Bitten by the Biology Bug. Monograph VI. Essays From
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Insight from the Sociology of Science
CHAPTER 7 INSIGHT FROM THE SOCIOLOGY OF SCIENCE Science is What Scientists Do It has been argued a number of times in previous chapters that empirical adequacy is insufficient, in itself, to establish the validity of a theory: consistency with the observable ‘facts’ does not mean that a theory is true,1 only that it might be true, along with other theories that may also correspond with the observational data. Moreover, empirical inadequacy (theories unable to account for all the ‘facts’ in their domain) is frequently ignored by individual scientists in their fight to establish a new theory or retain an existing one. It has also been argued that because experi- ments are conceived and conducted within a particular theoretical, procedural and instrumental framework, they cannot furnish the theory-free data needed to make empirically-based judgements about the superiority of one theory over another. What counts as relevant evidence is, in part, determined by the theoretical framework the evidence is intended to test. It follows that the rationality of science is rather different from the account we usually provide for students in school. Experiment and observation are not as decisive as we claim. Additional factors that may play a part in theory acceptance include the following: intuition, aesthetic considerations, similarity and consistency among theories, intellectual fashion, social and economic influences, status of the proposer(s), personal motives and opportunism. Although the evidence may be inconclusive, scientists’ intuitive feelings about the plausibility or aptness of particular ideas will make it appear convincing. The history of science includes many accounts of scientists ‘sticking to their guns’ concerning a well-loved theory in the teeth of evidence to the contrary, and some- times in the absence of any evidence at all. -
書 名 等 発行年 出版社 受賞年 備考 N1 Ueber Das Zustandekommen Der
書 名 等 発行年 出版社 受賞年 備考 Ueber das Zustandekommen der Diphtherie-immunitat und der Tetanus-Immunitat bei thieren / Emil Adolf N1 1890 Georg thieme 1901 von Behring N2 Diphtherie und tetanus immunitaet / Emil Adolf von Behring und Kitasato 19-- [Akitomo Matsuki] 1901 Malarial fever its cause, prevention and treatment containing full details for the use of travellers, University press of N3 1902 1902 sportsmen, soldiers, and residents in malarious places / by Ronald Ross liverpool Ueber die Anwendung von concentrirten chemischen Lichtstrahlen in der Medicin / von Prof. Dr. Niels N4 1899 F.C.W.Vogel 1903 Ryberg Finsen Mit 4 Abbildungen und 2 Tafeln Twenty-five years of objective study of the higher nervous activity (behaviour) of animals / Ivan N5 Petrovitch Pavlov ; translated and edited by W. Horsley Gantt ; with the collaboration of G. Volborth ; and c1928 International Publishing 1904 an introduction by Walter B. Cannon Conditioned reflexes : an investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex / by Ivan Oxford University N6 1927 1904 Petrovitch Pavlov ; translated and edited by G.V. Anrep Press N7 Die Ätiologie und die Bekämpfung der Tuberkulose / Robert Koch ; eingeleitet von M. Kirchner 1912 J.A.Barth 1905 N8 Neue Darstellung vom histologischen Bau des Centralnervensystems / von Santiago Ramón y Cajal 1893 Veit 1906 Traité des fiévres palustres : avec la description des microbes du paludisme / par Charles Louis Alphonse N9 1884 Octave Doin 1907 Laveran N10 Embryologie des Scorpions / von Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov 1870 Wilhelm Engelmann 1908 Immunität bei Infektionskrankheiten / Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov ; einzig autorisierte übersetzung von Julius N11 1902 Gustav Fischer 1908 Meyer Die experimentelle Chemotherapie der Spirillosen : Syphilis, Rückfallfieber, Hühnerspirillose, Frambösie / N12 1910 J.Springer 1908 von Paul Ehrlich und S. -
Levitis Et Al 2009
Animal Behaviour 78 (2009) 103–110 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Animal Behaviour journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/yanbe Behavioural biologists do not agree on what constitutes behaviour Daniel A. Levitis*, William Z. Lidicker, Jr, Glenn Freund Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley article info Behavioural biology is a major discipline within biology, centred on the key concept of ‘behaviour’. But Article history: how is ‘behaviour’ defined, and how should it be defined? We outline what characteristics we believe Received 10 February 2009 a scientific definition should have, and why we think it is important that a definition have these traits. Initial acceptance 12 March 2009 We then examine the range of available published definitions for behaviour. Finding no consensus, we Final acceptance 23 March 2009 present survey responses from 174 members of three behaviour-focused scientific societies as to their Published online 3 June 2009 understanding of the term. Here again, we find surprisingly widespread disagreement as to what MS. number: AE-09-00083 qualifies as behaviour. Respondents contradict themselves, each other and published definitions, indi- cating that they are using individually variable intuitive, rather than codified, meanings of ‘behaviour’. Keywords: We offer a new definition, based largely on survey responses: behaviour is the internally coordinated behaviour responses (actions or inactions) of whole living organisms (individuals or groups) to internal and/or definition external stimuli, excluding responses more easily understood as developmental changes. Finally, we level of organization philosophy of science discuss the usage, meanings and limitations of this definition. Ó 2009 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. -
Introduction and Historical Perspective
Chapter 1 Introduction and Historical Perspective “ Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution. ” modified by the developmental history of the organism, Theodosius Dobzhansky its physiology – from cellular to systems levels – and by the social and physical environment. Finally, behaviors are shaped through evolutionary forces of natural selection OVERVIEW that optimize survival and reproduction ( Figure 1.1 ). Truly, the study of behavior provides us with a window through Behavioral genetics aims to understand the genetic which we can view much of biology. mechanisms that enable the nervous system to direct Understanding behaviors requires a multidisciplinary appropriate interactions between organisms and their perspective, with regulation of gene expression at its core. social and physical environments. Early scientific The emerging field of behavioral genetics is still taking explorations of animal behavior defined the fields shape and its boundaries are still being defined. Behavioral of experimental psychology and classical ethology. genetics has evolved through the merger of experimental Behavioral genetics has emerged as an interdisciplin- psychology and classical ethology with evolutionary biol- ary science at the interface of experimental psychology, ogy and genetics, and also incorporates aspects of neuro- classical ethology, genetics, and neuroscience. This science ( Figure 1.2 ). To gain a perspective on the current chapter provides a brief overview of the emergence of definition of this field, it is helpful -
The Neurophysiology of Backward Visual Masking: Information Analysis
The Neurophysiology of Backward Visual Masking: Information Analysis Edmund T. Rolls, Martin J. Tovée, and Stefano Panzeri University of Oxford Downloaded from http://mitprc.silverchair.com/jocn/article-pdf/11/3/300/1758552/089892999563409.pdf by guest on 18 May 2021 Abstract ■ Backward masking can potentially provide evidence of the to the stimulus. The decrease is more marked than the decrease time needed for visual processing, a fundamental constraint in ªring rate because it is the selective part of the ªring that that must be incorporated into computational models of vision. is especially attenuated by the mask, not the spontaneous Although backward masking has been extensively used psycho- ªring, and also because the neuronal response is more variable physically, there is little direct evidence for the effects of visual at short SOAs. However, even at the shortest SOA of 20 msec, masking on neuronal responses. To investigate the effects of a the information available is on average 0.1 bits. This compares backward masking paradigm on the responses of neurons in to 0.3 bits with only the 16-msec target stimulus shown and a the temporal visual cortex, we have shown that the response typical value for such neurons of 0.4 to 0.5 bits with a 500- of the neurons is interrupted by the mask. Under conditions msec stimulus. The results thus show that considerable infor- when humans can just identify the stimulus, with stimulus mation is available from neuronal responses even under onset asynchronies (SOA) of 20 msec, neurons in macaques backward masking conditions that allow the neurons to have respond to their best stimulus for approximately 30 msec. -
Hand on a Hot Stove
Hand on a Hot Stove Introduction: When You Put Your Hand on a Hot Stove Think about what happens if you accidentally place your hand on a hot stove. Use numbers 1-5 to place these statements in the order in which they happen. ____ You wave or shake your hand voluntarily to cool it. ____ Your arm moves to automatically move your hand away from the stove. ____ You feel pain in your hand. ____ You remember that you should not touch a hot stove. ____ You touch a hot stove. Life Sciences Learning Center 1 Copyright © 2013 by University of Rochester. All rights reserved. May be copied for classroom use Part 1: What is a reflex? Reflexes If you touch something that is very hot, your hand moves away quickly before you even feel the pain. You don’t have to think about it because the response is a reflex that does not involve the brain. A reflex is a rapid, unlearned, involuntary (automatic) response to a stimulus (change in the environment). Reflexes are responses that protect the body from potentially harmful events that require immediate action. They involve relatively few neurons (nerve cells) so that they can occur rapidly. There are a wide variety of reflexes that we experience every day such as sneezing, coughing, and blinking. We also automatically duck when an object is thrown at us, and our pupils automatically change size in response to light. These reflexes have evolved because they protect the body from potentially harmful events. Most reflexes protect people from injury or deal with things that require immediate action. -
Responses to Conflicting Stimuli in a Simple Stimulus–Response Pathway
2398 • The Journal of Neuroscience, February 11, 2015 • 35(6):2398–2406 Systems/Circuits Responses to Conflicting Stimuli in a Simple Stimulus–Response Pathway Pieter Laurens Baljon1 and XDaniel A. Wagenaar1,2 1California Institute of Technology, Division of Biology, Pasadena, California 91125, and 2University of Cincinnati, Department of Biological Sciences, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221 The “local bend response” of the medicinal leech (Hirudo verbana) is a stimulus–response pathway that enables the animal to bend away from a pressure stimulus applied anywhere along its body. The neuronal circuitry that supports this behavior has been well described, and its responses to individual stimuli are understood in quantitative detail. We probed the local bend system with pairs of electrical stimuli to sensory neurons that could not logically be interpreted as a single touch to the body wall and used multiple suction electrodes to record simultaneously the responses in large numbers of motor neurons. In all cases, responses lasted much longer than the stimuli that triggered them, implying the presence of some form of positive feedback loop to sustain the response. When stimuli were delivered simultaneously, the resulting motor neuron output could be described as an evenly weighted linear combination of the responses to the constituent stimuli. However, when stimuli were delivered sequentially, the second stimulus had greater impact on the motor neuron output, implying that the positive feedback in the system is not strong enough to render it immune to further input. Key words: invertebrate; neuronal circuits; sensory conflict; stimulus–response pathways Introduction Fortunately, lower animals also encounter sensory conflicts Sensory systems have traditionally been studied by neuroscien- and thus offer opportunities for studying circuits involved in tists one modality and one stimulus at a time. -
Nikolaas Tinbergen: the Careful Scientist), Respectively, by Sindhu Radhakrishna in This Issue
Editorial T N C Vidya, Associate Editor We are happy to bring to you, an issue that celebrates Niko- laas Tinbergen, who along with Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, laid the foundations of the field of ethology, the study of animal behaviour. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, animal behaviour was largely approached either through vital- ism and purposive psychology (in England and then America), suggesting that behaviour was the outcome of mystical forces Email: within individuals that could, therefore, not be explained through [email protected] physico-chemical processes, or through comparative psychology (in America) that placed an almost exclusive emphasis on learn- ing as the process responsible for behaviour. Comparative psy- chologists at that time often anthropomorphised animal behaviour and relied on laboratory experiments to test animals. Ethologists Lorenz, Tinbergen, and von Frisch (in Europe), on the other hand, articulated how animal behaviour itself could be an evolved phe- nomenon. The behaviour showed by an animal could, therefore, be inherited, have survival value, and be acted upon by natu- ral selection. This was in contrast to the view of comparative psychologists who thought that mental faculties – and not be- haviours – evolved and allowed various species to learn appro- priate behaviours. Therefore, ethologists tended to focus on an- imal behaviour in the natural environment and study instinctive behaviours – behaviours that animals displayed in response to specific stimuli even in the absence of prior experience. How- ever, they realized that learning could also be important in some species at least. Lorenz, Tinbergen, and von Frisch carried out careful observations and experiments on insects, fishes, and birds. -
Appendix A: Glossary for Section 2.1 (PDF)
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY FOR SECTION 2.1 Sources: The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia. 1995. Columbia University Press; Solomon et al. 1993. Biology, Third Edition. Harcourt Brace Publishing astrocyte - a star-shaped cell, especially a neuroglial cell of nervous tissue. axon - the long, tubular extension of the neuron that conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body. blood-brain barrier - system of capillaries that regulates the movement of chemical substances, ions, and fluids in and out of the brain. central nervous system - the portion of the vertebrate nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. cerebellum - the trilobed structure of the brain, lying posterior to the pons and medulla oblongata and inferior to the occipital lobes of the cerebral hemispheres, that is responsible for the regulation and coordination of complex voluntary muscular movement as well as the maintenance of posture and balance. cerebral cortex - the extensive outer layer of gray matter of the cerebral hemispheres, largely responsible for higher brain functions, including sensation, voluntary muscle movement, thought, reasoning, and memory. cerebrum - the large, rounded structure of the brain occupying most of the cranial cavity, divided into two cerebral hemispheres that are joined at the bottom by the corpus callosum. It controls and integrates motor, sensory, and higher mental functions, such as thought, reason, emotion, and memory. cognitive development - various mental tasks and processes (e.g. receiving, processing, storing, and retrieving information) that mediate between stimulus and response and determine problem-solving ability. demyelination - to destroy or remove the myelin sheath of (a nerve fiber), as through disease. dendrite - a branched protoplasmic extension of a nerve cell that conducts impulses from adjacent cells inward toward the cell body. -
Balcomk41251.Pdf (558.9Kb)
Copyright by Karen Suzanne Balcom 2005 The Dissertation Committee for Karen Suzanne Balcom Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Discovery and Information Use Patterns of Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine Committee: E. Glynn Harmon, Supervisor Julie Hallmark Billie Grace Herring James D. Legler Brooke E. Sheldon Discovery and Information Use Patterns of Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine by Karen Suzanne Balcom, B.A., M.L.S. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin August, 2005 Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to my first teachers: my father, George Sheldon Balcom, who passed away before this task was begun, and to my mother, Marian Dyer Balcom, who passed away before it was completed. I also dedicate it to my dissertation committee members: Drs. Billie Grace Herring, Brooke Sheldon, Julie Hallmark and to my supervisor, Dr. Glynn Harmon. They were all teachers, mentors, and friends who lifted me up when I was down. Acknowledgements I would first like to thank my committee: Julie Hallmark, Billie Grace Herring, Jim Legler, M.D., Brooke E. Sheldon, and Glynn Harmon for their encouragement, patience and support during the nine years that this investigation was a work in progress. I could not have had a better committee. They are my enduring friends and I hope I prove worthy of the faith they have always showed in me. I am grateful to Dr. -
(12) United States Patent (10) Patent No.: US 7.923,221 B1 Cabilly Et Al
US007.923221B1 (12) United States Patent (10) Patent No.: US 7.923,221 B1 Cabilly et al. (45) Date of Patent: *Apr. 12, 2011 (54) METHODS OF MAKING ANTIBODY HEAVY 4,512.922 A 4, 1985 Jones et al. AND LIGHT CHAINS HAVING SPECIFICITY 4,518,584 A 5, 1985 Mark 4,565,785 A 1/1986 Gilbert et al. FORADESIRED ANTIGEN 4,599,197 A 7, 1986 Wetzel 4,634,665 A 1/1987 Axel et al. (75) Inventors: Shmuel Cabilly, Monrovia, CA (US); 4,642,334 A 2f1987 Moore et al. Herbert L. Heyneker, Burlingame, CA 4,668,629 A 5/1987 Kaplan 4,704,362 A 11/1987 Itakura et al. (US); William E. Holmes, Pacifica, CA 4,713,339 A 12/1987 Levinson et al. (US); Arthur D. Riggs, LaVerne, CA 4,766,075 A 8, 1988 Goeddeletal. (US); Ronald B. Wetzel, San Francisco, 4,792.447 A 12/1988 Uhr et al. CA (US) 4,816,397 A * 3/1989 Boss et al. ...................... 435/68 4,816,567 A 3/1989 Cabilly et al. (73) Assignees: Genentech, Inc, South San Francisco, 4,965,196 A 10, 1990 Levinson et al. 5,081,235 A 1/1992 Shively et al. CA (US); City of Hope, Duarte, CA 5,098,833. A 3/1992 Lasky et al. (US) 5,116,964 A 5/1992 Capon et al. 5,137,721 A 8, 1992 Dallas (*) Notice: Subject to any disclaimer, the term of this 5,149,636 A 9, 1992 Axel et al. patent is extended or adjusted under 35 5,179,017 A 1/1993 Axel et al. -
How the Techniques of Molecular Biology Are Developed from Natural Systems
How the techniques of molecular biology are developed from natural systems Isobel Ronai [email protected] School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia. Abstract A striking characteristic of the highly successful techniques in molecular biology is that they are derived from natural systems. RNA interference (RNAi), for example, utilises a mechanism that evolved in eukaryotes to destroy foreign nucleic acid. Other examples include restriction enzymes, the polymerase chain reaction, green fluorescent protein and CRISPR-Cas. I propose that biologists exploit natural molecular mechanisms for their effectors’ (protein or nucleic acid) activity and biological specificity (protein or nucleic acid can cause precise reactions). I also show that the developmental trajectory of novel techniques in molecular biology, such as RNAi, is four characteristic phases. The first phase is discovery of a biological phenomenon, typically as curiosity driven research. The second is identification of the mechanism’s trigger(s), the effector and biological specificity. The third is the application of the technique. The final phase is the maturation and refinement of the molecular biology technique. The development of new molecular biology techniques from nature is crucial for biological research. These techniques transform scientific knowledge and generate new knowledge. Keywords: mechanism; experiment; specificity; scientific practice; PCR; GFP. 1 Introduction Molecular biology is principally concerned with explaining the complex molecular phenomena underlying living processes by identifying the mechanisms that produce such processes (Tabery et al. 2015). In order to access the causal structure of molecular mechanisms it is generally necessary to manipulate the components of the mechanism and to observe the resulting effects with sophisticated molecular techniques.