UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY The Lake Minnewanka Site: Patterns in Late Pleistocene Use of the Alberta Rocky Mountains by Alison J. Landals A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY CALGARY, ALBERTA August 2008 © Alison J. 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Canada ABSTRACT A five year excavation program at the Lake Minnewanka site, near Banff, Alberta (totaling 87 square meters) yielded 26 occupations, including eight, well defined, well stratified occupation floors, dating between 10,000 and 10,800 radiocarbon years before present (ca. 11,300 to 13,150 calibrated years B.P.). Individual floors were sealed by a rapidly deposited blanket of aeolian loess. Some of the oldest floors in the site contained the remains of mountain sheep, hearths, red ochre, and pieces esquillees associated with small, enigmatic, blade-like flakes. Slightly later floors exhibited quite different patterns of lithic reduction and raw material preference, more typical of plains Paleolndians. The concordance with some aspects of the Vermilion Lakes site (Fedje et al. 1995) is striking, verifying the presence of at least two closely subsequent early cultural traditions, typified by very different patterns of raw material use and reduction strategies. The earliest groups at both sites were hunting mountain sheep in the expanded alpine zone during the cold, dry Younger Dryas climatic interval. The ice-free corridor has been increasingly portrayed as a desolate waste, incapable of allowing the passage of humans until after populations were established south of the ice (Dixon 2001, Mandryk et al. 2001, Stanford and Bradley 2002). However, recent study of mountain sheep genetics (Loehr et al. 2006) indicates the existence of at least two cryptic refugia that supported populations of mountain sheep within the ice-free corridor throughout the last ice age. Deglaciation permitted a rapid expansion of sheep into newly available, highly productive ranges. A consideration of the calibrated radiocarbon dates suggests that the "late" dates for Pleistocene sites within the ice-free corridor has been somewhat exaggerated. This evaluation suggests that the corridor was a suitable route for migration coetaneous with the current earliest known Alaskan Complexes. This does not negate the potential of the coastal route for migration, nor is the possibility for earlier human occupation obviated. It simply seems as though the ice-free corridor should not yet be discounted as a potentially important variable in the first peopling equation. in ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this research is due to the help of so many people, both within and outside of the University of Calgary, that it will be impossible to list them all here. At the University of Calgary, I owe my greatest thanks to Dr. Brian Reeves, whose incredible knowledge and passion for the archaeology of Alberta has been an inspiration to me for my entire career. If Barney had not agreed to act as my graduate supervisor and been so open to allowing me to pursue my research interests, this work would simply never have been undertaken. I would also like to thank the other members of my graduate committee, Dr. Brian Kooyman, Dr. Gerry Oetelaar, Dr. Scott Raymond, Dr. Len Hills and Dr. Jonathan Driver. In particular, I thank Gerry for many stimulating discussions, continually challenging my perceptions and helping me obtain some radiocarbon dates, personnel and field equipment, and Brian for his encouragement to pursue this topic, and some very good advice many years ago in Ecuador. Also at the University of Calgary, I would like to thank Dr. Dale Walde, who provided me with greatly appreciated free labour on the part of his field school students. Miss Lesley Nicholls is also owed considerable thanks for helping me deal with the intricacies of the contracts, as well as her encouragement and support throughout graduate school. Dr. Gerald Newlands is also thanked for his help with equipment and photography. Ms. Lorna Very ably handled the Parks contract each year, and Dr. Scott Raymond acted as the contract supervisor for several years. A number of members of the geoscience department at the University of Calgary also deserve thanks for their help, including Dr. S. Harris, Dr. Len Hills, Dr. A. Limbird, Dr. D. Smith, and Dave Clements. This work could not have been undertaken without the support of Parks Canada, under their threatened site program. The Banff Warden Service was most helpful each year with logistics and permits, and special recognition is due to Don Mickle, whose support for the project was a very key element in obtaining the excavation funding. In particular, within the Archaeological Services Unit, Dr. Martin Magne and Gwyn Langemann were instrumental in recognizing the significance of the site, giving me the iv opportunity to excavate, and securing financial support. Also needing many thanks are Bill Perry, Sharon Thompson and Jack Porter, for help expediting the project and volunteering to dig whenever they could. Very special thanks are due to Daryl Fedje and Joanne MacSporran for both visiting and volunteering at the site (before the ice had even melted). Daryl's input on several occasions was extremely valuable and timely; I consider it the most amazing good fortune of my career to have had the opportunity to work with him at the Vermilion Lakes and Eclipse sites, where I became intrigued with Early Period sites in Banff, and observed first hand the degree of dedication necessary to find, excavate and analyze these rare, challenging, and ultimately frustrating sites. In addition to funding specifically for the excavations provided by Parks Canada, my graduate research was funded generously by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Without this support I would never have been able to stay in school long enough to contemplate the five field seasons necessary to investigate the site adequately. Other greatly appreciated financial support in the form of scholarships was provided by the Friends of Head-Smashed-In and the Province of Alberta Roger Soderstrom award. I also am grateful for financial support from the Department of Archaeology in the form of teaching assistantships during the crucial first year of graduate school. Although the Lake Minnewanka site is truly one of the most beautiful archaeological sites in the world, all members of the field crews had to be prepared for challenging spring weather in the Rockies, long hours, a bracing walk in and out carrying equipment each day, no time off until the water flooded the units, and abysmally low wages (or even no wages at all). I was continually amazed that so many fine, experienced excavators were willing to work at the site (some for several seasons); their dedication and high spirits provide some of my best field memories. Many thanks to the core field crew of Jennifer Carroll, Emma Farid, Jason Gillespie, Matt Moors, Carmen Olsen, Maureen Reeves, Elizabeth Robertson, Susan Tupakka, and Francois Vigneault. We were joined by so many volunteers, some for a few days and others for what amounted to weeks, that it is a daunting task to even try to list them. Often they were given the v choicest jobs, such as water screening in the snow, or hauling backfill, and I cannot thank them enough. Many thanks to: Matthew Boyd, Chris Burk, Moya Cavanagh, Pete Dawson, Marty Graham, Stacy Kozakavich, Jeremy Leyden, Annette Milot, Brent Murphy, Rod Pickard, Evelyn Siegfried, Gareth Spicer, Jjena Varsakis, Tamara Varney, Monica Webster, Heidi