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The Birth Mother and the Evolution of Adoption Policy and Practice in England Since 1926 by Dr Jatinder Sandhu

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The Birth Mother and the Evolution of Adoption Policy and Practice in England Since 1926 by Dr Jatinder Sandhu The birth mother and the evolution of adoption policy and practice in England since 1926 by Dr Jatinder Sandhu A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Nottingham Trent University for the Degree of PhD This research programme was carried out in collaboration with Family Care Adoption Agency, Nottingham. October 2012 Queries regarding this work should be directed to: [email protected] Abstract This PhD is an empirical investigation of how the evolution of adoption agency policy and practice in the twentieth century has impacted upon birth mothers’ motives for relinquishment, and their experiences of adoption. It examines how birth mothers have reached decisions about the adoption of their children, their role in the adoption process and how these answers have varied historically. Further, it attempts to understand the relationship between birth mothers’ experiences and wider moral, social and policy environments and how adoption agencies have mediated that relationship. Attitudes towards initiating and maintaining contact are also examined. Understanding changes in birth mothers’ options, motives and experiences of adoption have important implications for the adoption support services offered by adoption agencies. This thesis used a mixed methods approach, combining documentary analysis, with interviews and focus groups. This PhD draws upon archival materials collated from adoption case files, adoption panel meeting minutes (APMM), annual reports and other official documentation. It also utilizes evidence collated interviews carried out with six former Family Care personnel and professionals from six other adoption agencies, along with two focus groups carried out with the seven members of Family Care’s current adoption team. Historical research was fundamental to the methodological approach utilised in this PhD in order to uncover changes in birth mothers’ motives and experiences of adoption. In empirically evidencing the reasons for changes in birth mothers’ options, motives and experiences of adoption throughout the 20th century, this thesis makes important contributions to understanding the constraints posed by birth mothers’ gendered and socio- economic identities on their options and motives for adoption. This study also provides a theoretical framework to understand the evolution of child adoption in terms of historic periods, characterised by differing social, moral, religious and legal contexts. This theoretical framework is used to develop a holistic understanding of how different factors came together in the lives, choices and experiences of birth mothers, through the mediating influence of adoption agencies policies and practices. The theoretical framework has been important in clarifying the role of adoption agencies and adoption social workers in how they have shaped the choices and options available to birth mothers. Whilst doing so, it has been possible to map and evidence the influence of changing ideological and professional discourses; changes in agency religious affiliations and moral agendas; and changes in the external policy environment in birth mothers’ options and experiences of adoption. Findings show that these factors have collectively been responsible for birth mothers’ changing options, motives and experiences of adoption. This work is the intellectual property of the author. You may copy up to 5% of the work for private study, or personal, non- commercial research. Any re-use of the information contained within this document should be fully referenced, quoting the author, title, university, degree level and pagination. Queries or requests for any other use, or if a more substantial copy is required, should be directed in the owner’s Intellectual Property Rights. i Acknowledgements Due acknowledgement is paid to ESRC for funding this PhD and Family Care for its financial contribution. I would like to acknowledge the efforts and support of my supervision team Dr Graham Bowpitt, Professor Irene Hardill, Jo Ward and Sue Jones, the Adoption Services Manager of Family Care. The doctoral training, resources and support provided by Nottingham Trent University is also appreciated. Acknowledgement is also paid to Family Care and its staff who provided access to their archives, support and guidance throughout the PhD. I would also like to acknowledge the six other adoption agencies and former and current Family Care staff who agreed to be interviewed for this study. I would like to thank my family, friends and my husband Daljit who have supported me throughout and gave me the encouragement and strength to complete this - I could not have done it without you. Finally, Dad – you always said I would have ‘lots of degrees’ – this one is for you, in your memory. ii Contents 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Rationale 2 1.3 Contribution to Knowledge 3 1.4 Research Questions 4 1.5 Chapter Overview 5 2. ADOPTION IN AN HISTORICAL CONTEXT 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Background 9 2.3 Policy and Practice Context: 1926 – 1948 14 2.4 Policy and Practice Context: 1949 – 1974 22 2.5 Policy and Practice Context: 1975 – Present 30 2.6 Family Care and its Evolving Religious Profile 46 2.7 Birth mothers’ options: a critical discussion 54 3. REVIEW OF RESEARCH 65 3.1 Introduction 65 3.2 Birth mothers’ changing characteristics 66 3.3 Birth mothers’ changing motives for adoption 69 3.4 Birth mothers’ changing experiences of adoption 76 4. THEORETICAL CONTEXT 89 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 Gendered, class and ethnic identities 89 4.3 Respectability, class and femininity 98 iii 4.4 Ideologies of the family and motherhood 101 4.5 Discussion 108 5. METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 118 5.1 Introduction 118 5.2 Research questions 119 5.3 Epistemological considerations 120 5.4 Family Care’s Archive Materials 123 Adoption Records ............................................................................................................. 126 Family Care ledgers .......................................................................................................... 127 Adoption Panel Meeting Minutes (APMM) ..................................................................... 128 Annual Reports ................................................................................................................. 131 5.5 Data collection 132 Phase 1: Documentary Analysis ....................................................................................... 132 Phase 2 – Other Adoption Agencies ................................................................................. 140 Phase 3: Interviews with Family Care Staff...................................................................... 145 Phase 4: Interviews with birth mother service users ......................................................... 148 5.6 Data limitations 150 5.7 Research Ethics 159 5.8 Summary 160 6. BIRTH MOTHERS: CHOICES, REASONS FOR RELINQUISHMENT AND EXPERIENCES OF ADOPTION 162 6.1 Introduction 162 6.2 Birth mothers’ socio-demographic profiles 164 6.3 Birth mothers’ motives for adoption 173 6.3.1. Moral reasons ......................................................................................................... 175 6.3.2. Circumstantial reasons ............................................................................................ 187 6.3.3. Summary................................................................................................................. 204 6.4 Birth Mothers Experiences of Adoption 206 6.4.1. The shift of stigma .................................................................................................. 207 6.4.2. Closed adoptions – the secrecy and finality of adoption ......................................... 214 6.4.3. Open/semi open adoptions and an exploration of choices ...................................... 222 6.5 Birth mothers’ motives in ‘real options’ 232 iv 7. THE CHANGING CONTEXTS OF BIRTH MOTHERS’ OPTIONS, CHOICES AND EXPERIENCES 238 7.1 Introduction 238 7.2 Changes in adoption agencies’ policy, practice and mission 240 Institutional affiliation, values and mission (1942 – c1975) ............................................. 240 Changing affiliations, values and mission (c1970s – present) .......................................... 255 The influence of wider adoption and childcare policy ...................................................... 268 7.3 Changes in the external welfare environment 285 7.4 Changes in social and moral climates 292 8. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 297 8.1 Introduction 297 8.2 Discussion 297 8.3 Implications for policy and practice 306 8.4 Closing comments 308 REFERENCES 310 APPENDICES 344 v List of Figures Figure 2.1: Total number of adoptions in England and Wales 1927 – 1946. Figure 2.2: Total number of adoptions in England and Wales 1927 – 1998. Figure 2.3: Total number of adoptions in England and Wales 1975 – 1998. Figure 2.4: Age of children adopted 1995 – 2005. Figure 2.5: Percentage number of children born outside marriage who are placed for adoption 1970 - 2008. Figure 2.6: Total Number of Adoptions of Children from the Care System in England 2000 – 2010. Figure 2.7: Categories of openness definitions (Henney et al., 2004). Figure 2.8: Uses of the term ‘Secularisation’ (Sommerville, 1998). Figure 2.9: Objects of the Southwell Diocesan Board of Moral Welfare 1944 – 1946. Figure 2.10: Nottingham (Southwell House) Committee for Moral Welfare New Constitution 1947. Figure 2.11: Family Care’s values 2007. Figure 2.12: Numbers of first marriages 1960 – 2008
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