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Elephant Ivory: an Overview of Changes to Its Stringent Regulation and Considerations for Its Identification Author(S): Stephanie E Article: Elephant ivory: An overview of changes to its stringent regulation and considerations for its identification Author(s): Stephanie E. Hornbeck Source: Objects Specialty Group Postprints, Volume Twenty-Two, 2015 Pages: 101-122 Editors: Emily Hamilton and Kari Dodson, with Sarah Barack and Kate Moomaw, Program Chairs ISSN (print version) 2169-379X ISSN (online version) 2169-1290 © 2016 by The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works 1156 15th Street NW, Suite 320, Washington, DC 20005 (202) 452-9545 www.conservation-us.org Objects Specialty Group Postprints is published annually by the Objects Specialty Group (OSG) of the American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works (AIC). It is a conference proceedings volume consisting of papers presented in the OSG sessions at AIC Annual Meetings. Under a licensing agreement, individual authors retain copyright to their work and extend publications rights to the American Institute for Conservation. This article is published in the Objects Specialty Group Postprints, Volume Twenty-Two, 2015. It has been edited for clarity and content. The article was peer-reviewed by content area specialists and was revised based on this anonymous review. Responsibility for the methods and materials described herein, however, rests solely with the author(s), whose article should not be considered an official statement of the OSG or the AIC. ELEPHANT IVORY: AN OVERVIEW OF CHANGES TO ITS STRINGENT REGULATION AND CONSIDERATIONS FOR ITS IDENTIFICATION STEPHANIE E. HORNBECK Elephant ivory has been considered a prized luxury material across world cultures from ancient times to the present day. Elephant ivory is the most highly valued of all ivories and describes the material comprising the tusks of Asian male and African male and female elephants, as well as that of their relative, the mammoth. Today the collection of ivory art and artifacts is inextricably linked to the plight of the African elephant and its status as a seriously threatened species, as demand for elephant ivory has risen sharply in the last decade. In 2014, international and US national laws were again strengthened to combat the rise in trafficking of elephant ivory. The 2016 revision of the African elephant rule under section 4(d) of the Endangered Species Act aims to achieve a near-total ban in commerce of raw and worked ivory and affects transit of legally documented worked ivory art and artifacts as well. As conservators may be involved in the identification and sampling of ivory materials, it is important to be aware of the methods to identify ivory and new regulations that apply to it. KEYWORDS: Elephant ivory, CITES, Endangered Species Act, Ivory identification, Ivory regulation, Poaching, Trafficking, US Fish and Wildlife Service 1. INTRODUCTION The collection of ivory art and artifacts is inextricably linked to the plight of the African elephant and its status as a seriously threatened species, as demand for elephant ivory has risen sharply in the past decade. According to the Wildlife Conservation Society, in 2012, an estimated 35,000 African elephants—the equivalent of 96 per day—were killed for their ivory tusks (Wildlife Conservation Society 2016). Consequently, in 2014, international and US national laws were strengthened to combat the rise in trafficking of ivory, including trade of ivory artworks and artifacts. The Illegal Wildlife Trade Conference convened in London on February 13, 2014, to discuss key actions to eliminate the illegal wildlife trade. In 2014, the United States, the second largest market in the world (after China), strengthened sanctions on importing African ivory. In February 2014, the US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) announced that it would temporarily ban the trade in African elephant ivory to the United States by prohibiting all commercial imports and exports of raw and worked ivory, regardless of age and including sales by auction houses and other art dealers; this administrative action was revised to allow for narrow exemptions under the new rule change to revise the African elephant rule under section 4(d) of the Endangered Species Act (ESA), which became law in July 2016 (US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2016b). As conservators may increasingly be involved in the examination, and possibly sampling, of ivory artifacts, the objective of this article is to present a background context for, and discussion of, relevant aspects of new regulations and to provide a review of the criteria to identify elephant ivory. Responsible stewardship of worked ivory art objects and artifacts involves respect for the new regulations aimed at elephant conservation. AIC Objects Specialty Group Postprints, Vol. 22, 2015 101 8_Hornbeck.indd 101 24/01/2017 12:33 102 Fig. 1. Nimrud (Kalhu) Iraq, Cow and calf furniture element, 850–700 BC, ivory and metal. Collections of Bolton Library and Museum Service, BOLMG 1964.2.3.A. Copyright Bolton Council (Courtesy of Stephanie Hornbeck) 2. THE ART OF ELEPHANT IVORY Elephant ivory has been considered a cherished luxury material across cultures from ancient times to the present day. Highly prized for its creamy luster and workability, ivory has been used for sculpture in Africa, Asia, and Europe for millennia and later in the Americas as international trade routes expanded. The inherent value of ivory, its attractive visual qualities, and its ability to be carved and worked, combined with royal patronage for the creations of highly skilled carvers, have yielded master artworks in many world cultures. Some of the most admired ancient works were derived from royal commissions for the Assyrian Empire (fig. 1). Historical accounts describe a colossal 10 m tall chryselephantine—ivory and gold—statue of Athena by master sculptor Phidias that once stood inside the Parthenon. Medieval Europe saw the rise of demand for ivory ecclesiastical objects, and Paris in particular became an important ivory carving center. Ivory carving centers existed throughout Asia and Southeast Asia. This article will primarily present examples of African ivory artworks (figs. 2–4), as my ivory research has focused on the study of these works. Ivory, from the elephants that produce it to the intricately carved artifact, is a material closely associated with Africa. Ivory is a relatively soft material, which enables it be worked with non-metal tools, and its surface can be highly polished, yielding the characteristic glossy, creamy, and semi-translucent surface for which Hornbeck AIC Objects Specialty Group Postprints, Vol. 22, 2015 8_Hornbeck.indd 102 24/01/2017 12:33 103 Fig. 2. Yoruba peoples, Owo region, Nigeria, Bracelet, 16th century, ivory, 14.5 3 10.5 3 10.5 cm. National Museum of African Art, 2005-6-8. Gift of Walt Disney World Co., a subsidiary of the Walt Disney Company (Courtesy of Franko Khoury) it is much admired. As it ages, it often develops a yellow-golden patina. Ivory can be bleached to whiten it, and it can be stained with oils, dyes, and colorants to achieve a range of warm brown colors (figs. 3, 4). Paint and gilding were sometimes applied to ivory. Thus, the possible presence of a surface alteration or coating is important to consider when identifying ivory. 3. THE ELEPHANT IVORY MARKET It is noteworthy that although ivory has historically been prized by cultures within Africa, perhaps most famously by the ancient Egyptians and the Kingdom of Benin (fig. 5), internal consumption was limited—often restricted to royalty—and did not put elephant populations at risk. However, the establishment of international trade with Africa had dire consequences for elephant populations throughout the continent. Demand for ivory, variously under the ancient Roman Empire, with India and the Far East, and eventually with Europe and North America, historically impacted elephant populations in various regions of the continent. Demand in the 20th and 21st centuries has seen the greatest decimation of African elephants, continent-wide. Trade networks brought the raw material to North America, where it has been widely used in the past two centuries to manufacture combs, handles, billiard balls, and piano keys, along with art objects. In the 19th century, the United States Hornbeck AIC Objects Specialty Group Postprints, Vol. 22, 2015 8_Hornbeck.indd 103 24/01/2017 12:34 104 Fig. 3. Note the pale cream coloration. Kongo peoples, Congo, Tusk (detail), ca. 1860, ivory, 72.4 3 14.6 3 6 cm. National Museum of African Art, 96-28-1. Bequest of Mrs. Robert Woods Bliss (Courtesy of Franko Khoury) was the world’s greatest consumer of ivory. For a period of about 150 years (1830s–1980s), the largest ivory processing plant in the United States operated in the village of Ivoryton in Essex, Connecticut, which at one time processed up to 90% of all elephant ivory imported into the United States (Malcarne and Milkofsky n.d.). The populations of both African and Asian elephants have declined dramatically since the mid-20th century. According to the FWS (the federal agency that regulates and enforces compliance with national and international importation laws that apply to fauna and flora), although habitation destruction and fragmentation increasingly threaten elephant populations, the greatest threat to their survival is poaching—illegal killing—to supply the highly lucrative ivory market. Because both female and male African elephants have tusks, they are particularly susceptible to poaching. In 1900, the African elephant population was 10 million (Christy and Hartley 2013). In recent decades, their population has declined from 1.2 million in 1980 to 420,000 in 2012 (Wildlife Conservation Society 2016). The situation is more dire for Asian elephants, whose population is less than 45,000 (Nelleman et al. 2013). Hornbeck AIC Objects Specialty Group Postprints, Vol. 22, 2015 8_Hornbeck.indd 104 24/01/2017 12:34 105 Fig. 4. Note the deep red-brown coloration. Kongo peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Figure with Child (mvuala), late 19th to early 20th century, ivory, mirror, resin, pigment, 13.3 3 5.1 3 5.7 cm.
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