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NPS) Via Online Drugsmarkten

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NPS) Via Online Drugsmarkten Een studie naar de motieven achter de aankoop van New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) via online drugsmarkten Masterproef neergelegd tot het behalen van de graad van Master in de Criminologische Wetenschappen door (01404422) Noninckx Robi Academiejaar 2017-2018 Promotor : Commissaris : Colman Charlotte Bawin Frédérique INHOUDSOPGAVE Afkortingenlijst ...................................................................................................................... III Woord vooraf .......................................................................................................................... IV DEEL I: INLEIDING EN METHODOLOGIE .................................................................... 1 1.1. Situering van het fenomeen NPS 1 1.2. Probleemstelling 3 1.3. Opzet 4 1.3.1. Doelstelling 4 1.3.2. Onderzoeksvragen 6 1.4. Methodologie 7 1.4.1. Literatuurstudie 7 1.4.2. Kwalitatief luik 10 DEEL II: NEW PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES........................................................... 17 2.1. Definitie 17 2.2. Categorisering en verschillende soorten NPS 19 2.2.1. Stoffen die niet (meer) toebehoren tot de categorie NPS 19 2.2.2. Stoffen die wel toebehoren tot de categorie NPS 22 2.3. Beleidsmatig en wettelijk kader 35 2.3.1. Internationaal niveau: de Verenigde Naties 35 2.3.2. Regionaal niveau: de Europese Unie 38 2.3.3. Nationaal niveau: het wettelijk en beleidsmatig kader in België 41 DEEL III: DE HANDEL VAN NPS VIA ONLINE DRUGSMARKTEN ........................ 47 3.1. Clearnetmarkets 47 3.2. Darknetmarkets of Cryptomarkets 48 3.3. NPS op online drugsmarkten 51 3.3.1. De handel van NPS op het clearnet 51 3.3.2. De handel van NPS op het darknet 56 I DEEL IV: HET GEBRUIK VAN NPS EN DE NPS-GEBRUIKER ................................. 58 4.1. Het gebruik van NPS in de literatuur 59 4.1.1. De prevalentie van het NPS-gebruik 59 4.1.2. De populariteit van verschillende NPS 61 4.2. Het NPS-gebruikersprofiel in de literatuur 64 4.2.1. Soorten NPS-gebruikers 64 4.2.2. Socio-demografische gebruikerskenmerken 67 4.2.3. Gebruikerspatronen 71 4.2.4. Motieven voor de aankoop en het gebruik van NPS 77 4.2.5. Aankopen van NPS via online drugsmarkten 82 4.3. Het NPS-gebruikersprofiel in de praktijk 87 4.3.1. Soorten NPS-gebruikers en gebruikte NPS 87 4.3.2. Gebruikerskenmerken 92 4.3.3. Gebruikerspatronen 94 4.3.4. Motieven voor de aankoop en het gebruik van NPS 102 4.3.5. Aankopen van NPS via online drugsmarkten 109 DEEL V: DISCUSSIE EN CONCLUSIE .......................................................................... 117 5.1. Bevindingen uit het onderzoek 117 5.1.1. New Psychoactive Substances 117 5.1.2. NPS-gebruikers die deze substanties aankopen via online drugsmarkten 122 5.2. Beperkingen van het onderzoek 126 5.3. Aanbevelingen voor verder onderzoek 128 5.4. Algemeen besluit 129 DEEL VI: BIBLIOGRAFIE ............................................................................................... 133 Literatuur .............................................................................................................................. 133 Wetgeving .............................................................................................................................. 145 II Afkortingenlijst ATS Amphetamine-Type Stimulants BEWSD Belgian Early Warning System on Drugs EMA Europees Agentschap voor de evaluatie van medicinale producten EMCDDA European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction INCB International Narcotics Control Board NSO New Synthetic Opioid(s) NPS New Psychoactive Substance(s) RC Research Chemical UN / VN United Nations / Verenigde Naties UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime WHO World Health Organization III Woord vooraf Eerst en vooral wil ik uiteraard mijn promotor prof. dr. Charlotte Colman bedanken om me de kans te geven mijn thesis over dit onderwerp te doen. Ook wil ik haar bedanken voor alle informatie, hulp, doorverwijzingen en mogelijkheden die ze me heeft gegeven om dit onderzoek tot een goed einde te brengen. Verder bedank ik alle vijf de respondenten voor hun bereidheid hun ervaringen over NPS te delen en de tijd die ze hiervoor genomen hebben. Deze interviews hebben me veel bijgeleerd over het fenomeen en hebben me enorm geholpen bij het voeren van dit onderzoek, jullie inspanning wordt gewaardeerd. Ten slotte wil ik nog even de tijd nemen om bedankt te zeggen aan mijn familie, vrienden (Jonas, Lina en 120 in het bijzonder) en Copine om mij mentaal te steunen bij het voeren van mijn onderzoek, zonder jullie zou ik nooit zo ver geraakt zijn. Robi Noninckx IV DEEL I: INLEIDING EN METHODOLOGIE 1.1. Situering van het fenomeen NPS De ontwikkeling, aankoop en verkoop van New of Novel Psychoactive Substances (verder afgekort als NPS) is een fenomeen dat de laatste jaren een enorme opmars kent. Volgens de United Nations Office on Drugs Control (UNODC) (2017b) werden tussen 2009 en 2016 in totaal 739 verschillende van deze stoffen gerapporteerd over 106 landen. Hierbij komt nog eens het feit dat lang niet alle NPS gerapporteerd worden aan deze instantie, hoewel de rapportage ervan de laatste jaren wel toeneemt. Dezelfde trend wordt bovendien ook in Europa waargenomen; zo had de European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) (2017a) tegen het einde van 2016 zicht op 620 verschillende NPS op de Europese drugsmarkt. Naast het gegeven van de verkoop van NPS zijn er vanzelfsprekend ook personen die deze middelen aankopen en gebruiken. In een Flash Eurobarometer Survey van de Europese Commissie in 2014, waarbij gepeild werd naar het gebruik van drugs bij jongeren en het al dan niet gebruiken van substanties die het effect van illegale middelen imiteren, werd over een relatief korte tijdspanne een stijging ondervonden van het gebruik van NPS bij 15- tot 24- jarigen. In 2011 gaf 5% van de Europese jongeren aan ooit dit soort substanties gebruikt te hebben, voor Belgische respondenten was dit slechts 4%. Echter, toen men in 2014 dezelfde vraag opnieuw stelde, bleek dat dit aantal voor zowel Europa als België reeds was opgelopen naar 8%. 1 Hiernaast blijkt ook voor ons land het gebruik van NPS populairder dan eerst gedacht. In een onderzoek van het Nationaal Instituut voor Criminalistiek en Criminologie (NICC) in 2017, waarbij 558 bloedstalen geanalyseerd werden die waren afgenomen van bestuurders die positief bevonden werden voor verschillende traditionele drugs (zoals mdma, speed, cocaïne etc.), bleek dat maar liefst 7% van deze stalen ook positief getest werd op het gebruik van een NPS. Deze cijfers bevestigen niet alleen dat het NPS probleem verre van opgelost is, maar dat het ook in ons land van een onbekende, niet te miskennen aanwezigheid geniet. Dat de groei van de markt van NPS een aanslepend probleem is, is ook het beleids- en wettelijk kader niet ontgaan. Zowel op internationaal als nationaal vlak wordt opgemerkt dat in de voorbije jaren verschillende maatregelen werden genomen welke een grote stap vormen in de poging de handel en het gebruik van NPS onder controle te krijgen met het uiteindelijke doel ze te bestrijden. Zo kan men op het niveau van de VN zien dat jaarlijks meerdere NPS onder internationale controle gesteld worden (UNODC, 2015; 2017c; 2018a) en op Europees niveau dat de Europese Unie risicoanalyses uitvoert op bepaalde stoffen, om uiteindelijk al dan niet de beslissing te maken om ze binnen het grondgebied onder controle te stellen (EMCDDA, 2016a; 2017c). Ook in ons land bestaat er sinds 6 september 2017 een nieuwe drugswet die een resem aan NPS onder controle stelt, welke voorheen niet supranationaal gecontroleerd waren en zich in een legale grijze zone bevonden door gebruik te maken van achterpoorten in onze wetgeving. Over de kanalen waarlangs NPS het meest aangekocht worden bestaat er in de wetenschappelijke literatuur enige onenigheid. Verschillende buitenlandse studies suggereren dat de meeste NPS online aangekocht worden (via drugsmarkten op het clear- en/of darknet) terwijl andere ervan uitgaan dat ze voornamelijk in real life worden aangekocht bij head- of smartshops, bij een dealer of via persoonlijke kringen (Wadsworth, Drummond & Deluca, 2017). Hier moet benadrukt worden dat dit over buitenlandse studies gaat en niet over de Belgische markt. Gezien head- of smartshops niet bestaan in België kan gesteld worden dat 2 deze stoffen in ons land enerzijds online worden aangekocht en anderzijds door fysieke aankopen te doen bij een dealer, via persoonlijke kringen of in het buitenland. Hiernaast wordt gesteld dat de verkoop van zowel NPS als hun precursoren op het clearnet een groter aandeel betreft dan dat op het darknet (EMCDDA, 2017a). Wel moet de kanttekening gemaakt worden dat de nieuwe wetswijzigingen die eerder werden besproken in deze situatie hierin een verandering kunnen teweegbrengen. 1.2. Probleemstelling Dit alles is een aanleiding voor de probleemstelling van deze thesis. Hoewel er in de literatuur reeds verschillende onderzoeken gevoerd werden naar bestaande New Psychoactive Substances en hun effecten, de evolutie van deze stoffen, de handel van traditionele drugs op online drugsmarkten etc. blijft de kant van de NPS-gebruiker die deze stoffen koopt via online drugsmarkten een onderbelicht fenomeen. Op enkele studies na blijven de ervaringen van NPS- gebruikers een groot vraagteken. Zo is er amper kennis over het profiel van een gebruiker die online NPS koopt, welke ervaringen deze heeft met het NPS-gebruik, wat een persoon drijft om te kiezen voor NPS i.p.v. de verschillende andere traditionele drugs enz. Deze masterproef heeft
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