Delphi and Beyond: An Examination into the Role of Oracular Centres Within Mainland Gr ee ce by Jamie Andrew Potte r A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Arts at the University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand August 2010 ii Abstract The Delphic Oracle stands as one of the most prestigious sanctuaries in the Greek landscape and certainly as the most reputable oracular centre in the region. In contrast, few other oracular centres made even a slight mark on Greece’s long and illustrious history. This study considers not only the possible reasons behind Delphi’s spectacular rise to power, but also what the factors may have been that prevented other oracular sites from successfully challenging Delphi’s supremacy. The sites considered in this study are restricted to those found in mainland Greece: five oracles in Boiotia; four in Achaia; three each in Phokis and Laconia; two in Thessaly, Epirus and the Argolid and one each in Elis, Corinthia and Thrace. Based on archaeological and epigraphic evidence, supported through reference to literary sources, this study finds that there were four key factors in determining whether an oracular site’s reputation would spread beyond its local community: the oracle’s age, location, oracular deity and its method of consultation. As this study shows, in all these factors, Delphi had (or was promoted as having) a clear advantage. iii Preface The task of writing a thesis is both challenging and rewarding, and something that should not be attempted without the support of friends and colleagues. I would thus like to thank all those who have provided welcome assistance throughout this process. I owe my thanks to my fellow postgraduates (and a few notable undergraduates) who have offered their advice and also their much valued friendship. I must also thank my friends and family for giving me respite from the world of classical scholarship at those times when it was most needed. Thank you to my partner Tracey for your continued support and for allowing me to turn our living room into an office. Finally, I owe a debt of gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Arlene Allan for her time, her support, and for all her scholarly advice which has no doubt been of great benefit to this study. The merits of this work reflect all the support I have received from beginning to completion, but any failings are, of course, my own. Jamie. iv Table of Contents ABSTRACT II PREFACE III TABLE OF CONTENTS IV LIST OF FIGURES VI LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS VII INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER ONE: THE DELPHIC ORACLE 8 The Site of the Delphic Oracle 10 The History of the Sanctuary and the Oracle (The Rise of Delphi) 14 The History of the Sanctuary and the Oracle (The Fall of Delphi) 27 The Manner of Consulting the Delphic Oracle 36 Concluding Remarks 44 CHAPTER TWO: THE MAINLAND ORACLES OF APOLLO 46 Abae (Phokis) 46 Mt. Ptoion (Boiotia) 51 Tegyra (Boiotia) 58 Thebes (Boiotia) 59 Argos (Argolid) 68 Korope (Thessaly) 74 Pagasai (Thessaly) 75 Concluding Remarks 76 v CHAPTER THREE: THE ORACLES OF ZEUS, THE OLYMPIAN AND THE PRE-OLYMPIC GODS 78 Zeus at Dodona (Epirus) 80 Zeus at Olympia (Elis) 94 Demeter at Patrai (Achaia) 98 Hermes at Pharai (Achaia) 100 Gê at Aigeira (Achaia) 101 Pan at Lycosoura (Arcadia) 103 Hera at Perachora (Corinthia) 105 Dionysus at Amphikleia (Phokis) 106 Concluding Remarks 108 CHAPTER FOUR: THE ORACLES OF HEROES AND THE ORACLES OF THE DEAD 109 Asclepius (Various) 110 Amphiaraus at Oropus (Boiotia) 111 Trophonius at Lebadeia (Boiotia) 119 Ino-Leucothea/Pasiphae at Thalamai (Laconia) 130 Heracles at Hyettos (Boiotia) 135 Oracles of the Dead (Various) 137 Concluding Remarks 139 CONCLUSION 140 APPENDIX: POSSIBLE ORACULAR CENTRES ON THE GREEK MAINLAND 146 BIBLIOGRAPHY 150 vi List of Figures Fig. 1 (page viii): Geographical Distribution of Apollo’s Oracles in Mainland Greece. Fig. 2 (page ix): Geographical Distribution of the Olympian and Pre-Olympian Oracles in Mainland Greece. Fig. 3 (page x): Geographical Distribution of the Hero Oracles in Mainland Greece. Fig. 4 (page 12): IMAGE REMOVED DUE TO COPYRIGHT RESTRICTIONS Fig. 5 (page 23): Themis as Pythia. Attic red-figure kylix. Staatliche Museen, Berlin. No. F.2538. Codros Painter, 440-30 BCE. Fig. 6 (page 53): IMAGE REMOVED DUE TO COPYRIGHT RESTRICTIONS Fig. 7 (page 67): IMAGE REMOVED DUE TO COPYRIGHT RESTRICTIONS Fig. 8 (page 81): IMAGE REMOVED DUE TO COPYRIGHT RESTRICTIONS Fig. 9 (page 118): Marble votive relief found at the sanctuary of Amphiaraus at Oropus. National Archaeological Museum of Athens. No.3369. 400-350 BCE. Figures 1-3 were created by the author. Figure 5 courtesy of Wikipedia (http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orakel_von_Delphi) Figure 9 courtesy of Les Pierres qui Parlent (http://lespierresquiparlent.free.fr/Amphiaraion.html) vii List of Abbreviations Ancient authors and works are abbreviated according to the conventions set out in the Oxford Classical Dictionary (rev. 3rd edition). In the case where a particular author or work is unlisted, then they will be recorded here in full. Journal abbreviations follow the conventions set forth in L’Année Philologique. In the case that a journal is unlisted, its title will be given in full. viii Fig. 1: Geographical Distribution of Apollo’s Oracles in Mainland Greece. ix Fig. 2: Geographical Distribution of the Olympian and Pre-Olympian Oracles in Mainland Greece. x Fig. 3: Geographical Distribution of the Hero Oracles in Mainland Greece. xi The key to wisdom is knowing all the right questions. John A. Simone Sr. 1 Introduction When faced with issues beyond our control, it is human nature to seek advice from those who can provide guidance. Our modern rational world is overflowing with practical avenues for dealing with specific complaints: medical professionals advise patients on their health, local and national governments advise citizens on their rights and responsibilities, while friends and families can offer guidance on any number of matters. Occasionally, and with a great deal of scepticism, we look for answers in the most unlikely of places. Numerology, horoscopes and miracle healing are readily visible in western society, while Paul the Octopus has recently attracted great media attention for his successful predictions at this year’s FIFA world cup in South Africa.1 It is important to note that western attitudes to divination are not actually the norm and that religious systems worldwide often express the need for divine guidance.2 To these people, the most practical and trusted advice can be found in religion, and this behaviour was prevalent in ancient Greece. To the Greeks, communicating with the divine could be an everyday occurrence. Through prayer, sacrifice and festivals, they secured divine favour and expressed gratitude for their blessings. According to Theophrastus, the gods were honoured through sacrifice so that mankind could reject evils and secure good fortune (fr. 584a Fortenbaugh). The practice of divination took communication with the gods further still so that individuals and states were able to obtain not only good fortune, but practical and intelligible guidance on specific matters such as health, politics and religion. While 1 Paul the Octopus: http://www.nzherald.co.nz/fifa-world- cup/news/article.cfm?c_id=524&objectid=10657102 (Accessed July 7, 2010). 2 For example, the Yoruba tribe of south-west Nigeria believe that each woman is pre-destined to bear a specific number of children. In cases of infertility, women do not seek aid from doctors, but from spiritual advisors and herbalists. See Koster-Oyekan 13-26. 2 freelance seers were a convenient and readily available source of divine knowledge, this study focuses solely on another avenue, that of oracular centres. Previous studies on Greek oracular centres have hitherto focused primarily on Delphi and Dodona.3 This is quite understandable; the wealth of literary and archaeological information for these sites significantly outweighs those of other centres. Yet, for all the attention placed on Delphi in particular, Greece’s alternate oracular centres have been somewhat overlooked. Individually, these alternate centres would not warrant a major research project, but collectively they offer valuable insight into the role of divination in Greek society. Delphi was without doubt the most revered oracle in antiquity, but there was no monopoly; one oracle could not cater to all manner of clients at all times. This study looks to shed light on a wide variety of oracular centres throughout the Greek mainland and account for their role and reputation in Greek society. The question this study seeks to address is: why was there such a need for multiple oracular centres in mainland Greece if Delphi had acquired such a reputation for being the most accurate? In other words, the aim here is to account for the main factors which allowed some oracular centres to extend their influence throughout the Greek world, while others, although performing a similar role, were only known to their surrounding community. In turn, it is also asked how and why these minor oracles continued to survive in the face of such overwhelming opposition. The body of this work will thus examine a number of oracular centres in order to evaluate their reputation and identify the key aspects which influenced said reputation. 3 Even studies on the general topic of Greek oracles tend to focus primarily on Delphi and Dodona. H.W. Parke’s 1967 Greek Oracles devotes only passing attention to the smaller centres, while Robert Flacelière excludes several in his Devins et Oracles Grecs (translated into English in 1965 as Greek Oracles). Sarah Iles Johnston’s recent publication Ancient Greek Divination shows a slightly wider focus, but still the most comprehensive works, which serve largely as a compendium of literary references to Greek oracles, remain Bouche-Leclercq’s four volume Histoire de la Divination and Kurt Latte’s entry under ‘Orakel’ in Pauly’s Realencyclopädie .