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Home , Battle of Bar, Bihor (region), Culture of Montenegro, Doclea (Illyria), Grbalj, Kotor

Medieval Towns Cultural Routes of of Montenegro

Medieval Towns Cultural Routes of Montenegro of Montenegro Medieval Towns of Montenegro Second edition The main material used in the project is the book by Pavle Mijović Publisher: EXPEDITIO Centre for Sustainable and Mirko Kovačević “Towns and Spatial Development, , Montenegro Fortifications in Montenegro”, Editorial team: Aleksandra Kapetanović, Biljana published in 1975. Gligorić, Tatjana Rajić Translation: Vesna Leković We owe our gratitude to Professor Proofreading: Ms. Gillian Caddy Design and pre-press: Expeditio Mirko Kovačević for his support and Drawings of the towns: Prof. Dr Mirko Kovačević, material provided for the publication. architect, adapted from the «Medieval Towns and Fortifications in Montenegro» We would also like to thank Ms. Engravings: el.travelogues.gr, Gillian Caddy for her voluntary commons.wikimedia.org proofreading of the publication. Photographs: Prof. Dr Mirko Kovačević*, Expeditio, Stevan Kordić, Marianne van Twillert, Miloš Stanić, Diego Delso, AxeEffect, shutterstock.com *Photographs from the M.A. dissertation of Professor Mirko Kovačević «Medieval towns on the territory of Montenegro – Problems of creation and development of their defensive architecture» Cover photograph: Stevan Kordić Printing: Biro Konto, Igalo Circulation: 1000 copies

©2019 expeditio

The project has been supported by the Ministry of within the framework of a public competition for awarding funding for the projects/programmes of non-governmental organizations ”Diversity of Expression of the Independent Cultural Scene”. Medieval Towns of Montenegro

Contents

History...... 3 ...... 61 Medieval Towns of Montenegro...... 8 ...... 62 Kotor...... 10 Gradac...... 64 ...... 14 Stabna...... 65 ...... 16 Soko in ...... 66 Žanjica-Our Little Lady...... 17 Kukanj...... 68 ...... 18 Koznik...... 69 Đurđevac...... 20 Pirlitor...... 70 ...... 21 Ruined towns or towns with uncertain locations....72 Nehaj...... 26 Geographic location of the medieval towns and connections between them ...... 74 Ratac...... 28 Structure of the plan and details of the defensive Old Bar...... 29 architecture...... 77 Old ...... 32 Types (classification) of the medieval towns ...... 79 Ulcinj...... 33 Bibliography...... 81 ...... 36 Photographs, maps and illustrations...... 83 Kom...... 37 Starčeva Gorica...... 38 Moračnik...... 39 Tophala...... 40 The Virgin of - Krajina...... 41 Svač...... 42 Žabljak Crnojevića...... 44 Oblun...... 47 ...... 48 Soko near Štitari...... 49 ...... 50 Spuž...... 52 Martinići...... 53 Susjed...... 54 Norin...... 55 Onogošt...... 56 Budoš...... 58 Morača Monastery...... 59 Morača Fortification...... 60 North of Montenegro North of Central Montenegro part of Skadar Lake Montenegro of part Coastal towns aresituated where themedieval Parts ofMontenegro y footpath By By water roadBy dirt remains Ruins, scarce remains Visible restored Preserved, complex Monastic fortification Minor Fortified town

Accessibility State of preservation Type of fortification Medieval Towns of Montenegro

Map of Montenegro with location of medieval towns and fortifications

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Medieval Towns of Montenegro

capital of the province History was Skadar (Skodra - An outline of important historical today in ). The road connecting Skadar events from Ancient Times to the with Narona (Vid near in Montenegro Metković) branched in two directions via Montenegro. One branch led from Epidaurus (Cavtat), along Back in ancient times present-day Montenegro the coast, to Ulcinj, via and its surrounding area was inhabited by Budva. Along this route, the . Before the Roman Conquest a number of outposts the territory was strongly influenced by the developed, amongst which Greeks, but «The Illyrian State» already was a particular station existed at the time of the first war between the called Rose. This became Illyrian ‘cipus’ Illyrians and Romans, which occurred during an important settlement (cone-shaped tombstone), the rule of the Illyrian queen from 229- in the Middle Ages. The Boka Kotorska 228 BC. The coastal towns ofUlcinj, Budva other branch led inland via and Risan, as well as Medun, further inland, Anderva (later Anagastum i.e. Nikšić), Alata date back to this earliest period. The Illyrian and Birziminium. One of the latter two later State finally fell to the Romans in 167 BC when became Ribnica. the consul Lucius Ancius informed Illyrian leaders in Skadar about the dissolution of the Between the 3rd-6th centuries, some important Kingdom. social changes took place. Following the division of the in AD 395, a From 11 AD onwards, the region of border between the provinces of Prevalis and Montenegro, formerly part of Illyricum, neighbouring also became part of became part of the Dalmatia. the border between the Eastern and Western The consequence of this was the establishment Roman Empires. This division was reflected of a certain amount of Roman administration. Town life that had previously existed developed still further during this period. However, tribal organization inland was not suppressed, and the Romans retained it in their districts. Pliny mentions Risan, Kotor, Budva and Ulcinj from within this territory as oppida civium Romanorum. It seems that Risan later obtained the rank of colony. In the inland, () became a ‘municipium’. Most likely, another ‘municipium’ existed where stands today. With the establishment of the province of Prevalis in AD 297, a strong administrative unit was formed for the first time covering the territory approximate to present-day Montenegro. The Roman mosaics, Risan 3 Medieval Towns of Montenegro

remaining towns and went on to build new ones. Bar, Svač and Martinići were probably built in this period. Byzantine rule over both the preserved and newly built towns on the coast is thought to have been formalized only in the 7th and 8th centuries. In the 9th century, ‘archonties’, i.e. autonomous regions headed by ‘archons’ (Greek ‘ruler’) were formed. In order to strengthen imperial power, new administrative-military regions called ‘themes’ were formed out of the ‘archonties’. Bar and Ulcinj belonged to the ‘theme’ of Drač, while the Boka Kotorska belonged to the ‘theme’ of Dalmatia.

Over time, Slavic tribes became widely established in the region and began to accept influences from the Byzantium and Roman towns at the seaboard. A social differentiation took place. The tribal nobility became a ruling Map of Gradac (M. Kovačević 1975) feudal class. This process was reinforced by the Christian spreading its influence among the Slavic tribes in the districts of in the organization of the Church as well as Doclea. Christianization took place mostly in in almost all fields of political, economic and the 9th century, becoming further reinforced cultural life. during the 10th century. In the mid 9th century (840-841) the Saracens laid waste Budva, In the late 5th and early 6th centuries there was a mass migration of people which resulted in the Eastern Goths holding a part of Prevalis, among other areas in the Western . Their fortification inNikšić (Anagastum) has survived from this period.

The last mention of the Roman Doclea (Duklja) dates back to AD 602. Soon afterwards, Doclea was destroyed, like many other towns. The name Doclea itself remained as the name of the whole area in later centuries. From AD 610-641, during the reign of Emperor Heraclius, the permanently settled the territory of Montenegro. This was after the first wave of invasions by the Avars, which saw the destruction of several Roman towns. The Roman inhabitants took refuge in the Duke Vladimir (Bar) 4 Medieval Towns of Montenegro

Rose and Lower Kotor, all situated within Raška grew in the territory of Montenegro. This devastation strength and in resulted in a change of relationships between the 1180s Stefan the Slavs and Romans in the towns, which Nemanja conquered acquired a predominantly Slavic character. In , together with the 11th century, the State of Doclea consisted the coastal towns, of Skadar, Ulcinj, Budva, Kotor and the town annexing them to of Doclea. The Byzantine emperor Constantine Raška. Porphyrogenitus mentions another three inhabited towns in Doklea - Gradac, Novigrad Most likely, and Lug. The locations of these towns have not the majority of been ascertained yet. towns, i.e. minor fortifications in the At the end of the 10th and the beginning of the inland territory of 11th century, the State of Doclea was ruled by Montenegro, had Duke Vladimir who had his capital in Krajina, already been built near the present-day of Ostros, i.e. the by this period, if Church of Our Lady of Krajina. Except for not as solidly built architecture, then at least, the remains of the church complex, nothing as wooden architecture. These towns were else has survived of this capital. In 1042, at Žabljak, (Lug), Spuž, Morača, Soko in Piva, the battle of Bar, Duke Vojislav and his sons (Međurječje) Bihor, Gradac and Plav. Most of defeated the Byzantine army, and finally won these were the centres of the Slavic districts. independence for the State of Doclea. From We can conclude that they were constructed this period onwards, the region came to be in the early Middle Ages because very little or known under the name of Zeta. Until 1082, no trace at all of them has survived in the area. Zeta was ruled by Mihailo, who took the title Probably by this time, Ratac had already been of king and was succeeded by a son Bodin, who established on the coast, and was gaining in was married to a Norman princess, Jacinta. importance. Doclea, i.e. Zeta, comprised Raška, Bosna, and Hum. During Bodin’s rule, in gave Zeta and Trebinje to 1089, the bishopric of Bar was raised to the his son Vukan, who was then succeeded by rank of archbishopric. Following Bodin’s death his son Ðorđe. Throughout theNemanjić in 1108, Zeta suffered from dynastic struggles period, Zeta was ruled by dynasty members or over the throne, which left the state weakened. heirs to the throne. During this period, Zeta At the same time, the Serbian medieval state always had a privileged position in relation to other parts of the state, because it was the most developed area, relatively speaking. The coastal towns, being the centres of trade and artisan activity, were self-governed and exerted a strong cultural influence on the inland regions.

Mining centres inland developed during the Nemanjić period, as well. Brskovo and possibly Koznik were probably founded during this time. Žabljak - the seat of the Crnojevićs 5 Medieval Towns of Montenegro

Following Emperor Dušan’s death, the great feudal state of the Nemanjić dynasty crumbled. At the same time, the nobility in certain regions became more influential. From 1361 onwards, the Balšić brothers, who held Bar and Budva, were mentioned in Zeta. They expanded their territory, so that in 1373 they were holding lands from to . At that point, a feudal lord of , Radič Crnojević, rebelled. At the same time the Turks were advancing towards Zeta through Albania. Having sought assistance from that never arrived, Balša II, the ruler of Zeta, opposed the Turks on his own Coat-of-arms of the Crnojević family and was killed in 1385. He was succeeded by a nephew Ðurađ III Balšić, who lost some southern lands with Skadar, Drivast and St. Despot Stefan and Despot Ðurađ waged wars Srđ, but managed to regain some of the lands against Venice over the lands in Zeta, but of the rebellious and independent Crnojevićs following the fall of ‘Despotovina’ (the Serbian in Upper Zeta, following the death of Radič Despotate) in 1439, a way was opened for Crnojević. The son of Ðurađ, Balša III tried to Venice to conquer the whole coastal part of recover the parts of Zeta previously taken by Zeta. TheCrnojevićs were submitted to the the Venetians, but since he had the Crnojevićs supreme rule of Venice. against him, he was forced to give up. After contracting an illness, he repaired to , The revival of ‘Despotovina’ in 1444 meant to his uncle, Despot Stefan Lazarević, where the revival of conflicts between Despot Ðurađ he died in 1421. He left all his lands to Despot and Venice. For a time, the Crnojevićs sided Stefan. with the Despot, but when a peasant’s revolt against Venice broke out in , they joined The monasteries on the islands of Skadar Lake Venice and crushed the rebellion. The struggles were built as minor, fortified entities during between the Despot and the Crnojevićs were the Balšićs rule. brought to an end by the Turks who, after conquering Medun, brought under their Following the dissolution of Emperor Dušan’s control the remaining lands belonging to empire, the present-day North and North- the Despot in Zeta. TheVenetians held the western areas of Montenegro belonged, first, coast and controlled the territory of Stefan to Bosnian King Tvrtko I, and then to Sandalj Crnojević in Upper Zeta. The North and Hranić Kosača. (Grand Duke of Hum). During North-western areas of Montenegro were held the time of King Tvrtko, the town of Novi by Herceg Stjepan Vukčić Kosača (Grand (later Herceg Novi) was built in Dračevica Duke of Bosnia) at that time, but not for district in 1382. We cannot conclude with any long. The Turks posed a constant threat to certainty whether or not the town was newly the Crnojevićs, and Ivan, the son of Stefan built. It is possible that it was built on the Crnojević, after failing to receive any assistance remains of an older fortification which was from the Venetians, turned against them and thus reconstructed after many centuries. attacked their land. Through the mediation

6 Medieval Towns of Montenegro of Herceg Stjepan and because the Turks posed an immediate threat, he made peace with the Venetians. Meanwhile, in 1479, the Turks took Skadar and Žabljak, the latter of which was the capital of Ivan Crnojević. Since the Venetians had made peace with the Turks, Ivan was forced to leave the country and seek refuge in . At that time, the Turks put Zeta under their control. In 1481, following the death of Mahmud II, the circumstances were convenient for Ivan to continue his struggles against the Turks and set his lands free. However, in the end, he was forced to recognize Turkish supremacy and to surrender Žabljak with its plains and to retreat to Cetinje. Ivan’s sons Ðurađ and Stevan ruled as Turkish vassals. Ðurađ was Old Bar forced to escape to Venice because Stevan had revealed to the Turks his intention to take part in an uprising against them. Stevan lands with Zeta, were all built in the first half continued to rule on his own, but in 1499 of the 15th century at the latest, probably even the Turks sent him to Skadar and annexed before the Herceg’s time. Montenegro to the Skadar sanjak. After 1499 the Turks held the majority The towns of okoS near Štitari, Kom, of towns in Montenegro. Throughout Ðurđevac, Obod and Cetinje all existed during several centuries, they reconstructed and the Crnojevićs’ rule, although it is possible rebuilt the ones they inhabited. Some of that some of them had been built even earlier, them had already fallen to ruin by the 16th during the Balšićs’ rule, prior to the rebellion century. In the coastal towns held by the of Radič Crnojević. Venetians, extensive construction of defensive architecture, designed to accommodate the The towns ofBudoš, Ostrog, Norin and use of increasingly efficient , was Susjed, at the border of Herceg Stjepan’s undertaken throughout this period.

Stonework decoration, Martinići (drawing: V. Korać, Martinići, 2001) 7 Medieval Towns of Montenegro

Kotor herceg novi risan Žanjica-Our Little Lady

perast Đurđevac budva nehaj

ratac old bar cetinje

kom starčeva gorica moračnik tophala

krajina svač žabljak oblun ribnica soko near štitari medun spuž

martinići susjed norin onogošt

budoš morača monestary morača fortification bihor

brskovo gradac stabna soko in piva

kukanj koznik pirlitor ulcinj Medieval Towns of Montenegro Kotor

Kotor is one of the best preserved medieval Science has not yet answered the question towns both in its urban structure and its whether present-day Kotor lies at the site of continuity of life. Measured by the area ancient Acruvium. The Ravenna Geographer encompassed within its walls, it is the biggest makes reference to present-day Kotor as medieval town in Montenegro. Dekadaron or Dekadoron in the 9th century,

Old Town of Kotor with its ramparts, view from the sea

10 Medieval Towns of Montenegro

Fortress of St. Ivan - San Giovanni, view from the village of Špiljari when it belonged to Byzantium. Byzantine the greatest prosperity between the 12th and rule, real or in name, existed in this area with the early 15th centuries. interruptions, until the late 12th century. In AD 841, the Saracens ravaged Lower The position of Kotor in the furthest recess Kotor. The Byzantine Emperor Constantine of Kotor Bay (Boka Kotorska) is perfect for a Porphyrogenitus describes this event in harbour sheltered from the strongest of winds. the 10th century and refers to the town as Indeed, this must have been one of the main Dekatera. At the end of the 10th century, reasons for establishing the first settlement. Emperor Samuilo burned down the town. In the case of Kotor it is easy to see how all available natural advantages were used to Kotor became part of the Slavic Doclea in the maximum in positioning the town and the second half of the 11th century, and, planning its defense: its position by the sea, according to the Byzantine historian Ioannes two water courses in the lower part of the town Skylitzes, Doclean King Mihailo held his (the Škurda River to the south and Gurdić court there. In the 1160s, as far as foreign politics was concerned, Kotor assumed the position of an independent town. In 1186, it entered into the constitution of the Slavic Raška under the Nemanjić dynasty and for almost two centuries of their rule, it enjoyed favour and held a special, privileged position within the state. From 1371 to 1384 the town belonged to the Hungarian-Croatian King Ludovic I and from 1384 to 1391 to the Bosnian King Tvrtko I. For a brief period, from 1391 to 1420, Kotor was an independent city-republic, but in 1420, it placed itself under Venetian rule, which was to last for almost four centuries. The town experienced Gothic three light window at the Drago Palace

11 Medieval Towns of Montenegro

north town gate. The remaining parts of the ramparts located by the sea, and those in the hillside, are exactly as they would have looked during the Venetian period.

Kotor has largely preserved its urban layout from the Middle Ages. The network of streets is irregular and somewhat indented. Within the town walls, very little medieval architecture from the period before Venetian rule has been preserved. The oldest Book of Notaries of Portal on the south façade, Cathedral of St. Tryphon Kotor, covering the period from 1326 to1337, documented 17 churches and monasteries spring to the north), while the upper part, with in the town. Six of them have survived until its fortification at the top of an inaccessible cliff, today: the Cathedral of St. Tryphon (1166), the named after St. Ivan and 260 metres high, is Church of St. Luke (1195), St. Mary on-the- separated from Mount Lovćen by a deep gorge. river or St. Mary’s Collegiate Church (1221), St. Paul’s (1263), St. Anne’s (the end of the According to the Kotor Statute, dating from 12th and beginning of the 13th century) and St. the early 14th century, the town already Michael’s (14th century) Churches. Of secular occupied its current site, even at that time. architecture, only parts of older buildings have Meanwhile its fortification system was being been preserved, inserted into new structures gradually constructed throughout the period mainly in the street leading from the north from the 9th to the 19th centuries. The oldest gate of the town to the south gate, along the preserved parts of the medieval ramparts can very foot of the hill. There are also the remains only be seen in two localities in the southern of and Drago Palaces dating from the part of the town, near the sea and near the medieval period.

Kotor with its ramparts, view from the north, late 19th or early 20th century

12 Medieval Towns of Montenegro

Urban layout of Kotor from the Middle Ages

Map of Kotor, cadastral plan

13 Medieval Towns of Montenegro Herceg Novi

In 1382, the Bosnian king Tvrtko I laid held it until 1466. His son Vlatko had to defend foundations to a new town in the territory of it from the Turks in 1475. At the end of 1481, Dračevica district. He named it St. Stefan but the Turks seized the town and occupied it for soon afterwards the town was renamed Novi. the following two hundred years, with one It has kept that part of the name to date, later, exception - it was temporarily taken by the acquiring the addition of ‘Herceg’ Novi, after Spaniards in 1538, only to be regained a year Herceg (Duke) Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. later.

Following Tvrtko’s death in 1391, Sandalj At its inception, the town consisted of two parts Hranić ruled Novi until 1435. Herceg Stjepan «a fortress on the water and a fortress on the hill».

Panorama of Herceg Novi with Forte Mare Fortress

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Today, only a few remains of the medieval walls are visible, in the seaward part of the fortification. The walls and towers looking out to the sea from Forte Mare (Sea Fortress) to Mezaluna tower, belong to the earliest period of construction in this area. According to written sources, work Medieval doorway within on the construction of Forte Mare Herceg Novi began in 1382. However, analysis of the construction technique applied to the lower segments of the Engraving of Castelnuovo (Herceg Novi), Vincenzo Mezaluna tower, to the part of the wall with Coronelli, 1688 two towers and analysis of the overall style correlate to the remains by the sea, thus leading to the conclusion that they were built in a period well before 1382.

From this location, a transport service to Rose might have been running in Roman (or later) times, so that it is possible that King Tvrtko used the ruined and neglected remains of such a staging post on which to build his town. Neither can we exclude the possibility that these may be the remains of Traiectus.

Other walls, towers and gates are mainly from the Turkish and Venetian times. The Kanli Tower (Bloody Tower) is from the Turkish era, as are the west and east gates. Forte Mare originates from the later Venetian Map of Herceg Novi (M. Kovačević 1975) period. King Tvrtko I

15 Medieval Towns of Montenegro Risan

The earliest mention of Risan Rizon( ) dates In present-day Risan there are no elements back to the 4th century BC. During the to suggest a connection to the medieval town. 3rd and 2nd centuries BC Risan () Risan by the sea was probably just a settlement. was the main fortress in the Illyrian state However, on the Gradina hill, above the in which Queen Teuta took refuge. In famous archeological site of Carine, there is Roman times, Risan is documented under a fortification containing the remains of an the name Rhizinium as an «oppidum civium Illyrian-Greek acropolis and the remains from Romanorum». The invasions of the Avars and medieval and Turkish period. The position of Slavs left Risan deserted. The last reference the fortification was excellent, particularly for of a bishop in Risan dates back to AD the control of the Risan–Onogošt route, as the 595. The Byzantine Emperor Constantine hilltop itself was inaccessible. Porphyrogenitus includes Risan among the inhabited towns of Travunia, while the Priest of Doclea considers Rissena to be a district.

In the Middle Ages Risan lost the significance it used to have in ancient times, when the whole Bay of Boka Kotorska had been called Sinnus Rhisonicus (the Bay of Risan) and two Roman routes had led through it. In the mid 15th century, Risan was referred to as the town of Herceg (Duke) Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. In 1466, the Venetians offered to give Brač Island and a palace in Split to Herceg Stjepan, in exchange for his two towns (Risan and Novi) in the Bay of Boka Kotorska. The Turks took Risan, together with Herceg Novi, from Herceg Stjepan’s son Vlatko in 1482. Map of Risan (M. Kovačević 1975)

16 Medieval Towns of Montenegro Žanjica-Our Little Lady

The fortified monastic complex of Our Little The monastic complex is encircled by Lady is situated on a rocky islet in the Mirište defensive walls with a round-shaped corner cove, near the cape of Arza on the Luštica tower containing loopholes. The complex peninsula. consists of a small single-nave church dedicated to the Presentation of the Virgin, In the archives, it was first mentioned in with the remains of frescos on the western 1508 as St. Mary «de Sagnic». The exact date facade and a Gothic oculus, as well as of construction of the monastic building is residential facilities and a water cistern. The not known, although, based on the church monastery has a small wharf that has been architecture and massive walls, we would date reconstructed recently together with the it into the 15th century. whole complex.

The fortified monastic complex on a rocky islet and Arza fortification from the Austro-Hungarian period in the background

17 Medieval Towns of Montenegro Perast

Perast is situated opposite the Verige strait, Kotor from the Fortress of St. Cross, the at one of the strategically most important island of St. George and the fortification of positions in the Bay of Boka Kotorska. Our Lady of Angels, but the lack of continuous walls encircling the town posed a great The name Perast is believed to have derived problem, which the people of Perast tried from the Illyrian tribe Piruste. Above the town in vain to resolve. The Fortress of St. Cross are the remains of a Roman road leading from was constructed in the second half of the 17th Risan to Agruvium, thus it is possible that a century. It is possible, however, that some parts minor Roman fortress (castrum) existed at the of it are even older. It has been ascertained that present-day fortress site. Within the fortress from the 16th century onwards the fortification is the 9th-century Church of St. Cross after system of Perast consisted of the St. Cross which the fortress was named. In the Middle Ages, Perast constituted part of the commune of Kotor, and together with Kotor, played a significant role during the Nemanjićs rule over the area. In 1365, Perast was among the first towns in the Boka Kotorska to place itself under Venetian rule, retaining a certain degree of autonomy in self-government. The town obtained the status of an independent commune in 1571, and experienced its greatest period of development during the 17th and 18th centuries.

It seems that Perast was not completely fortified, either in the high Middle Ages or later. For centuries, the people of Perast controlled the Verige strait and the road to

18 Medieval Towns of Montenegro

Map of Perast (Expeditio 1998)

Fortress built at the highest position in the town, a system of 10 watchtowers placed at different locations in the town itself, as well as a system of fortified streets and houses. The oldest watchtower of Perast was mentioned in the early 16th century, while the latest one was constructed following the battle of Perast in 1654.

Data obtained over the last few years through archeological research in Perast, provide evidence that the beginnings of the settlement can be dated back to a period well before the Engraving of Perast, Vincenzo Coronelli (1688) 16th and 17th centuries and that part of the present town layout is medieval.

Perast with its islands, strategically very well situated in the Boka Kotorska Bay 19