Yasukuni Shrine and the popularity of the shift that is positive but it needs to be comic book Ken-Kanryu (Hating the Korean monitored over time. With advances in Wave) are but some of the examples cited technology, they are exposed to a variety as evidence of this trend. of information that is often misinterpreted. The research focused on the results of Here, political education is very important; opinion surveys with high-school students it is mandatory for them to learn the as the object of the study. It substantiated chronology of political education before the points made in Kayama Rika’s “Puchi venturing into the political arena. National Nashorizumu Shokogun: Wakamono- history should not be ignored and needs to be tachi no Nipponshugi” (Petit Nationalism explored for implicit and explicit narration. Syndrome: Young People’s Japan Doctrine), They should appreciate the struggle of other where Kayama correlated the categories countries around the world that have been of nationalism and social status. Kayama able to build respect for themselves. referred to Ono Michio’s (2003, pp.45–49) idea of ‘soft’ nationalism involving a Japanese Nationalism ‘disposition of mutuality’ (sogosei shiko) where one enjoys both Japan and foreign Ishihara (2007, pp.110–117) offered a place countries. This, according to him, can be to begin with his paradigmatic example of observed among high-school students in Japanese nationalism. It begins as a kind of Japan’s elite stratum. historical revisionism related to World War In addition to critically arguing petit II. Ishihara blamed the Allied Occupation nationalism, Asaba Michiaki (2004, p. Forces for distorting Japan’s educational 275) referred to Kayama’s point about system and argued that now, 60 years later, young people’s shift to the right as being is the time to revise the educational system “further evidence of nationalism’s attrition,” to incorporate policies aimed at producing which is like giving “the impression of “patriotism” or aikokushin in Japan’s youth. crying wolf when startled by the withering Reviews done by Honda (2007, pp. pampas grass.” Kayama Rika and Kitada 281–286) focused on contemporary Japan’s Akihiro’s comments convey the principal youth nationalism; he pointed out that since arguments concerning youth nationalism in the turn of the century, the shift of Japan’s contemporary Japan. youth towards the political right and the The spirit of Malaysian nationalism or upsurge of nationalism, in particular, has patriotism among the younger generation become the subject of much debate. The

130 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017) Proclivity of Political Participation must be nurtured and cultivated starting RESEARCH METHODOLOGY from the family institution. The institution The purpose of this research was to investigate is capable of instilling love for family the propensity of political participation and love for country. These steps look among young Japanese and Malaysians easy to implement but without support, and the factors that contribute to their encouragement and awareness, the mission political engagement. This paper applies the will fail. standardised open-ended interview format. Most of the time, a formally structured CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND set of interview questions were used, METHODOLOGY where the exact wording and sequence The conceptual framework was developed of questions were predetermined. This based on previous research and discussion interview structure was useful because the of historical experiences, cultural politics, researchers had a limited amount of time as political participation and Japanese the subjects were available only at certain nationalism. The issues that Takahashi and times or for limited periods. Hatano (1991, p.240) discussed regarding Since this project aimed to explore ideas political participation among young about political participation that may not Japanese led to the use of the term ‘political fit the current trend of freedom of political ignorance’ in describing social inaction in participation among youth in the global politics. context, the interview was a logical, flexible For socially engaged young Japanese choice to capture such ideas. Allowing and Malaysians, the decision to engage participants to actively shape the interview in politics may relate to the desire for conversation also demonstrated respect personal or national expression. They may and value for their thoughts and gave them be constrained because of concerns about a chance to tell their stories in meaningful the nature or structure of the political ways. system in Japan and Malaysia. However, to The research expanded the our knowledge, there are many empirical communication log to include activities of investigative studies of socially inactive or the young Japanese and their participation politically engaged youth. Thus, this paper in political organisations. Participants were sought to answer the following questions asked to identify their interest in political through interviews with the subjects: issues spontaneously to capture their Q1: Do youth decline to be engaged awareness about Japan’s political situation, politically and prefer to be socially especially that involving the young people. engaged? The study involved three high-school Q2: What considerations influence political students (aged 16-18), two college students involvement among young Japanese (aged 18-21) and 11 university students and Malaysians? (aged 21-35). The gender split was equal,

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017) 131 Ahmad, N. S. Y., Syed, M. D. and Sani, M. A. with eight males and eight females. The and Osaka. The study also observed their majority of the participants were from activities at weekends. Tokyo and Osaka. Seven were recruited from Osaka, central Japan to provide some Research Design geographic variation for the research study. Participant Selection. In order to explore In addition to ethnographic work, the the experiences of young Japanese in study based the analysis on Japanese popular political participation, in-depth qualitative political discourse and research literature interviews were conducted with a purposive on voter turnout and issues in elections convenience sample of 10 individuals. that were of major concern among young Interviewees were selected randomly Japanese voters. from 30 among participants from various backgrounds. All 10 interviewees were Interview Questions between the ages of 18 and 35, as young The interview questions are given below. people from this age group may participate (1) Do you think young Japanese are in traditional political activities like voting, given the freedom to express their and they also best fit the description of ideas, voice and opinions of the individuals who lacked a political voice and political system? were most likely to engage in non-traditional forms of political participation (Bennett, (2) Do you participate in any political 1998, p.741). movements? The interviewees were selected based (3) What topics or issues seem political to on a number of criteria. Both male and you? female participants were selected as the (4) What actions seem political to you? literature suggested that gender affects (5) What purposes or reasons for doing how people choose to participate (e.g. things seem political to you? Coffe & Bolzendahl, 2010, p.318). In addition, participants who held a variety These questions were asked and applied of political perspectives were included, to get an overall picture of the young Japanese as individuals with different ideologies people in the political environment rather may use technology for different political than their daily lifestyle of school, college, purposes (e.g. Benkler & Shaw, 2010, p. work, family and others. The questions were 377; Best & Krueger, 2005, p.183). developed for an in-depth interview based on the ease and moderate questions were Research Analysis. According to Taylor asked. They were approached in public areas (2001, p.5–10) language does not simply such as shopping malls, university fields, carry meaning; it creates and changes parks and tourist attractions in both Tokyo meaning as it is used. Schiffin and Hamilton

132 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017) Proclivity of Political Participation

(2001, p.1–10) mentioned that generally, voting system since the age of 20 and discourse analysis referred to the study of planned to not to miss any voting. She language as it is used to give meaning to emphasised the importance of participating concepts and ideas. Rather than focussing politically in the voting system as the voting on grammar or the individual parts of rate for young people was incredibly low. a sentence, discourse analysis explores Participant C was a 19-year-old male broader patterns of language use in order to participant who considered himself to be analyse the data that are gathered. As such slightly liberal, but did not identify with any we used a form of discourse analysis. political party and has never voted. He was Although the term can encompass a very interested in national elections, but not variety of different analysis techniques, very interested in local elections. approaches to discourse analysis generally D was 35 years old, very conservative assume that ideas and concepts are socially and interested in national elections, constructed rather than naturally occurring, somewhat interested in local elections and meaning that the way individuals talk about always voted. He discussed political issues a topic shapes their understandings and with his friends to share ideas and he felt beliefs about that topic. very satisfied with the political expression among his colleagues. FINDINGS Participant E was slightly reluctant to express her views on political issues Patterns and Pathways and preferred to discuss how the Japanese Participant A, a 20-year-old female, education system had shaped the way of described herself as being politically inactive thinking among students at all levels. E and she preferred to be associated with was 26 years old and currently pursuing feminist movements, especially activities her Masters in a local university. She had organised by the students’ society. She participated in voting once and not after that had never participated in voting during because of lack of interest in politics. Election Day. During the interviews, she Participant F, a 23-year-old female, was demonstrated that she was quite actively keen to participate in voting because she was involved in addressing political issues used to speaking with her professor and with informally. She defined “political” in her American friends, who all have strong broader terms by looking at the role of opinions about politics. the government and political parties in Interviewee G, 32 years old, mentioned providing more opportunities for youth. that he had been actively engaged in politics Interviewee B was a 30-year-old since he was 21 years old. He said that female who actively updated herself with participating in the voting process was very information on the political environment. important for express his opinions instead She had been taking part in the election of just thinking.

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017) 133 Ahmad, N. S. Y., Syed, M. D. and Sani, M. A.

H was a 28-year-old waitress who company that was established because of felt that she had no time to participate in the lack of interest in politics from Japanese any political discussion due to her work youth. In addition, the owner of the company, schedule. She was a conservative person Kensuke Harada, also founded the student who chose to vote and keep busy with her group, ivote. Harada also established the daily life to earn a better income for her Voters Bar, which is a bar where politicians living expenses. and youth can come together to discuss I was a 26-year-old female who anything related to politics. Figure 3 shows identified as being slightly liberal and the Voter’s Bar website set up to encourage independent. She was very interested in interactive participation among youth national elections, but not very interested in Japan. The youth are able to discuss in local eelctions. interactively online with other visitors and The final male interviewee, J, was 24 Harada actively responds to questions and years old, moderate and considered himself posts updates on programmes. to be an open-minded person because he Many gatherings have been held since said that if he waived his right to vote then the campaign was started. Four local he had no right to complain about politics or participants and 28 participants ranging society. Therefore, he would be participating from high school students to young adults in voting responsibly. participated in the 18th gathering. They held gathering at the same place when they had SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION once worked on reinvigorating of community Young Japanese between 18 and 35 years in their college days. Harada, who witnessed of age who participated in the interviews the positive effects of interaction between had not fully invested in politics but had a the youth and politicians, sent a message to sense of impending crisis and were looking the younger generation. He stated, “What forward to participating in the political we need to show politicians is, more than system. voter numbers, how much more engaged Young people between 20 and 24 years and influential these young voters can be.” of age account for 6% of the voting public Harada added, “It is a mistake to as mentioned in Link Asia News. This believe that voting changes nothing. If shows that young people are considered a you vote, something will change. You minority. There was a huge gap between the may have believed that the relatively young Japanese voters and politicians due to smaller population of younger voters the political campaigning and policies that cannot influence politics, but if the voting targeted other groups. rate among young people increases, or if There have been some effort to motivate politicians notice the increasing number of Japanese youth to participate in politics. young supporters, then things may change.” One is YouthCreate, a Japanese non-profit Harada regretted not having started this

134 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017) 17

Many gatherings have been held since the campaign was started. Four local participants and 28 participants ranging from high school students to young adults participated in the 18th gathering. They held gathering at the same place when they had once worked on reinvigorating Proclivity of Political Participation of community in their college days. Harada, who witnessed the positive effects of interaction initiativebetween the a youth long and timepoliticians, ago sen tas a message voting to the is younger is angeneration. example He stated of interactive, “What communication we need to show politicians is, more than voter numbers, how much more engaged and important.influential these young voters can be.” on Facebook between participants and Harada Harada added,also “Itused is a mistake Facebook to believe asthat votinga members. changes nothing. If you vote, mediumsomething of communicationwill change. You may to haveencourage believed thatand the relativelyIn Japan,smaller population the young of people are expected promoteyounger participationvoters cannot influence in politics,the programmes but if the voting rateto among focus young on people education increases, rather than on social andor activities. if politicians not Voter’sice the increasing Bar is number not oflimited young supporters, matters then andthings are may expected change.” to not criticise their Harada regretted not having started this initiative a long time ago as voting is important. to discussing the role of youth in politics elders. According to Hiroki (2014), there is Harada also used Facebook as a medium of communication to encourage and promote but participaHaradation inprovides the programmes support, and activities. guidance, Voter’s Bar is notvery limited strong to discuss emphasising the role on supporting young networking,of youth in politics volunteerism but Harada provides and support,many guidance, more networking,people volunteerism who are andreclusive many but promotion of opportunitiesmore opportunities to toyoung young Japanese.Japanese. Figure Figure 4 is an example 4 politicalof interactive participation communication on of youth is weak. Facebook between participants and members. Figures 5, 6 and 7 shown below are the webpage of YouthCreate and Voter’s Bar created by Harada, which explain the origins of the initiatives. The objective of the webpage was to give a clear picture of

the reason for the establishment of Voter’s 19

Bar. Harada pledged to help Japanese 19

participation among young Japanese.

participation among young18 Japanese. FigureFigure 3. Voter’s3. Voter’s Bar Bar websitewebsite

Figure 5. Example of YouthCreate Figure 5. Example of YouthCreate Figure 5. Example of YouthCreate

Figure 6. Harada’s profile

FigureFigure 4. Voter’s 4. Voter’s Bar Bar Facebook Facebook FigureFigure 6. Harada’s 6. Harada’s profile profile

In Japan, the young peoplePertanika are expected J. Soc. Sci.to focus& Hum. on 25 education (S): 123 - rather138 (2017) than on social 135 matters and are expected to not criticise their elders. According to Hiroki (2014), there is very strong emphasis on supporting young people who are reclusive but promotion of political participation of youth is weak. Figures 5, 6 and 7 shown below are the webpage of YouthCreate and Voter’s Bar created by Harada, which explain the origins of the initiatives. The objective of the webpage was to give a clear picture of the reason for the establishment of Voter’s Bar. Harada pledged to help Japanese youth to understand and be educated on the importance of political education and

awareness. Although he is a lawyer, he wants to inject awareness of the need for political

Ahmad, N. S. Y., Syed, M. D. and Sani, M. A. youth to understand and be educated on the implementation and acceptance of the importance of political education the communities involved and how they and awareness. Although he is a lawyer, want to be approached. There is no doubt he wants to inject awareness of the need that the young generation today need to for political participation among young be continuously nurtured to produce a Japanese. harmonious such as20 envisioned in the concept of 1Malaysia.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to express our deepest gratitude to University Malaya Research Grant Cluster Advance Fundamental Research and the Long-Term Research Grant Scheme for support and encouragement to do this research. We extend our very special thanks to our friends who gave us constant encouragement and assistance throughout the research process.

Figure 7. The programmes held by Voter’s Bar posted in the webpage of YouthCreate Figure 7. The programmes held by Voter’s Bar posted REFERENCES in the webpage of YouthCreate The effort of Voter’s Bar in promoting political awarenessAhmad, and N.political S. Y., participation & Eun, K. (2012). The rise of should be applauded. The recognition of young Japanese voices andnationalism ideas on political among issues South Korean youth and Theshould effortbe heightened of Voter’s and many Bar other in platforms promoting should be provideddemocracy: for them to participate An analysis. in World Academy of politicalpolitical awareness discussion. and political participation Science, Engineering and Technology, 2012(64), should be applauded. The recognition of 308. CONCLUSION young Japanese voices and ideas on political Arai, K. (2011). Why do voters go to the polls? This discussion highlighted the introduction and implementation of efforts taken by the issues should be heightened and many other Utility, sense of duty, or learning? The Japan Malaysian and Japan governments towards greater participation of youth in politics. The News, ChuoOnline. Retrieved from http://www. platformssuccess ofshould a programme be providedis based on the for implementation them to and acceptance of the communities yomiuri.co.jp/adv/chuo/dy/research/20110714. participateinvolved andin politicalhow they want discussion. to be approached. There is no doubt that the young generation html. today need to be continuously nurtured to produce a harmonious such as envisioned in the CONCLUSIONconcept of 1Malaysia. Asaba, M. (2004). Nashonarizumu (Nationalism). Tokyo, Chikuma: Shinsho. ThisACKNOWLEDGEMENT discussion highlighted the introduction Bennet, W. L. (1998). The uncivic culture: and Weimplementation would like to express of our efforts deepest takengratitude by to Universitythe Malaya Research Grant Cluster Communication, identity, and the rise Malaysian and Japan governments towards of lifestyle politics. PS: Political Science greater participation of youth in politics. and Politics, 31(4),741–761, doi:10.1017/ The success of a programme is based on S1049096500053270.

136 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017) Proclivity of Political Participation

Benkler, Y., & Shaw, A. (2010). A tale of two Ito, M. (2005). Mobile phones, Japanese youth, and blogospheres: Discursive practices on the the re-placement of social contact. In R. Ling left and right. Harvard University, Berkman: (Ed.). Mobile communications: Re-negotiation Harvard University Press. of the social sphere, 131–148. London, UK: Springer-Verlag Limited. Best, S. J., & Kruger, B. S. (2005). Analyzing the representativeness of Internet political Hiroki, F. (2014). Power to youth: Youth parliament in participation. Political Behaviour, 27(2), 183– Japan. Retrieved from http://iave2014.org/files/ 216, doi: 10.1007/s11109-005-3242-y. BR05_HirokiFukushima.pdf

Coffe, H., & Bolzendahl, C. (2010). Same game, Li, Y. J., & Marsh, D. (2008). New forms of political different rules? Gender differences in political participation: Searching for expert citizens participation. Sex Roles, 62(5–6), 318–333, doi: and everyday makers. British Journal of 10.1007/s11199-009-9729-y. Political Science, 38, 247–272. doi:10.1017/ S0007123408000136. Dalton, R. J. (2006). Citizenship norms and political participation in America: The good news is the Ono, M. (2003). Nashonarizumu no Shoso (Aspects bad news is wrong. Washington: Georgetown of Nationalism). Monugurafu/Kokosei, vol. 69, University. Kokosei kara Mita ‘Nihon’ – Nashonaru-na Mono e no Kankaku (Monograph/High School Dalton, R. J. (2008). Citizenship norms and the Students, vol. 69: A sense of ‘Japan’ as a national expansion of political participation. Political identity as viewed by high-school students) 69, Studies, 56, 76–98, doi: 10.1111/j.1467- 45–49. Tokyo: Benesse Mirai Kyoiku Senta. 9248.2007.00718.x. Rosenbluth, F. M., & Thies, M. F. (2010). Japan Frey, B. S., Benz, M., & Stutzer, A. (2004). transformed: Political change and economic Introducing procedural utility: Not only what, restructuring. Princeton, NJ: Princeton but also how matters. Journal of Institutional University Press. and Theoretical Economics JITE 160(2004), 377–401. Tuebingen: Germany: Mohr Siebeck. Schiffrin, D., Tannen, D., & Hamilton, H. E. (2001). Introduction. In D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen, & H. Harris, A. (2008). Young women, late modern E. Hamilton (Eds.), The handbook of discourse politics, and the participatory possibilities of analysis. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. online cultures. Journal of Youth Studies, 11(5), 481–495, doi:10.1080/13676260802282950. Skov, L., & Moeran, B. (1995). Acknowledging consumption: A review of new studies. London Hayes, D. L. (1995). Introduction to Japanese politics, and New York: Routledge. (2nd ed.). New York: Marlowe. Takahashi, K., & Giyoo, H. (1999). Recent trends in Honda, Y. (2007). Focusing in on contemporary civic engagement among Japanese youth. In M. Japan’s ‘youth’ nationalism. Social Science Yates & J. Youniss (Eds.), Roots of civic identity: Japan Journal, 10(2), 281–286, doi: 10.1093/ International perspective on community service ssjj/jym045. and activism in youth (pp. 73–96). New York: Ishihara, W. S. (2007). Wakamono ga kono kuni o ai Oxford University Press. suru tame ni (How to get young people to love this country), Bungei Shunju, 84(9): 110–117.

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017) 137 Ahmad, N. S. Y., Syed, M. D. and Sani, M. A.

Taylor, S. (2001). Locating and conducting discourse Utter, G. H. (2011). Youth and political participation: analysis research. In M. Wetherell, S. Taylor and A reference handbook. Santa Barbara, California: S. J. Yates (Eds), Discourse as data (pp. 32–55). ABC-CLIO. London: Sage Publications. White, M. (1994). The material child: Coming of age United Nations Development Programme. (2013). in Japan and America. Berkeley: University o f Enhancing youth political participation California Press. throughout the electoral cycle: A good practice guide. One United Nations Plaza, NY: UNDP.

138 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 25 (S): 123 - 138 (2017)