The () ecosystem: Population, water quality and tourism A. M. Boselli,∗ G. U. Caravello, and A. Baroni Environmental Medicine and Public Health Department- Padua University () ∗Corresponding author: Dip. di Medicina Ambientale e Sanit`aPubblica, Universit`adiPadova—Via L. Loredan, 18-35131 Padova (Italy); Fax: 0039 049 8275395; E-mail: [email protected]

Upper Mustang, a Nepalese valley of high environmental, social and historical interest, and part of the , is located in the Trans Himalayan Region, bordering to the North, East and West, and from the South along the Kali-Gandaky Valley. The Upper Mustang area was opened to controlled tourism in 1992, such that no more than one thousand trekkers are allowed to visit this area annually. In order to give a clear view of the environmental quality in Upper Mustang, an evaluation has been made of socio-economic factors, water quality conditions, and tourism characteristics using a combination of biophysical parameters, demographic and human considerations, and the Tourist Positioning Index. With respect to ecosystem health, river water quality, spring water quality, state of human ecology and carrying capacity were considered. The observations from this study show that village water resources are vulnerable due to fecal pollution. Water used for drinking is exposed to human and animal fecal pollution because the area is almost totally devoid of sewage systems for the effective disposal of wastewater and human wastes. It is necessary to carry out drainage system in the villages and to protect the taps from animal and human fecal wastes with ‘respect areas.’

Keywords: human ecology, health

Introduction A secondary purpose was to assess and provide an anal- ysis of the impacts of tourism on the valley’secosystem Knowledge of water resources quality and quantity health, with particular attention to water quality. in any country is obviously beneficial for maintaining high levels of water quality, which in turn is critical for the maintenance of essential life support systems, Study area human health and well-being, as well as the use of water for productive economic activities. Upper Mustang, part of Mustang District, is located Upper Mustang, a Nepalese valley of high envi- in the Trans Himalayan Region, bordering Tibet to the ronmental, social and historical interest, is part of the North, East and West, and from the South along the Mustang District and was only opened to controlled Kali-Gandaky valley. Protected by the Himalaya moun- tourism in 1992. In order to evaluate the sustainability tains, which stop monsoons, Upper Mustang experi- and the quality of tourism in the area, our field unit car- ences rare rainfalls concentrated in July and August. ried out a specific trekking mission in June 2000. The The average altitude in the villages is 3,600 m. The primary purpose of our research was to define some es- region covers an area of about 2,567 km2, with 20 small sential components of ecosystem health based on bio- and large settlements. It has the smallest forest area in physical, socio-economic and human health elements. Chhuksang (16 km2). The forest is heavily exploited

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Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 8(3):285–291, 2005. Copyright C 2005 AEHMS. ISSN: 1463-4988 print / 1539-4077 online DOI: 10.1080/14634980500221013

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by the Khampas (Tibetan refugees) such that there is Water quality information was used to determine now a scarcity of fuelwood. the consequences of fecal deposition into surface wa- There are seven Village Development Commit- ters and groundwater on the four main potential uses of tees (VDCs): Lo Manthang, the capital of the ancient water, human/domestic use, recreation, irrigation and Kingdom ‘Lo,’ Chhksang, Ghemi, Tzarang, Chhoser, aquatic life maintenance. For water quality analysis, Chhonup and Surkhang. The VDC is the basic unit of various analytical methods were used, including site political authority in each district where VDC mem- monitoring and laboratory analysis, interviews and per- bers, representing political parties, are democratically sonal observations supported by literature. Both sur- elected. face and drinking water were analysed. The possible As in the other part of northern , people pollution of water was assayed by different kinds of migrate south in winter. The people rely on agricul- indicators: microbiological analysis and biotic indices ture in an area of 33 km2, raise livestock and trade used in Europe, also for extreme Alpine environments, to and Tibet. Millet, buckwheat, oats, barley, Extended Biotic Index (EBI), Biological Monitoring wheat, potato, peas and mustard are the major agro- Working Party (BMWP). No index with different coun- products. Major livestock are , horses, mules, goats try of origin can be used satisfactorily to identify the and sheep. pollution level of country with different fauna. There- fore, we used also a method developed for Nepal, Methods the Nepalese Biotic Score (NEPBIOS). The EBI, the BMWP’ and the NEPBIOS are freshwater pollution The first consideration of the study was selection bio-monitoring indices based on benthic macroinver- of proper indicators and descriptors for a tourism- tebrate communities inhabiting rivers, streams and related ecosystem health assessment. A core set of two creeks (Ghetti, 1986; Alba-Tercedor, 2000; Moog and classes of integrated environmental indicators, socio- Sharma, 2001). Drinking water was analysed at 9 economic conditions and water quality, was selected sampling points (public taps) in 8 villages: Kagbeni, (Bertollo, 1998). The integration of these two sets of , Chusang, Chele, Samar, Syangmochen, Ghemi indicators provided some indication of tourism impact and Tsarang (Table 1). on ecosystem health, comprising both the ecological In order to identify the areas where changes in the and human component of the Upper Mustang. abiotic and biotic system occurred, we located 4 sam- The cultural aspect of tourism impact was examined pling stations along the Kaligandaki river, Kagbeni, through the investigation of the local socio-economic Chele (Bridge), Ghemi and Tsarang (Figure 1). situation, observation of the demographic profile, pop- The use of biological indicators for assessing the ulation distribution and tourist presence. Data were quality of the environment comes from the concept obtained through from the Central Bureau of Statis- that variations of the physical and chemical character- tics (CBS, 2002) and through personal interviews and istics superior to the homeostatic capacity of the organ- surveys in many villages of the area. As outlined by isms, induce qualitative and quantitative modification Jansen-Verbeke (1993) we drew up a list of characteris- to the structure of the community. A class of biolog- tics that distinguish a more positive sustainable tourism ical quality corresponds to each value of the indices, (soft) from that which is more negative and economi- which then is visualized in cartography by means of cally narrow (hard). The quantization of the check-list allowed us to set out an Index of Touristic Position (IPT) showing the tourism phenomena on a percentage scale. The environmental impact of tourism was assessed primarily through the analysis of water quality, al- though there were additional ecological impacts that are discussed in brief (Boselli, 2003). Tourism impact on water quality conditions was analysed by examining the relationship between spe- cific water quality parameters and anthropic conditions within the context of the overall biophysical environ- ment. These provided an indication of human impact on the biophysical environment and the quality of the local water supply. Figure 1. Population by age and gender (2001).

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Table 1. Springs and fountains’ water samples: physical and bacteriological data—Upper Mustang, 2000.

CFU 100 ml−1 Sampling Air H2O Cond. Moulds No. point Altitude (m) Latitude Longitude Date Time (◦C) (◦C) pH (µScm−1)CTECEBYeasts 1 Kagbeni 2866 28◦50.294 83◦47.294 30.05.00 17,15 18 17,9 9,3 0,96 170 32 28 50 2Tangbe 3040 28◦53.414 83◦48.323 31.05.00 10,45 30 1,57 >300 20 12 24 3 Chusang 2980 28◦54.871 83◦49.184 31.05.00 14 27 19,5 11,5 3,48 >300 18 3 135 4 Chele 3100 28◦55.860 83◦49.615 31.05.00 15,45 24 19,42 8,75 3,11 189 34 28 15 5 Samar 3575 28◦57.695 83◦48.055 1.06.00 9,58 28 13,2 8,76 2,48 410 6 2 18 6 Syangmoc 3805 28◦59.482 83◦50.304 1.06.00 15,1 23 16,9 8,04 3,58 >300 120 14 10 hen 7 Ghemi 1 3582 29◦03.639 83◦52.555 2.06.00 13,13 13 8,8 2,8 30 6 10 10 8 Ghemi 2 3582 29◦03.639 83◦52.555 2.06.00 13,25 13 8,8 2,8 >300 37 31 10 9 Tsarang 3583 29◦05.535 83◦55.946 3.06.00 8,51 27 14,1 8,15 1,31 >300 11 >300 52

CT = Total Bacteria; EC = Escherichia coli; EB = Enterobacteriacae; CFU = Colony Forming Unit. 287 288 Boselli et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 8 (2005) 285–291

different colors and the values of reference so as to Tourist presence and impact assign them to their class of quality for the EBI (Ghetti, 1997), BMWP’(Alba-Tercedor, 2000) and NEPBIOS Opened to controlled tourism only in 1992, not more (Moog and Sharma, 2001) indices with their relative, than one thousand trekkers are allowed to visit the Up- internationally recognized, thematic colors. per Mustang area annually. Permission is granted only The microbiological analysis was based on Entero- to groups of tourists, accompanied by a Liaison and microbial presence, that is, the total aerobic bacteria Environment Officer from the Department of Immi- count plate (CT), Escherichia coli count plate (EB), En- gration. Each group furnishes its own camping equip- terobacteriacae count plate (EB) and Yeast and Mould ment and food and uses kerosene as fuel for cooking count plate by 3M Petrifilm (Siligardi, 1986). and lighting. Germany, the , France, Italy and Switzerland are the countries where the majority of tourists come from. Results and discussion In order to best assure a responsible approach to tourism management in Upper Mustang, the Up- Population profile per Mustang Conservation and Development Project (UMCDP), within the larger Annapurna Conservation According to the Central Bureau of Statistics, there Area Project (ACAP), has undertaken an innovative ap- are 1171 households (average size, 4.6 persons) and a proach to natural resources and tourism management. total population of 5,395 inhabitants in Upper Mustang. Income from tourism is used to integrate traditional The gender breakdown is 2,730 males and 2,665 fe- subsistence activities into a framework of resources males (CBS, 2002). The population is scattered through management, and to develop small-scale conservation many hamlets included in seven VDC: Charang, 661 in- and alternative energy projects in order to raise the liv- habitants; Chhonhuop, 1,070; Chhoser, 783; Chhlusag, ing standards of the local people. Local communities 668; Ghemi, 850; Surkhang, 515; and Lo Manthang, were involved in all aspects of conservation and devel- 848. opment processes. His Majesty’sGovernment, the Min- The population is young, with high birth and death istry of Tourism, has proposed that 60% of the revenue rates; in fact, the 0 to 14 age group represents 29.6% of generated from trekking royalties to Upper Mustang, total population while those over 50 represent 18.57% be earmarked for use in UMCDP, and has delegated (Figure 1). The 0 to 4 age group shows that, in all the responsibility of managing to the King Mahendrea probability, birth control has been used in last few Trust for Nature Conservation (KMTNC, 1997). years (family planning campaign). The literacy rate is Since its establishment, the UMCDP has imple- 42.05% for males and 23.16% for females. The main mented core programs with a special focus on her- ethnic groups are Gurung (87.3%), Chhetri (6.9%) and itage conservation and sustainable tourism manage- Brahman (1.6%). ment. The policy on cultural heritage provides support The literacy rate demonstrates a great difference be- to the and their restorations. In addition, a tween genders, which gives a great disadvantage to fe- monastic school has been established. Forestation work males. However, in another Nepalese valley we studied, was also carried out through the traditional practice of the Khumbu Valley, the literacy rate shows substantial direct plantation of tree cuttings. Community develop- gender parity in education (57.3% for male and 57.2% ment programs include construction of bridges, walls for female). and maintenance of micro-hydro projects.

Figure 2. Value of Tourist Positioning Index.

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Table 2. Rivers’ water samples: physical and bacteriological data—Upper Mustang, 2000

CFU 100 ml−1 Sampling Air H2O Cond. Moulds No. point Altitude (m) Latitude Longitude Date Time (◦C) (◦C) pH (µScm−1)CTECEBYeasts 1 Kagbeni 2843 28◦50.370 83◦47.083 30.05.00 16,45 18 14,4 9 0,53 1260 445 28 32 2 Chele (Bridge) 2974 28◦55.583 83◦49.686 31.05.00 14,55 24 20,7 12 4,59 1470 22 44 84

3 Ghemi 3498 29◦03.639 83◦52.555 2.06.00 13,8 1,88 4440 >300 2220 420 4 Tsarang 3520 29◦06.210 83◦55.748 3.06.00 10,27 23 11,6 8,12 1,71 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 289 290 Boselli et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 8 (2005) 285–291

tion through sustainable development of tourism, max- imizes benefits to local communities, and conducts awareness programs to both host communities and vis- itors for minimal negative impact. River water quality The evaluation of surface quality of Kaligandaki river, in the section between Tsarang and Kagbeni, is estimated by two kinds of indicators: microbiological analysis and biocenotic indices (EBI, BMWP,’ NEP- BIOS). The evaluation using the microbiological fecal pol- lution analysis shows that according to European stan- dards, water is contaminated with fecal bacteria in the section between Tangbe and Chele (Table 2). This is probably due to anthropic and animal impact. This sit- uation is confirmed by the biological results using the Extended Biotic Index (EBI) and BMWP’ (Class II, III, IV) (Figure 3). The evaluation of surface water qual- ity using the Nepalese Biotic Score (NEPBIOS) indi- Figure 3. BMWP’ river water quality. cates a similar situation, except for the section between Kagbeni and Chele, where the NEPBIOS results shows By applying the methodology of IPT we noted that, better water quality (Class II, III; Figure 4) at present, Upper Mustang tourism could be classi- Concerning water quality, the observations from our fied as low impact (IPT = 71%), (Boselli et al., 2003; study show a vulnerability of water resources due to Figure 2). In Upper Mustang the approach to tourism fecal pollution. In the villages drinkable waters are ex- management is responsible. The Upper Mustang Con- posed to human and animal fecal pollution because servation and Development Project has undertaken an the villages are also totally devoid of any sewage sys- innovative approach that promotes nature conserva- tem for the effective disposal of wastewater and human wastes. So the human health of both local and tourist populations could be affected. Drinking water In order to maintain high levels of human health and well-being of the population, the bacteriological values recommended WHO (1998) and the European Union (EU, 1998) are 0 colony forming units (CFU). Our re- sults show widespread contamination in all samples (Table 2). The CT count was more >300 CFU at 6 of 9 sampling sites. The EC count at Syangmo-chen was 3to20times higher than at other sites. The EB count was highest (>300 CFU 100 ml−1)atthe Tsarang site (Table 2). Conclusion Our study shows the Upper Mustang ecosystem is vulnerable. In order to protect this ecosystem, it is nec- essary to keep a controlled tourism and to develop sustainable tourism that does not damage the ecosys- Figure 4. NEPBIOS river water quality. tems, that promotes the value of ‘awareness’ instead of

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‘consumerism,’ and that sustains both the development Boselli, A. M., Caravello, G. U. I, Bresolin, C., Giacomin, F., Ba- and well being of the country and not just its economic roni, A., 2003. The ecosystem health in Upper Mustang (Nepal): growth. It is necessary also to place adequate drainage Some considerations. In: F. P. Nupane, K. M. Bajracharya, D. R. systems in the villages and to protect the taps with ‘re- Bhuju (Eds.), Proceedings of International Seminar on Moun- tains, 2002 March 6–8, Royal Nepal Academy of Science and spect areas’ from the animal and human fecal wastes. Technology, . CBS (Central Bureau of Statistics), 2002. Statistical Year Book of Acknowledgements Nepal 2001. Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu. EU (European Union), 1998. Guidelines for drinking water qual- This study was carried out within the framework ity. Directive 98/83/EC 05.12.1998. Official Journal L 330, of the Ev-K2-CNR-“Scientific and Technological Re- 05.12.1998. search in e Karakorum” Project in collabo- Ghetti, P. F., 1986. I macroinvertebrati nell’analisi di qualit`a dei ration with the Royal Nepal Academy of Science and corsi d’acqua: Indice Biotico E.B.I., modif. Ghetti. Provincia Technology (RONAST) as foreseen by the Memoran- Autonoma di Trento- Stazione Sperimentale Agraria Forestale, 104. dum of Understanding between the Government of the Jansen-Verbeke, M., 1993. Sustainable tourism development. Envi- and Government of the ronmental Management: The ecosystem approach, Vol. II, pp of Italy. The research conducted was also made pos- 209–226 VUB University Press, Brussels sible thanks to contribution from the Italian National KMTNC (King Mahendrea Trust for Nature Conservation), 1997. Research Council and the Italian Ministry of Foreign Annapurna Conservation Area Management Plan. Sigma Offset Affairs. Press, Kamaladi, Kathmandu. Moog, O., Sharma S., 2001. Nepalese Biotic Score for water quality assessment. In: P. K. Jha, S. R. Baral, S. B. Karmacharya, H. D. References Lekhak, P. Lacoul, C. B. Baniya (Eds.), Environment and Agri- Alba-Tercedor, J., 2000. BMWP,’ un adattamento spagnolo del culture: Biodiversity, Agriculture and Pollution in South Asia, British Biological Monitoring Working Party (BMWP) Score pp. 503–506. Ecological Society, Kathmandu. System. Biol. Amb. 14(2), 65–67. Siligardi, M., 1986. Uso di un nomogramma per la costruzione delle Bertollo, P., 1998. Assessing ecosystem health in governed land- Carte Ittiche Quaderni Ente Tutela Pesca, Udine 14, 163–169. scapes. A framework for developing core indicators. Ecosyst. WHO (World Health Organization), 1998. Guidelines for drinking Health 4(1), 33–51. water quality. Second edition, Vol. 2. Geneva.

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