Queering the Museum Exploring LGBTQ+ Lives and Issues in the History

No. 119: June 2019 VIEWPOINT MAGAZINE OF THE BRITISH SOCIETY FOR THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE

Queering the Museum Exploring LGBTQ+ lives and issues in the history

of science, technology and medicine ISSN: 1751-8261

News • Avian Sex Transformation • LGBTQ+ Lives • Rethinking Sexology • Lennox Ross Broster • Notices RUNNING HEADER

Contents BSHS Engagement Fellowships The BSHS Engagement Fellowships Welcome | News 2-3 are month-long funded placements Queering the Science Museum 4-6 at heritage organisations. During their placements the Fellows (UK postgrad- LGBTQ+ Lives in Science 7-9 uates) develop research and materials ing facilitator of Jamaican heritage. Queer Birds: Avian Sex Reversal 10-11 that allow their host organisation to This represented the outcome of engage new audiences with science his- Jason’s work in reframing and reconsid- 1930s Gender Variance 12-13 tory. In addition to events and material ering the 18th-century Jamaican herbals Interview: ‘Rethinking Sexology’ 14 produced last year, new outcomes from held by Bristol Museum. the 2018 Fellowships are still emerging. Laura Mainwaring, Engagement In memoriam: Jeff Hughes 15 Jason Irving, BSHS Engagement Fellow at George Marshall Medical BSHS information & publications 16 Fellow at Bristol Museum, put together Museum, Worcester, contributed to a a fantastic final event from his work dur- study day: ‘Bovril, Whisky and Gravedig- ing the placement. On 30 March, Bristol gers: the Spanish Flu Pandemic comes Museums hosted the workshop ‘Food to the West Midlands’, on 5 April. The Editorial Journeys’ exploring Caribbean food work of Ed Armston-Sheret, Engage- Commemorating the 50th anniversary of histories. The event was a collaboration ment Fellow at The Polar Museum, will the Stonewall Riots, which broke out in with Mama D Ujuaje, a community learn- be included in a new digital display. • New York City in June 1969, this issue is dedicated to lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer/questioning+ (LGBTQ+) lives and issues in the history of science, technology, and medicine. Outreach grants awarded Our cover feature, by Eleanor Arm- Each year the BSHS Outreach and organisation of the inaugural ‘History strong, reports on the success of a BSHS Engagement Committee offers four of Science for Schools’ event on 27 grant which supported a new public tour small project grants that are intended April. The team developed material that series at the Science Museum. Next, Viewpoint takes a look at the to kick-start engagement events and engaged children and families with the lives and careers of five LGBTQ+ scien- opportunities that might not receive history of Darwin, his travel, and his net- tists, physicians, and engineers, includ- funding from other sources. works. The first event was a pilot, so do ing some lesser-known figures. Then Contributing Editor Ross Brooks The grant winners from May 2018, look out for future iterations of these. considers the origins of modern sexol- Eleanor Armstrong (UCL) and Damien The final grant from 2018, was th th ogy in 18 - and 19 -century studies on Arness Dalton, were awarded funds awarded to Matjaz Vidmar (University avian sex reversal, while Clare Tebbutt to support their ‘Queering the Science of Edinburgh) who is using the funds investigates the work of Lennox Ross Broster and the language surrounding Museum’ project. After a successful to support the development of a tour the unfixity of sex in the 20th century. series of museum tours in summer and information related to the history This issue’s interview is with Jana 2018, they have been engaged in several of astronomy in Edinburgh. This will Funke on behalf of the ‘Rethinking Sexology’ project currently being hosted further public events. These include a be transposed onto the app ‘Curious at the University of Exeter. Lastly, James public lecture, ‘Queering the History of Edinburgh’, joining a series of other Sumner remembers our late colleague Science’, at LSE as part of the ‘Narrative successful mobile-tours that showcase and former BSHS President Jeff Hughes. Let us know what you think of the Science’ project, and an afternoon of the history of science in the city. issue on Twitter @BSHSViewpoint or by ‘alternative archaeology’ at the Univer- The first project grant of 2019 has email. Contributions to the next edition sity of Cambridge. been awarded to Alexander Longworth- should be emailed, by 15 August 2019, The grant winner from August 2018, Dunbar (University of Manchester) as to [email protected]. Laura Brassington and colleagues seed funding for a history of technol- Hazel Blair, Editor (University of Cambridge), funded the ogy podcast. •

2 WELCOMEVIEWPOINT | NEWS 116

Watt anniversary events Sarton Prize 2018 Events commemorating the life and He teamed up with John Roebuck, The American Academy of Arts and work of inventor James Watt (1736- co-founder of Carron Ironworks, and, Sciences has named Jenny Bulstrode 1819) are taking place this summer. later, manufacturer Matthew Boulton. the recipient of the 2018 Sarton Prize for History of Science, recog- The 25 April saw the 250th anniver- Watt’s steam engine was 80% more nising her achievement and promise sary of Watt’s patent for the separate efficient than the one built by Thomas as an emerging scholar in the field. Jenny is a doctoral student and condenser – an invention which revolu- Newcomen, and drove Britain’s industrial researcher at Cambridge and the tionised the power of the steam engine and technological advancement. National Maritime Museum, Green- wich. Her research has focused on and drove the industrial revolution. This You can visit Watt’s workshop at the the history of mining, Victorian earth year is also the 200th anniversary of the Science Museum in London, explore sciences, geomagnetic survey, the Scottish inventor’s death. exhibitions, including at Heriot-Watt Uni- whaling industry, and the relation between innovation in the clock- Watt was born in Greenock, Glasgow. versity and the Scottish National Portrait trade and changes in economic He took an apprenticeship in London, Gallery, or visit the site of an early Watt regulation in the age of reform. • before he turned his attention to improv- engine at Galton Valley Canal Museum. ing the steam engine. See www.jameswatt2019.org/events. • New research hub A new History of Science and Tech- nology Hub has been launched at James Joule commemorated the University of Warwick. The university has wide-ranging A ceramic pavement to commemorate expertise in the history of science, physicist James Joule has been un- and technology, but the new hub veiled in Trafford.The artwork was unveiled also links up the history of scientific theories with wider historical in Worthington Park, Sale, where Joule phenomena such as war, religion, lived in the 19th century. globalisation, ideology, and social, and environmental change.

Joule, who has the unit of energy named Image: courtesy of G. Cooke This work is integrated into various after him, established the important prin- 58 ceramic ‘tiles’ and three of black gran- projects in the History Department ciple that heat and mechanical work are ite. The bullet points are in solid brass. It is and other Warwick research centres. Visit warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/ both forms of energy. surrounded by Victorian setts.’ sat & @HistSciTechHub (Twitter). • Friends of Worthington Park raised Cooke said the artwork was constructed money for the pavement to be made and in his Poplar Grove studio in Sale, which is Survey sciences installed, with the work being done by local located ‘just round the corner from Wardle Royal Society Publishing has pub- ceramicist Gordon Cooke. Road, which is where Joule lived.’ lished a special issue of Notes and Cooke said, ‘The pavement to com- Funding for the piece came from a dona- Records, titled Nineteenth-century survey sciences: enterprises, memorate 200 years since the birth of J tion from a local resident, The Sale Mayoral expeditions and exhibitions. P Joule is the most complex work of this Fund, Manchester Airport Community The issue co-ordinates a kind that I’ve attempted. It’s comprised of Trust, and the Heritage Lottery Fund. • newly comparative and synthetic approach to some of the principal early 19th-century survey sciences prosecuted by British practitioners, President’s notice: BSHS e-newsletters including geomagnetism, geo- graphical exploration, navigation, After every Council meeting (January, April and October), and some- and meteorology. times between, I send out a newsletter e-mail as a service to members The essays attend to the conduct so that you are able to see what we are discussing on your behalf. This of large-scale 19th-century is sent via Mailchimp. It has come to our notice that many institutional surveys across a range of domestic firewalls block Mailchimp messages, miscategorising them as phishing and overseas areas, at sea, on e-mails. The good news is that asking your IT department to ‘whitelist’ land, and in the atmosphere. See the domain @bshs.org.uk can solve this problem. If you are still not royalsocietypublishing.org/toc/ receiving Presidential e-mails after that, please contact office@bshs. org.uk to check your membership status. — Tim Boon rsnr/73/2. • Cover Image: Dan Vo

3 Queering the Science Museum Eleanor Armstrong reflects on last year’s ‘Queering the Science Museum’ tour series, highlighting its importance in communicating ideas in queer science and technology studies to non-academics. This work was supported by a BSHS Outreach Grant.

here do you go to learn about galleries, the British Museum, and Oxford queer theory, to build critical thinking LGBTQ+ history? To a local University Museums, to name but a few about queerness in science and technology. W‘Pride’ event? To the archives institutions), I wondered why there were For example, with the Spitfire plane of your town or city? A podcast, Netflix no explorations of queer histories in that hangs in the third floor Flight series, or social media account? Or to science museums in general, and in the Gallery, we talked about Roberta Cowell one of the Victoria and Albert Museum’s Science Museum, London in particular. I – University College London chemical ‘LGBTQ Tours’? worked there at the time, so my colleague engineer, mechanic, race car driver, What about LGBTQ+ histories that Damien Arness-Dalton and I decided that spitfire pilot, and the first recipient intersect with science and technology? In we would pull together a free tour about of vaginoplasty surgery in 1951 in a 2018, I noticed many museums (here taken queer histories in science and technology Harley Street clinic. Her defiance of the as examples of sites of public recognition for an interested public, beyond our paid heteronormative understanding of what and narrative construction) engaging with work in the museum. transwomen would be like in the Western the 50-year anniversary of the decriminali- popular imagination (having done sation of homosexuality (2017), and/or the Defying heteronormativity national service, being a technical worker, 30-year anniversary of the enactment of Over the course of nine tours in July and having had a wife and two children) Section 28 of the 1988 Local Government 2018, we reached over 100 visitors who brought her into public consciousness in Act (2018), which prohibited promotion of came around the hour-long tour with the 1950s and 60s. We know about her the acceptability of homosexuality by local seven stops. We created the tour by using story now through her autobiography authorities and schools. objects on display within the collection to Roberta Cowell’s Story, by herself, but As these displays and tours popped up explore queer identities and stories related not all trans* individuals of history are around the UK (at the V&A, the Tate to them. We then used these stories, and able to write about themselves.

4 SCIENCE MUSEUM

Terminology: ‘Queer’

I will be using ‘queer’ in this article in two senses: as an umbrella term for LGBTQ+ identities (and thus I will use LGBTQ+ and queer interchangeably); and to describe a body of theory about genders and sexuali- ties which informed the tour.

We then introduced earlier trans* professionals in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, medicine (STEMM), like Irish military surgeon James Barry (1789-1865), and discussed how these stories are still contested, illustrating ongoing struggles for LGBTQ+ recognition in history of science narratives. (Barry was asigned female at birth, and lived his adult life as a man.)

Gathering data When we asked our participants after the tours which of the stories they had Above Eleanor and the tour group on 27 June 2018 in the Mathematics Gallery. Opposite Looking at objects within the Science Museum through a queer lens, the tour series heard before, 38% told us that they only found novel ways of extracting LGBTQ+ narratives from museum exhibits. knew about Alan Turing – arguably

Dan Vo, unless otherwise stated. All images: Dan Vo, one of the more well-publicised queer Queer histories of science are not On the tour, we discussed Jackie Wan, a STEMM professionals – while a further commonly told. Museum visitors are Deaf Singaporean-British nurse and winner 33% did not know any of the figures or often only aware of one or two women of ‘Best Deaf Role Model’. In an oral history stories that we discussed. But beyond in the history of science – normally recording at the Royal College of Nurses, introducing individuals and their narra- Marie Curie, Ada Lovelace, or Rosalind Wan discussed feeling like an outsider tives, our tours talked about the construc- Franklin – and so too, in general, there around the LGBTQ+ communities in her tion of STEMM fields and the studies are not many well-known queer STEMM hospital because they did not have signing that are undertaken within them through professionals of other genders. provision. And, in addition to highlighting a queer lens. This was well received by Roberta Cowell, discussed above, we also our participants and was highlighted by considered Linda Sagan (astronomer Carl a number of responses. One such piece of Sagan’s wife), who illustrated the normative feedback read: image on the Pioneer probe in the museum’s ‘Exploring Space’ gallery. I liked the fact that it wasn’t just about When thinking about why people come queer scientists (although that was very to the museum, John H Falk has indicated interesting) but also flawed scientific that ‘identity-related needs motivate studies/the lack of scientific studies on [the visit] … and provide an overarching sex/gender issues. framework for that visit experience’. Our participant feedback suggested that 33% of More than this, we further queered the visitors attended our queer-focused tours idea about who we could talk about in because they were motivated by the iden- the Science Museum. We drew on Susan tity-focused ‘queer’/’LGBTQ+’ aspect of Ferentinos’ ideas that queer theory gives our tour, and 20% mentioned something us ‘a focus on outsiders [that] has the related to STEMM. To me, this suggests

potential to reveal a great deal about the Image: Andrew Rogers that people are interested in learning society as a whole.’ We took Ferentinos’ about queer history in science, and that Above Eleanor by the Pioneer Plaque in the emphasis on outsiders to critique why Exploring Space Gallery. The plaque, based they do not find many other museum some narratives fall outside the current on Sagan’s illustration and geared towards spaces where these stories are explored. scope of the museum, looking beyond extra-terrestrial life, was placed on board Pi- Emily Dawson’s work builds on Falk to the normative understanding of STEMM oneer spacecraft in the 1970s. Its heteronom- suggest that people do not attend every- ative description of humanity as a whole was professionals, who are alluded to in a point of discussion on the tours, as was the day science learning activities if they do museum objects. question about what humanity is or should be. not see them as being relevant to their

5 Museum Queeries) of what could have been in these galleries. By taking a queer position, unoccupied by the museum itself, the ‘Queering the Science Museum’ tour introduced, in the words of James Sanders, ‘the small cracks and fissures in the heteronormative foundation of the museum – spaces through which the roots of new curatorial and educational performances may take hold.’ I hope that curators at the Science Museum, and at other science museums, see in this tour series the popularity and alternative explorations that are possible through a queer lens. More than that, I hope that other intersectional lenses can be realised in the museum, too, perhaps via decolonial, or feminist tours, and by challenging norms about (dis)ability, class, and religion. As one participant wrote in their feedback: ‘I just wish more science museums did this.’ I do too, and what is more, I wish this had not been a ‘special tour series’, but part of the Science Museum’s permanent educational repertoire. •

Eleanor S. Armstrong University College London

Eleanor is a PhD student who writes com- Above Eleanor talking about Roberta Cowell in the Flight Gallery at the Science Museum. paratively on the display of space science According to the feedback forms, well over half of the tour participants would not have visit- in London museums. She also works on ed the museum that day had it not been for the tour series. developing intersectional interventions into STEMM museums, such as ‘Queering the lives and identities. It transpired that museums hope to reach. Another partici- Science Museum’ and her ‘Behind the Glass 57% of those who gave us feedback would pant stated that the tour, Cabinet’ podcast series. You can find her on not have come to the Science Museum Twitter at @ellietheelement. that day if we had not been running the really opened my eyes to the ways in which tours. The majority of these people had history is shaped by those who have the privi- also not visited the Science Museum lege to tell their stories from their perspectives. within the past year, suggesting this Works Cited space is not normally relevant to them Curatorial dreaming Emily Dawson, Equity, Exclusion & Every- and their identities. I personally think that this was one day Science Learning: The Experiences of Most importantly, in my mind, we not of the best things about our decision to Minoritised Groups (2019). only highlighted queer narratives and queer the tour format as well as the tour perspectives, but we worked through the material. We wanted to get people to John H Falk, Identity and the Museum tour to equip our participants with tools think outside of the narratives presented Visitor Experience (2016). for critiquing other exhibitions they visit to the small group at that time, and to Susan Ferentinos, Interpreting LGBT in the future. Who is telling the story? bring their own reflections on the spaces History at Museums and Historic Sites What kind of normative narratives are too. We encouraged and valued the (2015). being demonstrated in the space? Who or knowledge of our participants, and sup- what might be overlooked when we place ported them to take ownership of sharing James Sanders, ‘The Museum’s Silent science as detached from the society it their knowledge with the rest of the Sexual Performance’, Museums & Social took place in? These tools are not only group. We drew parallels and comparisons Issues 3:1 (2008), pp. 15-28. useful for thinking about queer histories, with other museums, other exhibitions but can be applied to think about inter- within the Science Museum historically, Museum Queeries website: http://muse- sectional problems of having narratives and evoked the ‘curatorial dreaming’ (a umqueeries.org. that reflect the diverse individuals that concept promoted by the research group

6 NUCLEARLGBTQ+ PHYSICS LIVES

LGBTQ+ Lives in the History of Science, Technology & Medicine Viewpoint profiles five of history’s pioneering LGBTQ+ scientists, physicians, and engineers.

eaders will be familiar with math- praised as one of the earliest, simplest, and in the revoking of his security clearance ematician and computer scientist most influential modern computer models. with the government, and ended his RAlan Turing (1912-1954), who is In 1945, Turing designed another cryptographic consultancy work. Turing portrayed by Benedict Cumberbatch in machine, which – in the 1950s – was was told to choose between prison and the 2014 biopic The Imitation Game, and developed into the ‘Pilot ACE (Automatic chemical castration, opting for the latter whose life and legacy was the subject of a Computing Engine)’. It was one of the shortly before taking his own life in 1954. blockbuster retrospective at the Science first computers built in the UK and, at the Turing is perhaps the best-known Museum in 2012/2013. time, the world’s fastest. gay scientist from history, but here Turing, a gay British cryptanalyst Despite Turing’s professional successes, Viewpoint presents readers with five who worked at Bletchley Park during which included cracking the ‘Enigma’ more influential researchers, physicians, the Second World War, is considered code used by the German army to send and engineers who identified as LGBTQ+ the father of modern computing. The messages during the war, he was convicted and overcame prejudice, discrimination, ‘a-machine’ that he masterminded in 1936 of ‘gross indecency’ in 1952 because of his and harrassment to advance modern (better known as the ‘Turing machine’) is homosexuality. The conviction resulted scientific knowledge.

Sara Josephine Baker (1873-1945) Physician and Public Health Worker Sara Josephine Baker was an American 1000 live births between 1908 and 1918. physician from New York. A lesbian Reflecting on her work in Fighting for feminist, she was the first woman to earn Life (1939), she wrote: a PhD in Public Health from New York University, and went on to make sig- The way to keep people from dying from nificant contributions to public health disease, it struck me suddenly, was to and child hygiene among communities keep them from falling ill. Healthy people suffering poverty in New York City. don’t die. It sounds like a completely Baker’s father and brother both witless remark, but at that time it was died of typhoid when she was young. a startling idea. Preventative medicine women. Totalling c.100 members, it is Choosing a career in medicine, she had hardly been born yet and had no estimated that around a quarter of these joined the New York Infirmary Medical promotion in public health work. were lesbian or bisexual. College (for women), graduating second Upon retirement, Baker moved in her class in 1898. Among Baker’s key strategies was a to New Jersey with her partner (the She then moved to Boston for a 1-year focus on maternal education and better novelist Ida Wylie), where the couple hospital internship, returning to NYC as midwifery training, with a special shared a farmhouse with fellow physi- a private physician. Baker became a med- emphasis on supporting the younger cian Louise Pearce. ical inspector with the city’s Department women and girls who were often More information about Baker and for Health in 1901, and in 1907 she charged with looking after baby siblings other LGBTQ+ lives in public health was made Assistant Commissioner of and young family members. history can be found online in an Health. Two years later she founded the Baker wore masculine clothing to open-access article by Bert Hansen American Child Hygiene Association work and opted for tailored suits to help titled ‘Public Careers and Private and was its first director. her blend in to her male-dominated Sexuality: Some Gay and Lesbian Lives Baker’s focus on preventative med- working environment. She was also a in the History of Medicine and Public icine caused New York City’s infant member of the ‘Heterodoxy Club’, a Health’, featured in volume 92 of the morality rate to drop from 144 to 88 per bi-weekly lunch club for free-thinking American Journal of Public Health.

7 Magnus Hirschfeld (1868-1935) Physician and Sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld was a physician and controversy centred on a series of trials sexologist based in Germany. He made involving journalist Maximilian Harden, his career studying sex and sexuality, who had accused Kaiser Wilhem II’s but was also an advocate for same-sex friend Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg- relationship and transgender rights. Hertefeld, of having engaged in illegal Hirschfeld, a gay Jewish man, homosexual relations with Berlin military Cropped. earned his medical doctorate in 1892, commander General Kuno von Moltke. founding the Scientific Humanitarian Hirschfeld testified on behalf of of Hirschfeld’s early clients was Einer Committee – the first gay rights organ- Harden that von Moltke was gay and Wegner, who transitioned to Lili Elbe (of isation in history – five years later. The that ‘homosexuality was part of the the The Danish Girl fame). committee fought for the scientific and plan of nature and creation just like The Institute engaged sexologists and cultural acceptance of LGBTQ+ people, normal love’. This sparked criticism left-wing political reformers, and called

and the repeal of German anti-homo- throughout Germany, and, contrary for better sex education and access to L0024860 via WikiCommons. sexuality laws (specifically, Paragraph to Hirschfeld’s hope that his public contraception. It housed a museum and 175 of the German Criminal Code, statement would lead to acceptance of an important library on homosexual love which criminalised sexual relationships homosexual love among the German and eroticism, destroyed by the Nazis between men and remained enshrined ruling classes, the affair instead led to a when the Institute was shut down in in German law until 1994). backlash against homosexuality. 1933. This was part of a much wider Nazi In 1905, Hirschfeld joined the feminist After the First World War, Hirschfeld campaign to purge Germany of homosex- League for the Protection of Mothers, set up the Institute of Sexology in Berlin uality, which took place while Hirschfeld with whom he campaigned for the in 1919. The Institute was a research was exiled in Switzerland, having left decriminalisation of abortion. A few hub which offered sex and sexuality Germany for a worldwide speaking tour years later, he also became involved in counselling, hormonal therapies, and in 1930. He never returned home, dying the Harden-Eulenburg affair. This was a sex reassignment surgery to clients. One on his 67th birthday in Nice in 1935. Wellcome Collection/CC-BY-4.0. Photo no.: Image: Wellcome Collection/CC-BY-4.0. Photo no.:

Alan L. Hart (1890-1962) Physician and Radiologist Alan Hart was an American radiologist After graduating from the University and physician. He was the first doctor of Oregon Medical School in 1917, Hart who thought to use x-rays to detect asked a former professor, Joshua Allen tuberculosis. This helped early detec- Gilbert, for sterilisation and surgery to tion of the disease, which improved stop menstruation. Gilbert tried to ‘treat’ recovery rates and prevented it from Hart using psychoanalysis and hypnosis, spreading, since affected people could but at Hart’s request he performed a full be identified and isolated. hysterectomy. After completing his tran- Hart is perhaps the least well-known sition in 1918, Hart said he was happier TB in Idaho. He set up the state’s first

of our figures, despite his contributions than ever and ‘ashamed of nothing’. TB screening clinics, including a mobile . to 20th-century science and literature. Although Hart was influential in the clinic, and screened, treated, and edu- Born in Kansas in 1890, he was campaign against TB, he found his early cated people about the disease. assigned female at birth, but according years as a physician difficult. He gave Hart dedicated most of his profes- to a 1918 newspaper report he identified up his practice in Oregon after a former sional career to researching TB, but was as male early in life. Hart went on to classmate recognised him, and his also an enthusiastic writer of fiction. become the first trans man in the US to gender was often challenged as he moved His semi-biographical The Undaunted transition, and both his grandparents’ around the West Coast. (1936) features a gay radiologist perse- obituaries, published in the 1920s, During the 1930s and ‘40s, Hart cuted for his sexuality. See Hansen (op.

referred to him as their grandson. spearheaded the campaign to eradicate cit.) for more on Hart’s life and career. NY New York, Bert Hansen Collection, Image:

8 NUCLEARVIEWPOINTLGBTQ+LGBTQ+ PHYSICS LIVESLIVES 116

Sally Ride (1951-2012) Astronaut, Physicist, and Engineer Astrophysicist, astronaut, and engineer flights. As a crew member on the Sally Ride holds the titles for first Challenger STS-7 flight in 1983, she American woman in space (1983), third was tasked with working the shuttle’s woman in space, and youngest US astro- robot arm. She also flew to space naut to have travelled to space to date, in 1984, alongside another female completing her first mission aged 32. astronaut (Kathryn Sullivan). After the Ride came from a strongly Presby- 1986 Challenger disaster, she worked terian family and her father was a on investigating shuttle accidents and professor of political science. She grad- headed an operations subcommittee on things go wrong on the job?’ uated from Stanford, earning her PhD the Rogers Commission (set up by the After NASA, she returned to academia, in Physics in 1978 by researching the government to investigate the disaster). first at Stanford and then as professor of interactions of X-rays and the interstel- Sally’s gender attracted a great physics at the University of California, lar medium (matter and radiation that deal of media attention in the run San Diego. An intensely private indi- exists between star systems in a galaxy). up to her first space flight, which she vidual, Sally’s 27-year relationship with Upon completing her initial training applied for after seeing an advertise- Professor Emerita Tam O’Shaughnessy with NASA in 1979, she became a ment in the Stanford student paper. was only revealed after her death in 2012. ground-based capsule communicator Among the many questions posed to Next to her many other accolades, Sally is for the second and third space shuttle her was the sexist, ‘Do you weep when the first known LGBTQ+ astronaut.

Christopher Strachey (1916-1975) Computer Scientist

Christopher Strachey was a computer the Ferranti Mark 1 computer at scientist and programmer, who played the University of Manchester from a large part in developing specific pro- Alan Turing, whom he had known at gramming languages, as well as general Cambridge. He wrote a programme to theoretical principles. make the Ferranti play draughts, before He was born in 1916 to the prominent playing ‘God Save The King’. Strachey family; Lytton Strachey, of On the back of this, he was offered a the Bloomsbury group, was his uncle, position at the National Research and and his father worked at Bletchley Park Development Corporation, where he during World War II. Christopher was worked for 8 years; during this time inventions, however, was his love letter an intelligent and inquisitive child, he had a major role in developing the algorithm, which he and Turing used to but this did not translate directly Pegasus programming system. After produce nonsense automated correspon- on to his formal studies. He went to running a private consultancy for a few dence. One such letter reads, King’s College, Cambridge to study years, Strachey was given a position at Mathematics, but graduated with a the University Mathematical Library, Darling Sweetheart, You are my avid fel- lower second in Natural Sciences. This Cambridge. In 1965 he left to become low feeling. My affection curiously clings to may have been impacted by a nervous part of the Programming Research your passionate wish. My liking yearns to breakdown Strachey suffered in his Group at Oxford University. your heart. You are my wistful sympathy: third year, which his sister suspected During his time at Cambridge and my tender liking. Yours beautifully, M. U. C could have been linked to struggles Oxford, Strachey worked on designing [Manchester University Computer]. with his homosexuality. CPL (Combined Programming After graduation in 1938, Strachey Language). Further advances in his For more on Strachey, see the ‘LGBTQ worked for Standard Telephones and ‘Fundamental Concepts in Programming Love and History: No Offence’ trail on Cables, before becoming a schoolmaster. Languages’ proved highly influential. ‘Oxford Alternative Stories’: oxfordstories. In 1951, he obtained the manual for One of Strachey’s most memorable ox.ac.uk/torch#/story/unexpected-tales. •

9 Queer Birds: Avian Sex Reversal & the Origins of Modern Sexology Ross Brooks explores how ‘extraordinary’ animals provided a means for late-18th- and 19th- century scientists to investigate the mysteries of sex in an era of prejudice and censorship.

ex-variant bodies, minds, and be- recognise that they are females; in some Hunter’s paper on avian sex transformation haviours have long been subject to there has even been an outgrowth of a – a foundation stone of Charles Darwin’s S a plethora of medical and scientific sort of small spurs.’ Of transformations in theory of sexual selection – is his desig- atrocities. Intersexualities, transforma- male birds, he wrote: ‘There are also some nation of ‘secondary properties’ (i.e. sections of sex, and nonreproductive sexual birds that are effeminate from birth to ondary sexual characteristics) to account behaviours – in humans and nonhumans the extent that they even submit to males for non-genital sex differences in those alike – have been objects of segregation attempting to tread them.’ species which usually have two distinct and forced physical and psychological Sex-transformative birds became an sexes. The possibility that such differences interventions in efforts to configure the important modus operandi of modern could, in and of themselves, be collectively biological and medical sciences to adhere biologists largely through a seminal paper considered important objects of study to prevailing gender and sexual norms. titled ‘An Account of an Extraordinary and a means of better understanding the Yet sex variations have also played piv- Pheasant’ by the Scottish surgeon and mysterious origins and evolution of sex otal roles in the history of biology, raising naturalist John Hunter, published in the was not comprehensively appreciated until questions in scientific minds and prompt- Royal Society’s Philosophical Transactions Hunter’s transformational birds led him to ing important new theories and discover- in 1780. In the paper, Hunter described delineate a new scientific epithet. ies. Scholarly interest in avian sex changes various examples of wild hen pheasants Through the century following Hunter’s (or ‘reversal’) is a case in point. Individual with male-typical plumage. He also authoritative interest in the subject, birds of many sexually dimorphic species described a peahen with a full-sized numerous naturalists and physicians made can develop sex characteristics more eye-feathered tail which was preserved in further descriptions of sex-transformative typical in the opposite sex. Such natural the collection at Ashton Lever’s famous birds in leading works of natural history transformations are uncommon, but not museum, or Holophusikon, in Leicester and medical science. Avian species in so much so that anyone familiar with birds Square. In life, the bird had astonished which sex changes were documented on a regular basis – country-dwellers, its doting owner, Lady Tynte (of Halswell include peafowl, turkey, partridge, pigeon, farmers, gamekeepers, hunters, ornitholo- House in Goathurst, Somerset), by moult- bustard, duck, cuckoo, cotinga, chaffinch, gists, and other naturalists to name a few ing and assuming male-typical plumage redstart, starling, sparrowhawk, wood – could be unaware of their occurrence. aged around eleven years. Hunter ascribed grouse, bunting, and kingfisher. In the age before genetics and endocri- the phenomenon to the process of aging: In common with Hunter, several natu- nology, sex-transformative birds provided ralists slickly generalised the phenomenon key insights into puzzling sex-related phe- We find something similar taking place even of sex ‘reversal’ beyond avian subjects. The nomena. They allowed naturalists to discuss in the human species: for that increase of French zoologist Isidore Geoffroy Saint- scientifically interesting but socially taboo hair observable on the faces of many women Hilaire, for example, wrote: subjects, such as same-sex sexual behaviour in advanced life, is an approach towards the and the mutability of sex differences, with beard, which is one of the most distinguish- In many women, after the cessation of the relative impunity. Combined with some ing secondary properties of man. menses, the chin and upper lips become fur- rampant anthropomorphism, investigations nished with a true beard, a phenomenon, the into avian sex ‘reversal’ contributed to the Hunter’s study made two innovations relation of which, with the development of the development of innovative and historically that would shape modern medico-scien- plumage of our hen pheasant, cannot be denied. significant concepts of human sexuality, for tific approaches to sex differences, the good or ill. emerging discipline of teratology, and the Seeking to explain the phenomena, development of evolutionary theory. The certain naturalists identified the ovary as Extraordinary sex first is the assertion that irregularities essential in producing the observed effects. Avian sex ‘reversal’ has been noted by (‘monstrosities’) that were observable in This was a pivotal moment in the history naturalists since antiquity. In his Historia anatomical structures throughout the of biology as the ovaries had long remained animalium, Aristotle bequeathed an astute natural world develop in relation to the mysterious entities and were mostly description; he wrote of domestic hens fundamental principles which governed ignored; the uterus had been considered the that ‘crow in imitation of the males and the growth of individuals according to the defining organ of female physiology. attempt to tread, and their crest and tail particular pattern of their species. Writing about sex-transformative are raised so that one would not easily The second important innovation in pheasant hens in 1784, the French phy-

10 QUEER BIRDS

sician and naturalist Pierre-Jean-Claude Mauduyt de la Varenne reported that his fellow physician, the renowned pioneer of comparative anatomy Félix Vicq-d’Azyr, had dissected several such birds, observing the oviduct which evidenced their sex but finding the ovaries completely obliterated. Such observations, intensely puzzling for the era, were largely neglected until the English naturalist William Yarrell broached the subject in 1827. Yarrell insisted that the occasional development of male-typical character-

istics was not restricted to aged female . birds but could be produced by ‘certain constitutional circumstances’, essentially impairment of the ovaries, which could occur at any period of life or induced by artificial means. Extended to other species, including humans, Yarrell’s savvy proto-endocrinology paved the way for a new era of sex physiology to emerge, with far-reaching consequences.

Both sexes The pioneering investigations of Hunter and Yarrell impressed the minds of a new generation of naturalists, not least the young, Beagle-fresh Charles Darwin. Along with other natural sex-variant phenomena (such as neuter bees and the occasional appearance of horns in does), avian University of Oxford; Royal Ontario Museum Images: Bodleian Libraries, sex ‘reversal’ helped persuade Darwin Clockwise, from top-left: Lady Tynte’s eye-feathered peahen, first published in John that all the higher animals, including Latham’s A General Synopsis of Birds in 1783; Hector, a hen-feathered cockerel, pictured in The Sporting Magazine in March 1833; a female silver pheasant which developed complete humans, were essentially ‘hermaphrodite’ male-typical plumage late in life, from Saint-Hilaire’s Essais de zoologie Générale (1841). (i.e. intersexed). The idea had previously been forwarded by the Scottish anatomist an important component of Darwin’s evo- naturalists who had investigated the sub- Robert Knox but had not received wide- lutionism on a number of fronts. It was, for ject, including Saint-Hilaire and Yarrell. spread acceptance. Darwin, however, was instance, vital to his theory of heredity. In He further remarked that ‘Aristotle was an early convert to the theory. Remarks The Variation of Animals and Plants under well aware of the change in mental dispo- in his notebooks, compiled through the Domestication (1868), he discussed sex sition in old hens.’ It was one of the rare late-1830s, evidence the profound impact transformations in a section titled ‘Latent instances that he referred, albeit obliquely, of Yarrell’s observations, as well as other Characters’. He wrote: to same-sex sexual behaviour. related studies, on his developing biologi- Following Darwin, a new breed of mod- cal thought. For example, Darwin wrote: But I must explain what is meant by ernist sexologists, most notably Sigmund characters lying latent. The most obvious Freud, extended the principle of primordial A capon will sit upon eggs, as well as, & illustration is afforded by secondary sexual intersexuality ever deeper into the realms often better than a female. – this is full of characters. In every female all the secondary of mind and behaviour, with profound interest; for it shows latent instincts even male characters, and in every male all the implications for how we think about sex in brain of male. – Every animal surely is secondary female characters, apparently differences and sexuality to this day. • hermaphrodite – (as is seen in the plumage exist in a latent state, ready to be evolved of hybrid birds). under certain conditions. Ross Brooks Oxford Brookes University In another pertinent entry, among several, Supporting this momentous assertion, Darwin asserted that ‘[e]very man & Darwin explicitly referred to the literature Ross’s PhD, titled ‘Evolution’s Closet: The woman is hermaphrodite’. on female birds assuming male plumage, New Biology and Homosexuality in Britain, The perennial coexistence of female and particularly when old or diseased or when 1871-1967’, is funded by the Wellcome Trust. male elements in each individual remained operated on. He drew heavily on those You can follow him on Twitter @rossb_oxford.

11 Hormones & Headlines: Gender Variance in 1930s Britain Clare Tebbutt on Lennox Ross Broster and the language of ‘sex changeability’.

n 1930s Britain, endocrinological de- from one sex categorisation to another, before there was uncertainty – to those velopments and the wide circulation of although the reality for those who endeav- ‘baffled lives’. The article centred on one I popular press accounts of people whose oured to do so was not always so positive. case in particular, that of Donald Purcell, sex had been reassigned, coalesced to bring who had been raised as a girl but was now about new ideas of the ‘changeability of sex.’ Making headlines hoping that an operation would make The language of ‘sex change’ was a com- ‘Doctor Changes Sex of 24: Patients him the man he had always been ‘at heart’. mon feature of the media accounts and can Have Married’ trumpeted a headline in the Although readers were not given any infor- be used as way of appreciating the unfixity Daily Mirror from May 1938. The paper’s mation as to what surgical techniques were of sex that was predominant in the 1930s. It special correspondent informed readers being employed at Charing Cross Hospital, is an instance of how language that is now that: ‘Twenty-four English men and women they could glean that ‘sex change’ was now outmoded – ‘sex change’ – has a history have had their sex changed in the past few a relatively frequent occurrence, that it that encompasses a number of different years. The man who has brought new hope required a qualified medic such as Broster, identities – transgender and intersex – and and happiness into these baffled lives is Dr and that it could resolve turmoil and bring reveals a lot about previous understandings Lennox Ross Broster, surgeon at Charing about happiness. of the sexed body. Cross Hospital, London.’ Lennox Ross Broster was a specialist The 1930s media circulated a positive Broster was positioned here as a hero, a on the ‘adrenogenital syndrome’, who had narrative about the possibility to move man bringing certainty and promise where originally arrived in Britain from South

12 LENNOX ROSS BROSTER

Africa in 1909 as a Rhodes Scholar. The Broster’s 1938 co-authored book The Ad- prominence that he received in the press renal Cortex and Intersexuality published did not reflect his status amongst his fellow more than fifty case studies of ‘departure endocrinologists. The Medical Research from normal sexual development.’ Reading Council’s Sex Hormone Committee was Broster’s clinical and surgical assessment of

founded in 1930 and Broster was not a . patients alongside Clifford Allen’s psy- member. His applications to them for fund- chological assessment, it is apparent that ing were met with a degree of exasperation. the decision to reassign a person’s sex was He did receive a grant for his research subject to Broster and Allen’s prejudices on the relations between changes in sex about gender roles.

characteristics and the suprarenal gland, genealogy.amay.co.uk Mark Weston, whose reassignment from but other members of the committee were female to male received a great deal of me- dissatisfied with his methodology. dia coverage in 1936, was one of the case Of even more concern was the media studies. Broster noted with admiration: attention that Broster was garnering. The Sex Hormone Committee’s position was This man succeeded in attaining male sex- that the newspaper stories of ‘sex chang- uality against every disadvantage. He is a es’ were inaccurate. There is a sense of triumph of instinctual development.

irritation in their correspondence that Image: courtesy of Ruth F May, the findings of the burgeoning field of Above Lennox Ross Broster, c. 1920. The description of Weston’s undescended endocrinology were being disseminated in Opposite Charing Cross Hospital in Villiers testes and hypospadias (where the opening a sensationalistic manner. Street, Westminster, where it was situated of the urethra is on the underside of the from 1821 to 1973. Yet the notion of ‘sex changeability’ was penis) revealed far more than any of the being effectively disseminated. The vague been brought about in some of the lower press stories had. An official reassignment language of ‘sex change’ used by the press, animals, and in birds, but it is quite impos- was dependent on the presence of atypical alongside references to operations and sible in human beings.’ sex characteristics such as Weston’s. Those ‘gland secrets’ fostered the idea that sexual The idea of ‘change’ is paramount here. patients who reported that they were men characteristics could be changed thanks to Experiments such as those by Eugen Stein- despite having been assigned female at modern scientific insights and that medics ach on the sex characteristics of guinea pigs birth were never recognised as men by Bro- could help people who felt at odds with the and by F A E Crew on chickens had also ster and Allen unless their bodies carried

Charing Cross Hospital and Medical School, 1881. Wellcome Collection. CC BY 4.0. Cropped. Image: Charing Cross Hospital and Medical School, gender they had been assigned. been widely reported in the press. They physical traces of their gender identities. promoted the idea that sex characteristics Everyday sex problems could change, whether through interven- A language of changeability In his 1948 book Everyday Sex Problems, tion, as in the case of Steinach’s guinea The research Broster did on the adrenals the sexologist Norman Haire dedicated pigs, or through natural occurrence, as in did yield benefits for intersex people. the second chapter to ‘Change of Sex’, the case of Crew’s chickens. The power of Widespread press speculation about lamenting the impact of such press stories. scientific discovery, especially in the field of hormones and their effects allowed for He reported that numerous patients were endocrinology, appeared to be pointing to a popular discourse of sex changeability. approaching him desirous of getting their the capacity for bodies to alter from one set For people whom we might now under- sex changed. This, he stressed, was impos- of sex characteristics to another. stand as transgender but not intersex, sible, a fact of which it was difficult to In much the way that scientific exper- the promise offered by the press stories convince people given the power of the iments called on a degree of equivalence was not matched with medical treatment newspaper accounts. By way of explanation between animals and humans, so humans and official recognition of their gender. he wrote: ‘It is true that change of sex has were noting the changes in animals Yet even for those people who were and extrapolating that they too might refused treatment by Broster or Haire, change. Haire was adamant that this there was a language being created of sex belief be dispelled: changeability and there were press stories readily available to prove the existence of The 1930s It is important to stress the fact that no real other people who had rejected the gender change of sex occurs at all. The truth is that they had been assigned at birth. sex has been wrongly diagnosed at birth, Broster’s tendency for self-publicity, media and the real sex of the child becomes appar- combined with the media appetite for ent only at puberty or during adolescence. ‘sex change’ stories, meant that the 1930s circulated were a time when, contrary to Broster’s This idea of ‘mistaken sex’ did fea- actual message, the public might reason- “a positive ture in a number of the press stories, ably conclude that sex was changeable. • but readers could easily be forgiven for believing that bodies could be medically Clare Tebbutt narrative. induced to change. Trinity College Dublin

13 INTERVIEWRUNNING HEADER

Viewpoint Interviews... Jana Funke, director (with Kate Fisher at the University of Exeter) of the Wellcome Trust-funded ‘Rethinking Sexology’ Joint Investigator Award project (2015-2020). The research team also includes Jen Grove, Sarah Jones, Ina Linge, and Kazuki Yamada. Who or what inspired your project, ‘Rethinking Sexology’? We were partly inspired by the sexologists themselves. In the second half of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, many sexual scientists, at least in Britain and Germany, articulated a broad and inclusive understanding of sexual science. They sought to include diverse forms of knowledge and expertise, including insights drawn from medical sciences, anthropology, history, and literary studies. We wanted to study this history to investigate how sexual knowledge and scientific expertise have been constructed and contested.

What has been the project’s greatest achievement? Last year, we got follow-on funding from the Wellcome Trust to run an ambitious public engagement project with artist Jason all about the invention of foreplay. Ina Linge, What would you do to strengthen the Barker and community group Gendered who works on sexology, zoology, and the history of science as a discipline? Intelligence. The plan is to engage young natural, could discuss the little-known butterfly Including diverse voices when writing trans and gender diverse people with our station in Hirschfeld’s Institute of Sexology in the history of science is important. Engage- research, focusing specifically on the inter- Berlin. And Kazuki Yamada, who is writing a ment work involving dialogue between sections between the history of sexology PhD on sexology, gerontology, and ageing, academics and broader publics can help and LGBTQ+ history, to develop a perfor- would have anecdotes to share about the to achieve this goal, but it is not easy. We mance and an exhibition. rejuvenation hype of the 1920s. We also have are privileged to work alongside Jen Grove a menu of sexological cocktails to bring to a on the Rethinking Sexology project. Jen is a And what difficulties have you party. My favourite is the Ginsey Scale! researcher working on sexology, collecting, encountered? and material culture, and she is an engage- In terms of our engagement work, one Which historical person would you ment expert. She helps all of us to become challenge is presenting the sexologists in most like to meet? better engaged researchers. a nuanced way. It is easy, for instance, to I would choose Edith Less Ellis. She was a idealise German-Jewish sexologist Magnus writer and feminist activist. She had relation- How do you see the future shape of Hirschfeld: he fought for the rights of homo- ships with women and was married to British the history of science? sexual, trans and intersex people and used sexologist Havelock Ellis. I would ask her what I hope the history of science continues his scientific authority to affirm his patients’ it was like to be part of sexual scientific and to thrive as an interdisciplinary field that identities. He was also gay himself. Hirschfeld th activist circles at the turn of the 20 century. attracts diverse people within academia is often celebrated, but we also need to and beyond. Many questions that have remember that he studied LGBTQ+ people What are your favourite history of concerned people in the past about how and used them to further his career. As part science books? we relate to science, what it means for our of our engagement workshops, we have had Steve Epstein’s AIDS, Activism, and the lives and who gets to make decisions remain productive conversations with the young peo- Politics of Knowledge (1996) helps me pressing for us all today. • ple about the different aspects of his work. think about whose voices are included and excluded or seen as ‘credible’ when it comes Which of your team members has to producing scientific knowledge. Kirsten For more about ‘Rethinking Sexology: the the best dinner-table history of Leng’s fantastic new book Sexual Politics and Cross-Disciplinary Investigation of Sexual- science story? Feminist Science (2017) demonstrates the ity – Sexual Science Beyond the Medical, Where to begin? Sarah Jones is interested in previously overlooked contributions of women 1890-1940’, visit the project website at: the ‘popular’ life of sexology and could tell you sexologists in early 20th-century Germany. rethinkingsexology.exeter.ac.uk

14 VIEWPOINTOBITUARY 116

Jeff Hughes, 1965-2018

any of us learned of the tragic loss Most of Jeff’s research, however, con- of Jeff Hughes, at the age of just cerned British science, if often in the M52, on the final day of the 2018 context of its international networks. He European Society for the History of Science developed a particular interest in the Royal meeting in London. The news inevitably Society and its relationship to government, cast a pall over the event; and yet there was but published widely on topics including some solace in the fact that so many friends spectography pioneer Francis Aston’s and colleagues could gather to recall togeth- interest in the ‘occult chemistry’ of the er a man who gave so much to the field. theosophist Annie Besant, Ewan MacCo- A miner’s son from Carmarthenshire, ll’s extraordinary agitprop stage drama Jeff initially studied chemistry at Oxford Uranium 235, and the influence of politically but soon transferred his attention to the engaged journalists on national science history of science, moving to Cambridge policy (a focus which inspired his long-term as a postgraduate in 1988. His PhD focused involvement in the field of science commu- social academic, university culture did not on the community of early radioactivity nication studies). dominate his life; he belonged to a close- researchers that grew up around Ernest Likeable and approachable, Jeff made knit family and was a familiar face on the Rutherford in Manchester and Cambridge, countless friends throughout the interna- live folk music scene. He is survived by and their relations with researchers at other tional academic community. At conferences, his wife Natalie, Herbie the cavapoo, and sites internationally. he would sit up until all hours, reminiscing three generations of appreciative colleagues, In 1993, he moved to Manchester for a with old colleagues or planning the future students, and friends. lectureship at the Centre for the Histo- with new ones: one such session, at the 2007 In recognition of Jeff’s career-long com- ry of Science, Technology and Medicine BSHS Annual Conference, is attested to mitment to broadening engagement, the (CHSTM), helping to shape its profile as have concluded with a trip to a Rusholme BSHS has recently renamed its prize for the a cross-disciplinary group with a strong curry-house as the sun rose around 4am. best book in the history of science acces- critical mass in 20th-century studies. He was Yet Jeff was equally capable as a skilled sible to a wide audience of non-specialists particularly prolific as a PhD supervisor, and efficient organiser behind the scenes. in his honour. Details of the 2019 Hughes and oversaw several projects in partnership His career-long involvement with the Prize competition may be found at www. with the Science Museum Group. BSHS included terms as Secretary from bshs.org.uk/prizes/hughes-prize. • Accessible communication was another 1995 to 2000, and, from 2008 to 2010, as one of Jeff’s priorities. His best-known work, of the youngest Presidents of recent times. James Sumner The Manhattan Project: Big Science and the His greatest administrative achievement Atom Bomb (2003), was an overview aimed at was undoubtedly the 2013 International A more detailed version of this obituary general audiences. It also found a niche as an Congress of History of Science, Technol- appears in the Spring 2019 issue of the undergraduate set text, and several research- ogy, and Medicine in 2013, which brought Science Museum Group Journal, avail- ers have cited it as their first or favourite over 1700 delegates to Manchester. able at journal.sciencemuseum.org.uk/ introduction to the history of science. For all that Jeff was a consummate browse/issue-11/jeff-hughes.

15 00070874_52-2_Mockup_Cover_00070874_52-1 02/05/19 4:12 PM Page 1

JSThe BJHS The British Journal for the History of Science The British The British Journal for the Journal

History of June 2019 Science British Journal for of the History • Jim Bennett and Rebekah Higgitt, ‘Introduction – London 1600-1800: communities of natu- Science for the History of ral knowledge and artificial practice’ Volume 52 Science Part 2 No. 193 June 2019 1 Francis Bacon’s doctrine of idols: a diagnosis of ‘universal madness’ s.v. weeks • Jasmine Kilburn-Toppin, ‘“A place of great trust to be supplied by men of skill and integrity”: 41 The mechanical life of plants: Descartes on botany fabrizio baldassarri th th 65 Mathematicians on board: introducing lunar distances to life at sea assayers and knowledge cultures in late 16 -and 17 -century London’ jim bennett 85 Charles Darwin and the scientific mind david stack th 117 Translation and transmutation: the Origin of Species in China xiaoxing jin • Philip Beeley, ‘Practical mathematicians and mathematical practice in 17 -century London’ 143 Rothschild reversed: explaining the exceptionalism of biomedical research, 1971–1981 stephen m. davies 165 Book reviews

Volume • Noah Moxham, ‘Natural Knowledge, Inc.: The Royal Society as a metropolitan corporation’ 52

at2No. 193 Part 2 Special Issue London 1600-1800: Communities of Natural • Anna Simmons, ‘Trade, knowledge and networks: the activities of the Society of Apothecar- Knowledge and Artificial Practice ies and its members in London, c. 1670 – c. 1800’

Volume 52 Part 2 No. 193 June 2019 • Rebekah Higgitt, ‘“Greenwich near London”: The Royal Observatory and its London net- th th ISSN 0007-0874 Published for The British Society for the History of Science works in the 17 and 18 centuries’ Published for The British Society for the History of Science by Cambridge University Press by Cambridge University Press

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No. 116: June 2018 Viewpoint: the Magazine of the BSHS VIEWPOINT Editorial MAGAZINE OF THE BRITISH SOCIETY FOR THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE Editor: Hazel Blair. Contributing Editor: Ross Brooks. Editorial Assistant: Jennifer Farquharson. Template design: Emma Simpson-Wells.

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