DOCSLIB.ORG

At Least Weekly: the Reformed Doctrine of the Lord's Supper and Of

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
At Least Weekly: the Reformed Doctrine of the Lord's Supper and Of MJT 11 (2000) 147-169 AT LEAST WEEKLY: THE REFORMED DOCTRINE OF THE LORD’S SUPPER AND OF ITS FREQUENT CELEBRATION by Michael S. Horton ONLY A YEAR after the city of Geneva officially embraced the Reformation, John Calvin drew up Articles for Organization of the Church and Worship at Geneva (1537). Even this early in his career as a reformer he asserted in the Articles, “[I]t is certain that a Church cannot be said to be well ordered and regulated unless in it the Holy Supper of our Lord is always being celebrated and frequented....”1 For Calvin, Holy Communion was integral to the ordinary ministry of Christ’s church. Rather than thinking of the Supper as an occasional add-on to the regular service, Calvin’s liturgy was a service of word and sacrament. As John T. McNeill reminds us, even discipline was related to the Eucharist: “The ‘reason’ for the Calvinist discipline is not, as is often supposed, to be discovered in premises of ethical or scriptural legalism, but in the sense of ‘the Holy’ and in reverence for the sacrament as the meeting of Christ and his people, and of the people as one body of Christ.”2 But what does “always being celebrated and frequented” mean? As is well known to readers of this journal, 1John Calvin, “Articles concerning the Organization of the Church and of Worship at Geneva proposed by the Ministers at the Council, January 16, 1537,” Calvin: Theological Treatises, Library of Christian Classics, ed. and trans. J. K. L. Reid (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1954), 48. 2John T. McNeill, The History and Character of Calvinism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954), 138-9. 148 • MID-AMERICA JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Calvin understood it as “whenever the word is preached, at least every Sunday” — a directive that we will consider below. Our purpose in this article is threefold: (1) to trace the broad contours of Calvin’s eucharistic theology, particularly in contrast to Zwingli’s doctrine; (2) to explore the general devaluation of the Calvinian and confessional doctrine of the Supper within later Reformed theology; and (3) to offer an exegetical rationale for frequent communion and respond to common objections, with some concluding observations. Contours of Reformed Eucharistic Theology Contrary to what we might expect, there was no frequent communion for the laity in the Middle Ages. Once or twice a year, perhaps, the laity in a given parish would receive communion—and then only the bread. While mass would be said more frequently, the multiplication of ceremonies and superstition separated the people from the communion of Christ. Thus, the typical medieval liturgy was the so-called prone service, structured around the preaching of the word rather than both word and sacrament. It is a complete service (pronaus); but it is not a mass. Purged of a few offensive aspects, Zwingli’s liturgy was essentially the medieval prone service and this was followed by other Reformed churches—at least until Calvin arrived.3 Like Martin Bucer, Calvin was not satisfied with this preaching service and labored to construct a moderate, purified liturgy of word and sacrament. Even when all hopes of weekly communion were dashed, Calvin insisted on retaining the word- and-sacrament pattern—with or without the Supper itself. In Strasbourg, Calvin was able to develop and enact his liturgy, The Form of Prayers and Manner of Ministering the Sacrament according to the Use of the Ancient Church (1540). Appending an essay on the Supper to the 1542 and 1545 editions of the service, Calvin begins, “The Eucharist is the communion of the body and blood of the Lord.” 3See Gordon S. Wakefield, An Outline of Christian Worship (Edinburgh: T & T Clark Ltd., 1998), 72ff., and James F. White, Protestant Worship: Traditions in Transition (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1989), 58-69. AT LEAST WEEKLY • 149 Consequently, the people must learn “the necessity of their frequent participation in the flesh and blood of the Lord as well as to its great benefits, which are received from this participation and mastication.”4 As in Geneva, the Strasbourg city council refused to grant weekly communion, despite the pleas of both Calvin and Bucer. Ironically, Calvin met resistance on this point not because he was too “high church” (a common allegation today), but because of what at that time was the common and familiar medieval practice. After all, the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), in canon 21, required Communion to be an annual rite, which led to a restricted annual use of the sacrament. The conservatism of the city council at this point makes the council rather than Calvin more congenial to Rome. In polemical moments, Calvin could even on occasion fire a shot across the council’s bow under the guise of attacking Rome. For instance, in the Institutes he writes, “Plainly this custom which enjoins us to take communion once a year is a veritable invention of the devil, whoever was instrumental in introducing it” (4.17.46). It clearly cannot be derived from ancient custom any more than from Scripture: “For there is not the least doubt that the Sacred Supper was in that era set before the believers every time they met together....” (4.17.46). Instead, the medieval church should never have kept Christ’s flock from their nourishment: “the Lord’s Table should have been spread at least once a week for the assembly of Christians, and the promises declared in it should feed us spiritually.... All, like hungry men, should flock to such a bounteous repast.” And he cites Chrysostom’s own lamentation that in his day “in vain we stand before the altar; there is no one who will partake along with us” (4.17.46). “What we have so far said of the Sacrament abundantly shows that it was not ordained to be received only once a year—and that, too, perfunctorily, as now is the usual custom. Rather, it was ordained to be frequently used among all Christians...” (4.17.44). 4Mary Beaty and Benjamin W. Farley, ed., Calvin’s Ecclesiastical Advice (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox, 1991), 165. 150 • MID-AMERICA JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY Calivin urges frequency for two reasons particularly: first, for what God does through the Supper for believers (viz., feeding them with Christ and all his benefits); second, for that unity and charity that the Holy Spirit creates among his people through it. Furthermore, Acts 2:42 indicates, says Calvin, that “the breaking of bread and the prayers” was part of the regular service of the Lord’s day and he cites ancient church orders for secondary support. Innovation arose not with Calvin, but with the medieval church which had, along with so much else, abandoned the sufficiency of Scripture in regulating worship. The innovation was infrequent communion among the laity. As the breaking of bread was to be frequent, so too “the prayers,” as Acts 2:42 indicates. When we note the presence of the article in Greek, it is not too great a step to the earliest liturgies of word and sacrament. As for Calvin’s form, writes John T. McNeill: The prayer of confession is followed by a declaration by the minister of absolution from sin for all who truly repent. This is followed by the singing of the First Table of the Decalogue, each Commandment being followed by the Kyrie Eleison [“Lord, have mercy”]. After a short prayer the Commandments of the Second Table are sung.... The sermon, the collection of alms, and a long paraphrase of the Lord’s Prayer lead to the communion rite...Calvin’s plan that the Lord’s Supper be celebrated in one of the three parishes each month and in all thrice a year was altered to provide for a communion in all churches four times a year, at Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, and on the first Sunday in September. 5 When it came to assurance, Calvin directed bruised reeds to Christ as he is objectively held out in the preached gospel and in the sacraments.6 This emphasis finds expression in answer sixty- five of the Heidelberg Catechism: “The Holy Spirit produces [faith] in our hearts by the preaching of the holy gospel, and 5McNeill, The History and Character of Calvinism, 150, 164-65. 6Cf. Ronald S. Wallace, Calvin, Geneva and the Reformation (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988), 274. AT LEAST WEEKLY • 151 confirms it through our use of the holy sacraments.” If, however, assurance is to be attained chiefly by introspection, it easily follows that the sacraments will be regarded as testimonies to our piety rather as God’s objective ministry of the gospel. The foregoing points up the importance of one’s convictions concerning the nature of the sacrament itself. For instance, we know that Zwingli did not affirm the true feeding on Christ and his benefits through the Supper. In fact, he preferred the term “Eucharist” (thanksgiving) for obvious reasons: “We therefore now understand from the very name what the Eucharist, that is, the Lord’s Supper, is: namely, the thanksgiving and common rejoicing of those who declare the death of Christ, that is, trumpet, praise, confess, and exalt his name above all others.”7 Zwingli’s errors on this point may be summarized in the following manner. First, revealing his enormous debt to Platonism, Zwingli could not see how the invisible and the visible, the spiritual and the incarnate, the holy and the common, faith and tangible props could stand together. For him, it was either the one or the other, and this is seen most clearly in his exposition of John 6, where Jesus offers his flesh and blood as true food and drink.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Protestant Reformed Theological Journal
    PROTESTANT REFORMED ,. THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL APRIL, 1989 VOLUME XXII, NO. 2 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOL O'F THE PROTESTANT REFORMED CHURCHES ! Z GRANDVILLE, MICHIGAN 1 I I L :_ APRIL, 1989 Volume XXII, No.2 PROTESTANT REFORMED THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL Edited for the faculty of The Theological School of the Protestant Reformed Churches Robert D. Decker David J. Engclsma Herman C. Hanko Homer C. Hoeksema by Prof. Herman Hanko (editor-in-chief) Prof. Robert Decker (editor, book reviews) The Protestant Reformed Theological Journal is published semiannually, in April and November, and distributeo in limited quantities, at no char~e. by the Theological School of the Protestant Reformed Churches. Interested persons desiring to have their names on the mailing list should write the Editor, at the address below. Books for review should be sent to the book review editor, also at the address of the school. Protestant Reformed Seminary 4949 Ivanrest Avenue Grandville, MI 49418 -.;:J..----- - -- ---~--.... TABLE OF CONTENTS Editorial Notes ' 2' The Doctrine of Predestination in Calvin and Beza Prof. Herman C. Hanko 3 Martin Bucer - "Fanatic of Unity" Prof. David j. Engelsma : 18 The Elders of the Church Prof. Robert D. Decker. ...................••......... 35 . Book Reviews '.' '' .. ~ 48 . Editorial Notes In this issue of our jourual \"'C arc continuing two series \vhich were be­ gun in earlicr issues. Prof. Hanko continues his series on "Calvin, Beza. and the Doctrinc of Predestination," and Prof. Engelsma continues and concludes his series on Martin Bucer. As we wrote in an earlier issue when Prof. Engclsma's series was begun, these articles were first delivered in lecture form in Mid-America Seminary in Orange City.
    [Show full text]
  • John W. Welch, “'All Their Creeds Were an Abomination':A Brief Look at Creeds As Part of the Apostasy,”
    John W. Welch, “‘All Their Creeds Were an Abomination’:A Brief Look at Creeds as Part of the Apostasy,” in Prelude to the Restoration: From Apostasy to the Restored Church (Provo, UT and Salt Lake City: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University and Deseret Book, 2004), 228–249. “All Their Creeds Were an Abomination”: A Brief Look at Creeds as Part of the Apostasy John W. Welch John W. Welch is a professor of law at Brigham Young University and editor-in-chief of BYU Studies. On October 15, 1843, the Prophet Joseph Smith commented, “I cannot believe in any of the creeds of the different denominations, because they all have some things in them I cannot subscribe to, though all of them have some truth. I want to come up into the presence of God, and learn all things: but the creeds set up stakes, and say, ‘Hitherto [1] shalt thou come, and no further’; which I cannot subscribe to.” While Latter-day Saints gladly and gratefully recognize that all religious creeds contain some truth, the problem is that those formulations of doctrine also contain errors or impose limits that are “incompatible with the gospel’s inclusive commitment to truth and continual [2] revelation.” Such mixing of truth and error is reminiscent of the parable of the wheat and the tares, the Lord’s most [3] salient teaching on the nature of the Apostasy (Matthew 13:24–30, 37–43; JST Matthew 13; D&C 86:1–11). Thus, the creeds themselves, as vessels of mixed qualities, become metaphors or manifestations of the Apostasy itself.
    [Show full text]
  • University of Groningen Word and Spirit in the Confessions of The
    University of Groningen Word and Spirit in the Confessions of the European Reformation van den Belt, Hendrik Published in: Religion and Theology IMPORTANT NOTE: You are advised to consult the publisher's version (publisher's PDF) if you wish to cite from it. Please check the document version below. Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Publication date: 2016 Link to publication in University of Groningen/UMCG research database Citation for published version (APA): van den Belt, H. (2016). Word and Spirit in the Confessions of the European Reformation. Religion and Theology , 23(1-2), 95-110. Copyright Other than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). The publication may also be distributed here under the terms of Article 25fa of the Dutch Copyright Act, indicated by the “Taverne” license. More information can be found on the University of Groningen website: https://www.rug.nl/library/open-access/self-archiving-pure/taverne- amendment. Take-down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Downloaded from the University of Groningen/UMCG research database (Pure): http://www.rug.nl/research/portal. For technical reasons the number of authors shown on this cover page is limited to 10 maximum. Download date: 29-09-2021 Word and Spirit in the Confessions of the European Reformation Henk van den Belt University of Groningen, The Netherlands [email protected] Abstract Protestant spirituality is characterized by the mutual relationship between Word and Spirit.
    [Show full text]
  • Liturgy and Anglican Identity, Prague, 2005
    Liturgy and Anglican Identity A Statement and Study Guide by the International Anglican Liturgical Consultation Prague 2005 Contents: • Overview • Anglican Ethos, Elements, what we value in worship • Some Anglican emphases, trends and aspirations . Bernard Mizeki Anglican Church - South Africa . St Mary’s Anglican Church - England . St Mark’s Anglican Church - Australia . St John’s Anglican Church -Japan • Suggestions for Study Overview We believe that Anglican identity is expressed and formed through our liturgical tradition of corporate worship and private prayer, holding in balance both word and sacramental celebration. Specifically, our tradition is located within the broad and largely western stream of Christian liturgical development but has been influenced by eastern liturgical forms as well. The importance of the eucharist and the pattern of daily prayer were re-focused through the lens of the Reformation, making both accessible to the people of God through simplification of structure and text and the use of vernacular language. Through the exchanges and relationships between the Provinces of the Anglican Communion the legacy of these historic principles continues to inform the on-going revision of our rites and their enactment in the offering to God of our worship. Each Province of the Anglican Communion has its own story to tell, and although within the Communion we are bound together by a common history, what really unites us, as with all Christians, is our one-ness in Christ through baptism and the eucharist. Our unity in baptism and at the table of the Lord is both a gift and a task. We celebrate our unity in Christ and seek to realize that unity through the diversity of backgrounds and cultures within the compass of the world-wide Anglican Communion.
    [Show full text]
  • Thematic Entries List
    Thematic List of Entries Biographical Bonhoeffer, Dietrich Adams, Hannah Booth, Catherine Agricola, Michael Booth, Joseph Allen, Richard Booth, William Allen, Roland Bosch, David Jacobus Boucher, Jonathan Alline, Henry Boudinot, Elias Althusius, Johannes Bourne, Hugh Ames, William Boyle, Robert Amissah, Samuel Hanson Bradstreet, Anne Amsdorf, Nikolaus von Braght, Tieleman Jansz van Anderson, Rufus Brainerd, David Andrewes, Lancelot Bray, Thomas Andrews, Charles Freer Brent, Charles Arminius, Jacobus Brenz, Johannes Arndt, Johann Britten, Benjamin Arnold, Eberhard Brooks, Phillips Arnold, Thomas Browne, Robert Asbury, Francis Browning, Robert Attoh-Ahuma, Samuel Richard Brew Brownson, Orestes Azariah, V. S. Brunner, Emil Bach, Johann Sebastian Bryan, William Jennings Backus, Isaac Bucer, Martin Bacon, Francis Bugenhagen, Johannes Bae¨ta, Christian Goncalves Kwami Bullinger, Heinrich Baillie, John Bultmann, Rudolf Barnes, Robert Bunyan, John Barth, Heinrich Bushnell, Horace Barth, Karl Butler, Joseph Bauer, Bruno Butler, Josephine Baumgarten, Otto Butterfield, Herbert Baumgarten, Siegmund Jakob Buxtehude, Dietrich Baur, Ferdinand Christian Cadbury, George Baxter, Richard Calixt, George Bayle, Pierre Calvert Family Beecher, Henry Ward Calvin, John Beecher, Lyman Campbell Family Bell, George Campbell, John Bengel, Johann Albrecht Capito, Wolfgang Bennett, John Cappel, Louis Bentham, Jeremy Carey, William Bentley, Richard Carnell, Edward Berggrav, Eivind Cartwright, Peter Berkeley, George Cartwright, Thomas Berkhof, Hendrikus Cary, Lott Beza,
    [Show full text]
  • Calvin's Doctrine of the Lord's Supper
    Perichoresis Volume 10. Issue 2 (2012): 137-163 DOI 10.2478/v10297-012-0007-3 CALVIN’S DOCTRINE OF THE LORD’S SUPPER * WIM JANSE Free University of Amsterdam ABSTRACT. In order to pinpoint its proprium , it is necessary to understand John Calvin’s Eu- charistic theology within the wider context of the intra-Protestant debates of his time. As a se- cond-generation Reformer, Calvin developed his ideas explicitly in reaction to and as a middle way between the Lutheran and Swiss Reformed discussions of the 1520’s. To that end this es- say first focuses on the main developments from the Middle Ages onwards, and then presents Calvin from the perspective of the positions taken up by some of his contemporaries, in parti- cular Philipp Melanchthon. Next, some representative texts written by Calvin himself are ana- lysed. Although Calvin’s Eucharistic views were not from the beginning a coherent and unified doctrine but developed only gradually, they may be described in a systematic-synthetic way. With respect to the matter of closed, open, and frequent communion, it is observed that for Calvin a regular celebration is essential to the deepening of the believer’s union with Christ. KEY WORDS: John Calvin, the Lord’s Supper, Eucharistic theology, Reformed sacramentolo- gy, communion Introduction Calvin’s doctrine of the Lord’s Supper is not just any chapter from Calvin’s theology. 1 In his Eucharistic theology we touch upon the core of Calvin’s thought. This is true not only for Calvin, but for all major sixteenth-century * WIM JANSE is professor of historical theology and dean of the Faculty of Theology wi- thin the Free University of Amsterdam.
    [Show full text]
  • Understanding Calvinism: B
    Introduction A. Special Terminology I. The Persons Understanding Calvinism: B. Distinctive Traits A. John Calvin 1. Governance Formative Years in France: 1509-1533 An Overview Study 2. Doctrine Ministry Years in Switzerland: 1533-1564 by 3. Worship and Sacraments Calvin’s Legacy III. Psycology and Sociology of the Movement Lorin L Cranford IV. Biblical Assessment B. Influencial Interpreters of Calvin Publication of C&L Publications. II. The Ideology All rights reserved. © Conclusion INTRODUCTION1 Understanding the movement and the ideology la- belled Calvinism is a rather challenging topic. But none- theless it is an important topic to tackle. As important as any part of such an endeavour is deciding on a “plan of attack” in getting into the topic. The movement covered by this label “Calvinism” has spread out its tentacles all over the place and in many different, sometimes in conflicting directions. The logical starting place is with the person whose name has been attached to the label, although I’m quite sure he would be most uncomfortable with most of the content bearing his name.2 After exploring the history of John Calvin, we will take a look at a few of the more influential interpreters of Calvin over the subsequent centuries into the present day. This will open the door to attempt to explain the ideology of Calvinism with some of the distinctive terms and concepts associated exclusively with it. I. The Persons From the digging into the history of Calvinism, I have discovered one clear fact: Calvinism is a religious thinking in the 1500s of Switzerland when he lived and movement that goes well beyond John Calvin, in some worked.
    [Show full text]
  • Frequently Asked Questions About the Meaning of Holy Communion in the UMC
    Frequently Asked Questions about The Meaning of Holy Communion in the UMC E. Byron Anderson WHO Questions: 1. Who may preside at services of Holy Communion in The United Methodist Church? THM clearly states, “An ordained elder or a person authorized under the provision of The Book of Discipline presides at all celebrations of Holy Communion” (THM, “Presiding Ministers: Elders and Licensed Local Pastors,” 25-26; Book of Discipline 2012 ¶ 316.1, 332, 340.2.b). 2. Who may not preside? Persons who are neither ordained nor otherwise authorized for sacramental ministry under the provisions of The Book of Discipline 2012 (¶316.1, 332, 340.2.b) may not preside at services of Holy Communion in The United Methodist Church. 3. We have two elders appointed to our congregation. How many authorized presiders may “share” the Great Thanksgiving, and how should they divide it up to share it? Our authorized documents do not provide an explicit answer to this question, but THM does give us some hints. First, we need to remember that the Great Thanksgiving is a single dialogical prayer (rather than a “collection” of sacred words) shared between the presiding minister and the congregation. Therefore any sharing of the prayer needs to respect this character as communal prayer. Sharing of the prayer also needs to preserve the sense of the prayer as a single prayer. Also, there is no portion of this prayer that may be delegated to deacon or lay ministers. As THM notes, “an elder or authorized pastor leaders the congregation in praying the Great Thanksgiving, in which the whole assembly takes an active role.” (THM “The Great Thanksgiving,” 22 and “Presiding Ministers,” 26) Second, as THM indicates, “All elders or deacons who are present may be invited to…stand with the presider at the table, and assist in distributing the elements.” (THM “Presiding Ministers,” 26) THM seems to suggest, then, that even when there are multiple elders present, a single elder normally presides at the table.
    [Show full text]
  • Confessing the Reformed Faith: Our Identity in Unity and Diversity by Richard A
    Confessing the Reformed Faith: Our Identity in Unity and Diversity by Richard A. Muller Richard Muller is the P. J. Zondervan Professor of Historical Theology at Calvin Theological Seminary, Grand Rapids, Michigan. This address was given by Professor Muller at a meeting of the North American Presbyterian and Reformed Council on November 9, 1993 and appeared originally in the March and April numbers (1994) of New Horizons, the publication of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church. The essay is republished here with the permission of the publishers. I have selected as my topic this evening, “Confessing the Reformed Faith: Our Identity in Unity and Diversity.” The central issue that I will address is the issue of Reformed identity – specifically as indicated by the body of confessional documents that both unites us in faith and distinguishes us into branches and denominations. I would also argue that retention and maintenance of the integrity and stability of the Reformed faith in its confessions is one of the two greatest issues confronting our churches today. The other, I would venture, is the parallel and profoundly related issue of the retention and maintenance of our tradition of liturgy and hymnody in which the doctrinal stance of the confessions is put, as it were, into action and application in the corporate life of believers. In fact, the two issues are inseparable. I propose to address these issues with a view to: (1) our confessional diversity; (2) the nature of our unity in diversity; (3) pressures on confessional integrity in our times; and (4) ways of reaffirming and strengthening confessional integrity today.
    [Show full text]
  • The Communion Table and Its Furnishings
    The Communion Table and its Furnishings. ONE of the great changes made at the Reformation was the putting away of the altars at which the mediæval priests had offered the unbloody sacrifice, and the substituting, for such altars, of tables at which the faithful sat down to partake of the Lord's Supper. The Roman conception of a sacrificing priesthood was replaced by the Protestant one of an evangelical ministry of the Word and Sacraments. New views of the Eucharist, really old ones revived, led to new orders for the communion service, and the idea of the ordinance as a feast took the place of that which made it a sacrifice. Nor was it only among the extreme reformers that such views were to be found: The word " altar " finds no place in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, though it had a place in the First Prayer Book of King Edward VI.(') Even in the Church of Rome there were those who thought that the " feast " side of Holy Communion should be emphasised, as the well known picture of the Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci shows. In Scotland, Archbishop Hamilton, in the Catechism he published in 1552, calls upon the people to come to the " buird of God." Altars disappeared in Scotland(2) as in England at the Reformation ; but, whereas in the southern Kingdom they were replaced by more or less permanent wooden tables, in our land their place appears in many instances to have been left empty. It is possible, some might say probable, that in Scotland also a wooden table was set up where the former altar had stood.(3) The first Book of Discipline enjoined that among other things which each congregation should possess were " Tables for the ministration of the Lord's Supper " ; but these appear to have been usually temporary erections.
    [Show full text]
  • John Wesley's Eucharist and the Online Eucharist
    John Wesley’s Eucharist and the Online Eucharist By KIOH SHIM A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Theology and Religion College of Arts and Law The University of Birmingham March 2013 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract Since the late 20th century information technology has changed the lives of individuals and relationships at local, nation and even global levels. In particular the internet is used by many religious groups for theological and spiritual purposes. Some parts of Christianity have confronted the issue of how to deal with the use of internet. As a result, an internet church has emerged, offering Eucharistic services online across the globe. Even though the numbers of internet churches/Eucharistic groups have sharply increased in the last two decades, the attitude of the established churches does not appear to have taken account of this change yet. To achieve this it is necessary for such initiatives to be guided by certain theological norms or church regulations. This may relate to the definition of church, Eucharistic theology, or how to deal with emerging cultures.
    [Show full text]
  • Calvin and the Confessions of the Reformation
    Page 1 of 5 Original Research Calvin and the confessions of the Reformation Author: This article discusses the complicated question of the connection between Calvin and the 1,2 Alasdair I.C. Heron confessions of the Presbyterian Reformed tradition. Firstly, a contrast is drawn to the question Affiliations: of the connection between Luther and the Lutheran confessions. It is noted that here a closed 1Reformed Theology, canon of Lutheran confessions exists, and Luther himself wrote three of the documents. On University of Erlangen- the other hand, there is no closed canon of Reformed confessions. However, there is a broad Nuremberg, Germany consensus concerning which Reformed confessions from the 16th century are classical. In this 2Department of Systematic article a synopsis is provided of this list, and it is discovered that Calvin himself only wrote Theology and Christian one of the classical Reformed confessional documents, although he influenced some others. Ethics, University of Pretoria, South Africa The article then continues to discuss Calvin’s own contribution, his Catechism of 1542/1545. The historical context of writing in which this Catechism is sketched, its use in Geneva is Note: described, and the outline of the Catechism is mentioned. The article continues to discuss why Prof. Dr Alasdair Heron is Professor Emeritus at the Calvin thought there was a need for a catechism, and why he wrote it in Latin and sent it to University of Erlangen- East Friesland. In conclusion the author explains why he has discussed Calvin’s Catechism, Nuremberg, Germany. He instead of focusing on the English Confession of 1556.
    [Show full text]