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NEXT STOP MARS the Why, How, and When of Human Missions Next Stop Mars the Why, How, and When of Human Missions Giancarlo Genta Giancarlo Genta NEXT STOP MARS The Why, How, and When of Human Missions Next Stop Mars The Why, How, and When of Human Missions Giancarlo Genta Next Stop Mars The Why, How, and When of Human Missions Giancarlo Genta Torino, Italy SPRINGER-PRAXIS BOOKS IN SPACE EXPLORATION Springer Praxis Books ISBN 978-3-319-44310-2 ISBN 978-3-319-44311-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-44311-9 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016954425 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Cover design: Jim Wilkie Project editor: David M. Harland Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland To Franca and Alessandro Contents Foreword..................................................................................................................... x Acknowledgements.................................................................................................... xii Author’s preface ........................................................................................................ xiii Acronyms.................................................................................................................... xvii 1 Half a century of projects................................................................................... 1 1.1 The nineteenth century Mars........................................................................ 1 1.2 The disappointment of the probes................................................................ 3 1.3 The early projects (1947–1972)................................................................... 7 1.4 The post-Apollo era (1982–1990)................................................................ 18 1.5 The last 25 years (1990–2015)..................................................................... 24 1.6 Internationalization of space exploration..................................................... 33 1.7 Emerging private initiatives and new players............................................... 35 2 Reasons for human Mars exploration............................................................... 38 2.1 A rationale for human exploration beyond LEO.......................................... 38 2.2 Why go to Mars?.......................................................................................... 40 2.3 The timeframe.............................................................................................. 46 2.4 Risks............................................................................................................. 47 2.5 Affordability................................................................................................. 48 3 Mars and its satellites......................................................................................... 53 3.1 Astronomical characteristics........................................................................ 53 3.2 Mars’ surface................................................................................................ 57 3.3 Atmosphere.................................................................................................. 64 3.4 Dust.............................................................................................................. 65 3.5 Water and Ice................................................................................................ 67 3.6 Geological history........................................................................................ 71 3.7 Possibile presence of life.............................................................................. 73 3.8 Choice of the landing site............................................................................. 76 vi Contents vii 3.9 Contamination............................................................................................ 78 3.10 Mars’ satellites........................................................................................... 80 4 Space environment and radiations.................................................................... 83 4.1 The LEO environment................................................................................ 84 4.2 Interplanetary space.................................................................................... 86 4.3 Physiological issues due to radiation......................................................... 89 4.4 Countermeasures against radiation............................................................. 93 5 Human aspects..................................................................................................... 101 5.1 Direct exposure to the space environment.................................................. 103 5.2 Low gravity................................................................................................ 104 5.3 Cognitive issues.......................................................................................... 113 5.4 Psychological and cultural issues............................................................... 115 6 Interplanetary journey to Mars......................................................................... 119 6.1 Traveling from Earth to Mars....................................................................... 119 6.2 Launch to LEO............................................................................................. 121 6.3 Impulsive interplanetary trajectories............................................................ 129 6.4 Mars orbit insertion...................................................................................... 137 6.5 Low thrust interplanetary trajectories........................................................... 141 6.6 Descent vehicles and EDL strategies........................................................... 149 7 Mission design..................................................................................................... 153 7.1 Main design options..................................................................................... 153 7.2 Duration of stay............................................................................................ 154 7.3 Number of missions and landing sites.......................................................... 163 7.4 Crew size...................................................................................................... 164 7.5 Interplanetary propulsion systems................................................................ 165 7.6 Interplanetary journey back to Earth............................................................ 178 7.7 ISRU options................................................................................................ 180 7.8 Spacecraft architecture................................................................................. 182 7.9 Overall redundancy and multiple missions strategy..................................... 183 8 The outpost on Mars........................................................................................... 185 8.1 The habitat.................................................................................................... 185 8.2 Life support system...................................................................................... 196 8.3 Health........................................................................................................... 200 8.4 Equipment.................................................................................................... 202 8.5 Power system................................................................................................ 203 8.6 In situ resources utilization (ISRU) plant..................................................... 206 8.7 Workshops, greenhouses and auxiliary equipment...................................... 208 8.8 Space suits.................................................................................................... 211 8.9 Planetary protection...................................................................................... 214 9 Mobility on Mars................................................................................................. 218 9.1 General considerations................................................................................. 218 9.2 Rovers..........................................................................................................
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