INDUCTION OF AN IMMUNE RESPONSE Foreign invaders - viruses, bacteria, allergens, toxins and parasites- constantly bombard our body. 1 2 YOUR ACTIVE IMMUNE DEFENSES ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSE • a specific response ! ! • results in acquired immunity Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity - invariant (generalized) - variable (custom) • long term immunity - “memory” - early, limited specificity - later, highly specific - the first line of defense - ‘‘remembers’’ infection 1. Barriers - skin, tears • involves two types of lymphocytes: 2. Phagocytes - neutrophils, – T cells macrophages – B cells 3. NK cells and mast cells 4. Complement and other proteins 3 4 ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSE White Blood Cells (WBCs) • the specific response is customized for each pathogen There are two main types of WBCs involved in the adaptive immune response: • responsible for acquired immunity • antigen-presenting cells (APCs) • involves antigen-presenting cells and two types of - not pathogen-specific lymphocytes - ingest foreign substances and break them down -macrophage (MØ) • turns on when needed - inducible -dendritic cells (DC) -B cells • “remembers” the pathogens it has “seen” and goes into • B and T lymphocytes (B or T cells) action faster the second time - pathogen-specific - different types recognize different invaders and lead to their • may confer lifelong immunity destruction 1 5 Types of lymphocytes 6 Human red and white blood cells There are two types of lymphocytes. Both form from bone marrow stem cells: Human red blood cells (red), activated platelets (purple) and white blood cells - monocyte (green) and T lymphocyte (orange). Colorized-SEM (scanning electron micrograph) T cells mature in the thymus B cells mature in the Magnification:-1200x-- bone marrow (Based on an image size of 1 inch in the narrow dimension) Both cell types enter the lymph nodes and spleen after they are mature. ©Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc., www.DennisKunkel.com From there they can look for foreign invaders in the bloodstream. 7 8 T cells T cell training • T cell precursors arrive in the thymus from the bone marrow • there are millions of different T cells – the difference • there, they express specific T cell receptors and meet cells is in their receptors (surface markers) that “wear” bits of self proteins, called MHC (major histocompatibility complex), that are markers for the body’s own cells • each T cell has a unique receptor that will recognize a different foreign substance • there are two steps - first, T cells must recognize self-MHC, or they are destroyed - in a second step, T cells that bind too tightly to self-MHC are also • mature in the thymus, where they learn to tell the destroyed difference between self and “non-self” • remaining T cells go to the spleen and lymph nodes, and - critical, because if they did attack “self”, wait for antigens. autoimmune disease could result • If they recognize an antigen, some will “go into battle” and others become memory cells 2 9 10 Steps in T cell development Steps in T cell development (cont’d) Step 1. Positive selection occurs in the thymic cortex Step 2. Negative selection occurs in the thymic medulla. MHC self- recognition molecules 11 12 T Lymphocytes • Formed in bone marrow; migrate to and mature in Types of T cells Thymus gland • Exhibit unique T-cell Antigen receptors (TCR’s) on surface Based on function, there are different types including: • TCR’s can only recognize Ag with associated with MHC glycoproteins – MHC I – found on nearly all • helper T cells (CD4+ or Th) – start the immune response nucleated cells – MHC II – found only on APC’s • cytotoxic T cells (CD8+ CTL or Tc) – kill the body’s Once T cell binds to Ag, it abnormal cells, like virus-infected cells and cancer cells triggers cell division to form both memory T cells and effector T cells There are 2 populations of T cells characterized by the type of CD glycoprotein found on surface: TH – exhibits CD4 TC – exhibits CD8 3 13 14 The Antigen presentation scenario: Fig 1-8 Kuby, 4e Different patterns of cytokines determines types of Immune Response: -if TC cell recognizes an Ag/MHC I complex, it divides and differentiates to become CTL if TH cell recognizes Ag/MHC II complex, it divides and stimulates B cells, TC cells, and MØ 15 16 B cells B Lymphocytes: • produced and mature in bone marrow • Form and mature in bone marrow • Exhibit antibody receptors on • each B cell produces and wears a unique antibody on its membrane surface • Once naïve B cells bind Ag, they divide rapidly to produce: – Plasma cells (effector B cells) • clonal selection - when a B cell encounters a matching – Memory cells antigen, it begins to divide rapidly. – Some then become plasma cells that all produce the same antibody, Plasma cells are secretory; live only and then die. a few days (produce > 2,000 Humoral Immunity – Others become memory cells. molecules of Ig/sec) Memory cells have longer life span than naïve B cells • the specific antibody produced by a plasma cell is also secreted in soluble form and circulates in the blood 4 17 18 Selection of B cells by antigen (clonal selection) B cells make Antibodies Different types of B cells have • specific – react with only one antigen different receptor molecules. ! • Are Y-shaped proteins called immunoglobulins (Ig) When a pathogen (germ) “locks • each is made of two heavy and two light chains of on” to a receptor, that type of B amino acids, held together by disulfide bonds cell is selected. ! • Must be associated with Ig " (B29) and Ig # (mb-1) to form the functional B Cell Receptor molecule (BCR) The selected B cell divides rapidly to make lots of copies of itself. The copies make lots of antibodies against the pathogen. Antibody structure 19 20 Antibody – another view Each is made of two identical heavy and two identical light amino acid chains, held together by disulfide bonds - variable regions of the light chain (grey) - parts of the antibody (Ab) are constant, i.e., the same and the heavy chain for every antibody (yellow) form the antigen binding site - parts are variable - the arms of the “Y” have different - light chain constant amino acid sequences that region is blue while cause specific binding to heavy chain constant antigen region is red. The two chains are joined • the fact that there are many different variable regions results by carbohydrate in antibodies that react with almost any antigen you could ©Mike Clark, www.path.cam.ac.uk/~mrc7/ (purple). possibly encounter! 5 21 22 Four classes of secreted antibodies Antigens • IgM – a pentamer – five Y-shaped immunoglobulins joined Antigen (Ag) – the molecule an antibody (Ab) binds to together – – the “early” Ab, it is produced before any of the other types – • usually a foreign substance – it activates complement • each antigen has different sites that antibodies can bind to, so that one antigen can be bound by • IgG – the most common form, and the major one for several different antibodies secondary responses • IgA – mostly a dimer – two Y-shaped immunoglobulins secreted in saliva, colostrum, milk, semen, mucus • IgE – binds to receptors found on mast cells – involved in allergy and parasitic infections • examples in the case of allergy could be pollen, cat dander, or a chemical in soap How Antibody Binds to Antigen 23 How an Antibody Works 24 When an Ab finds its Ag on an invader, it will bind there and act as a “trash tag”, marking it for destruction by “killer” cells, macrophages or complement Receptor for constant region of After binding, the NK The target cell dies antibody on NK Antibody binds to cell is signaled to kill by apoptosis and/or cell - recognizes a target antigen the target cell membrane damage bound antibody The top part of this figure shows how different shaped antigens can fit into the binding site of antibodies: left, pocket; center, groove; right, extended surface. The panels below show space-filling or computer-generated models indicating where contact between the peptide antigen and antibody occurs. 6 25 26 The Number Dilemma Antibody Variability • You have about a trillion different antibodies able to react with millions of different types of Ag There are several reasons why there are an enormous • but you only have about 30,000-60,000 genes which code number of different antibodies: for all the proteins you need in your entire body, most of which are not Ab • different combinations of heavy and light chains which are encoded by different genes • so there cannot be one gene for one antibody to code for these – we wouldn’t have enough antibodies! • recombination So how can your body produce Ab to so many antigens, even those it’s never seen? • others 27 28 Antibody Genes A unique recombination occurs in each B cell Genes for antibodies aren’t like most other genes - they come in pieces that are assembled by cutting and pasting the DNA (this only happens in Ab and TCR genes) • each B cell combines these gene segments to make an Ab chain like Unique combination of segments becomes joined by shuffling a deck of cards somatic gene rearrangement • variable segments (V) – many different versions - V, D, and J for the heavy chain, V and J for the light chain • diversity segments (D) – several different versions • since there are multiple types of • joining segments (J) – a few different versions each gene segment, there are many thousands of possible V-D-J combinations so that each B cell • constant segments (C) – a few different versions that are gets a unique combination of nearly identical segments! 7 29 30 A unique recombination occurs in each B cell •Since there are multiple types of each gene segment, there are many thousands of possible V-D-J combinations so that each B cell gets a unique combination of segments! Additional diversity occurs because there are two types of light chains.