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Home , Free City of Danzig, Jan Trepczyk, Kashubia, Kashubian language, Poles, Sorbs

The Long Shadow of Borders: The Cases of Kashubian and Silesian in

Tomasz Kamusella Motoki Nomachi*

Abstract

Poland was established as a - in 1918. The state’s administration embarked on the policy of ethnolinguistic homogenization in the , because one-third of the population was seen as ethnolin- guistically non-Polish. The Polish borders and territory were dramatically altered as a result of II, and the country became a member of the Soviet bloc. The concomitant genocide and ethnic cleansing yielded an almost ethnolinguistically homogenous Poland. After the end of communism, the German minority, whose existence had EHHQGHQLHGZDV¿QDOO\UHFRJQL]HG,QSUHSDUDWLRQIRUDFFHVVLRQLQWRWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ (8 3RODQGZRUNHGRXW as required, a system of protection. However, it did not cover contemporary Poland’s largest minority, the . Additionally, the system was constructed in such a manner that the acknowledged linguistic difference of a similar group of Kashubs stopped short of recognizing them as a minority. It appears that in Poland the need IRUSURWHFWLQJPLQRULWLHVLVIHOWWREHDQLPSRVLWLRQRIWKH:HVWRUWKHROG(8ZKLFKLVQRWREOLJHGWRREVHUYHVXFK provisions itself. In its de jure observance of minority rights provisions, de facto, the Polish state administration seems to endeavor to limit such provisions as much as possible, alongside the number of Polish citizens entitled to them. Hence, it may be proposed that the ongoing project of ethnolinguiustic homogenization continues to be the ideological backbone of national statehood legitimation in today’s Poland.

Introduction: On Borders and Languages

The Dichotomy of Languages versus Dialects

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35 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

Prior to the rise of the written word, in the popular present-day Western take on this matter, all people spoke dialects. After writing was invented, those dialects that happened to be employed for UHFRUGLQJPHVVDJHVZLWKWKHXVHRIJUDSKLFVLJQVEHFDPHHOHYDWHGDV³ODQJXDJHV´%\WKHVDPHWRNHQ WKHYDVWPDMRULW\RIGLDOHFWVQRWXWLOL]HGIRUWKHSXUSRVHRIZULWLQJZHUHGRZQJUDGHGDV³XQZULWWHQ´GLD- OHFWVRUDVGLDOHFWV³QRWHQGRZHGZLWKDVSHFL¿FZULWWHQIRUPRIWKHLURZQ´7KHMXGJPHQWDORSSRVLWLRQ SLWWLQJODQJXDJHVZKLFKDUH³EHWWHU´RU³EHWWHUGHYHORSHG´DJDLQVWGLDOHFWVZKLFKDUH³ZRUVH´RU³XQ- GHYHORSHG´LVQRZDGD\VFRPPRQO\H[SUHVVHGWKURXJKWKH:HVWHUQWHUPV³GLDOHFW´DQG³ODQJXDJH´%XW it is assumed that such opposition did emerge time and again in unrelated cases and areas where writing appeared independently or was transplanted without much connection to its original source.2 As alluded to above, the invention of writing seems to be tied up with large hierarchical organi- ]DWLRQVRIJURXSVLQKDELWLQJVSHFL¿FWHUULWRULHV37KHVHWHUULWRULDOL]HGRUJDQL]DWLRQVRI UHODWLYHO\ ODUJH KXPDQJURXSVDUHNQRZQDV³VWDWHV´,IZULWLQJLVFRQQHFWHGWRVWDWHEXLOGLQJODQJXDJHVDUHDOVRSDUW and parcel of this process.4

Languages and

At the turn of the nineteenth century, in the wake of the American and French revolutions, the idea emerged that for a state to be a legitimate polity, all its population must be organized as a nation, that is, a collectivity of citizens enjoying equality before law. In turn, this newly conceived nation became WKHVROHIRQWRIOHJLWLPDF\IRUWKHVWDWH¶VJRYHUQPHQWUHSODFLQJLQWKLVUROH±DWOHDVWLQ(XURSH±*RG 7KHLGHDRIQDWLRQDQGLWVSROLW\RUQDWLRQVWDWHVSUHDGLQWKHHDUO\QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\WR/DWLQ$PHULFD where the Spanish colonial was replaced by nation-states. The populations of the colonies were WUDQVIRUPHGLQWRQDWLRQDOO\GH¿QHGFLWL]HQULHVRIWKHLUUHVSHFWLYHQDWLRQVWDWHV5 At the same time, the UHOLJLRXVGLIIHUHQFHWKDWRSSRVHG2UWKRGR[&KULVWLDQLW\WR,VODPOHGWRWKHFDUYLQJRI&KULVWLDQ%DONDQ QDWLRQVWDWHVRXWRIWKH2WWRPDQ(PSLUH7RTXDOLI\DVDFLWL]HQRIWKHVHQDWLRQVWDWHVRQHKDGWRSURIHVV an appropriate religion.6 Similarly, in the middle of the nineteenth century, languages were elevated to the foundation RIQDWLRQVWDWHEXLOGLQJSURMHFWVLQ&HQWUDO(XURSH72QO\WKRVHZKRVSRNH DQGZURWH RUZHUHGH¿QHG

1 Henry Rodgers, Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach  0DOGHQ0$%ODFNZHOO  2 Ibid., 7. 3-HUHP\%ODFNHGAtlas of World History: Mapping the Human Journey /RQGRQ'RUOLQJ.LQGHUVOH\3XEOLVKLQJ  ± 4 Martin Kuckenburg, 3LHUZV]HVáRZR1DURG]LQ\PRZ\LSLVPD [The First Word: The Birth of Speech and Writing] :DUVDZ3DĔVWZRZ\,QVW\WXW:\GDZQLF]\ ± 5%HQHGLFW$QGHUVRQ,PDJLQHG&RPPXQLWLHV5HÀHFWLRQVRQWKH2ULJLQDQG6SUHDGRI1DWLRQDOLVP /RQGRQ9HUVR  ± 6&KDUOHV-HODYLFKDQG%DUEDUD-HODYLFKThe Establishment of the Balkan National States, 1804–1920 6HDWWOH:$ 8QLYHUVLW\RI:DVKLQJWRQ3UHVV ± 7 , The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central %DVLQJVWRNH3DOJUDYH

36 Kamusella and Nomachi as speaking a national language could be recognized as members of a given nation-in-making. Next, a collectivity of speakers of the same language aspired to secure a territory contiguously inhabited by them DVWKHLUSURVSHFWLYHQDWLRQVWDWH7KH¿UVWWZRLGHRORJLFDOO\HWKQROLQJXLVWLFQDWLRQVWDWHVWKH.LQJGRPRI ,WDO\DQGWKH*HUPDQ(PSLUHZHUHHVWDEOLVKHGLQDQGUHVSHFWLYHO\8 These were followed by RWKHUQDWLRQDOSROLWLFVWKDWZHUHHWKQROLQJXVLWLFLQFKDUDFWHULQ&HQWUDO(XURSHDIWHU:RUOG:DU,ZKLFK spread even further across the post-Soviet area following the breakup of the Soviet bloc and the collapse RIWKH6RYLHW8QLRQ9(OVHZKHUHLQWKHZRUOGLQWKHZDNHRIGHFRORQL]DWLRQ HVSHFLDOO\GXULQJWKHWZR GHFDGHVDIWHUWKHV FRORQLDOSRSXODWLRQVZHUHWUDQVIRUPHGLQWRQDWLRQVDQGVLPXOWDQHRXVO\WUDQV- IRUPHGLQWRLQGHSHQGHQWSROLWLHVGH¿QHGDVQDWLRQVWDWHV

Zones of Multilingual Contact into Ethnolinguistic Frontiers

Although prior to the rise of compulsory elementary education in the standard or national lan- guage, dialects differed from village to village and from region to region, the differences did not hinder mutual comprehensibility. Interlocking chains of such dialects form dialect continua. Incomprehensibil- ity arose when speakers of dialects from two different dialect continua met.11%XWJUDVVURRWVGLJORVVLD or polyglotism12RUWKHXVHRIDOLQJXDIUDQFD WKDWLV/DWLQ*HUPDQRU)UHQFKLQ&HQWUDO(XURSH E\ leaders of respective communities or the literati easily bridged the gap of incomprehension. However, the rise of ethnolinguistic nationalism as an ideology that legitimated statehood, re- quired breaking the dialect continua into discrete areas apportioned to standard national languages.13 In turn, ethnolinguistic barriers coincided with the frontiers of the nation’s postulated nation-state. After the IRXQGLQJRIWKHVHHWKQROLQJXLVWLFDOO\GH¿QHGQDWLRQVWDWHVWKHFRLQFLGHQFHZDVQRWSHUIHFWEXW³PDUUHG´ by multilingual communities and individuals and ethnolinguistic minorities. The state did its best to make them monolingual.14,Q&HQWUDO(XURSHWKHSROLFLHVRIHWKQLFFOHDQVLQJDQGJHQRFLGHDVVRFLDWHG

0DFPLOODQ  8(UQHVW*HOOQHUNationalism 1HZ

37 Eurasia Border Review < Article > with World War II and its aftermath allowed for the effective carrying out and enforcement of normative monolingualism in the national language with regard to entire nations enclosed within the boundaries of their nation-states.15

Between and Poland

A traditional zone of multilingual communication, between Germanic and Slavic speakers, was WXUQHGEHWZHHQDQGLQWRDOLQHRIVKDUSOLQJXLVWLFGLVFRQWLQXLW\FRLQFLGLQJZLWKWKH*HU- man-Polish frontier16WKDWXQWLOZDVWKHPRVWQRWRULRXVDQGGLVSXWHGFOHDYDJHLQ&ROG:DU(XURSH17 For all practical purposes, after 1945, this border was sealed and became an impenetrable barrier isolat- LQJWKHLQFUHDVLQJO\PRQROLQJXDOQDWLRQVWKDWLVWKH*HUPDQVSHDNLQJ*HUPDQV RI(DVW*HUPDQ\ DQG WKH3ROLVKVSHDNLQJ3ROHVRQWKHLUUHVSHFWLYHVLGHVRIWKHIURQWLHU%HWZHHQDQGZKHQ3RODQG DORQJVLGHRWKHUQHZ(XURSHDQ8QLRQPHPEHUVWDWHV MRLQHGWKH6FKHQJHQ$UHDRIERUGHUOHVVWUDYHO three generations of and had already been born and come of age within view of one an- other across the frontier, but with no meaningful interaction, out of one another’s earshot. In communist Poland, the existence of minorities and communities speaking languages other WKDQ3ROLVK HVSHFLDOO\*HUPDQV ZDVGHQLHGLQWKHRI¿FLDO3ROLVKODQJXDJHOLWHUDWXUH18%XWWKHDXWKRUL- ties did monitor minorities, forced them to assimilate or emigrate, or engaged in outright expulsions19 as LQWKHFDVHRIWKH-HZVDIWHU±WKH0D]XUVDQGWKH5RPDLQWKHVRUWKH6LOHVLDQVGXULQJWKH V A preliminary discourse on these minorities unfolded tentatively only at the end of the commu- QLVWSHULRGGXULQJWKHVHFRQGKDOIRIWKHV21

157RPDV].DPXVHOOD³(WKQLF&OHDQVLQJLQ6LOHVLD±DQGWKH(QQDWLRQDOL]LQJ3ROLFLHVRI3RODQGDQG *HUPDQ\´Patterns of Prejudice  ± 163LRWU(EHUKDUGW3ROVNDLMHMJUDQLFH=KLVWRULLSROVNLHMJHRJUD¿LSROLW\F]QHM[Poland and Its Borders: From the Political Geography@ /XEOLQ:\GDZQLFWZR8QLZHUV\WHWX0DULL&XULH6NáRGRZVNLHM  177RPDV].DPXVHOOD³7KH7ZHQWLHWK$QQLYHUVDU\RIWKH*HUPDQ3ROLVK%RUGHU7UHDW\RI,QWHUQDWLRQDO 7UHDWLHVDQGWKH,PDJLQLQJRI3RODQG¶V3RVW:HVWHUQ%RUGHU´Journal of Borderlands Studies1R±   ± 18-y]HI%\F]NRZVNL0QLHMV]RĞFLQDURGRZHZ(XURSLH± :\EUDQH]DJDGQLHQLD [National Minorities in Europe: Selected Aspects@ 2SROH,QVW\WXWĝOąVNL  19$GDP%DUWRV]1LHEyMVLĊ&\JDQD1D'DUD5URPHVșDU[Don’t Be Afraid of the Roma@ 6HMQ\3RJUDQLF]H  ±-DURVáDZ6\UQ\NHG$SDUDWEH]SLHF]HĔVWZD3ROVNL/XGRZHMZREHFPQLHMV]RĞFLQDURGRZ\FKL etnicznych oraz cudzoziemców. Studia [The Security Forces of People’s Poland Against the National and Ethnic Minorities, and Against Foreigners: Studies@ :DUVDZ,QVW\WXW3DPLĊFL1DURGRZHM.RPLVMDĝFLJDQLD=EURGQL SU]HFLZNR1DURGRZL3ROVNLHPX  7RPDV].DPXVHOOD³(WKQLF&OHDQVLQJ´±$QGU]HM6DNVRQ0D]XU]\±VSRáHF]QRĞüSRJUDQLF]D [The Mazurs: A Borderland Group@ 3R]QDĔ,QVW\WXW=DFKRGQL ±'DULXV]6WRODKampania DQW\V\MRQLVW\F]QDZ3ROVFH± [7KH$QWL6HPLWLF&DPSDLJQLQ3RODQG±@ :DUVDZ,QVW\WXW 6WXGLyZ3ROLW\F]Q\FK3ROVNLHM$NDGHPLL1DXN  21 Jerzy Tomaszewski, 2MF]\]QDQLH\ONR3RODNyZ0QLHMV]RĞFLQDURGRZHZ3ROVFHZODWDFK± [The )DWKHUODQGQRWRQO\RIWKH3ROHV1DWLRQDO0LQRULWLHVLQ3RODQG±@ :DUVDZ0áRG]LHĪRZD$JHQFMD

38 Kamusella and Nomachi

On both sides of the German-Polish border there were broad changes in the twentieth century, EXWGLIIHUHQWFRQIHVVLRQDOFRQ¿JXUDWLRQVDQGWKHYDJDULHVRIHDUOLHUKLVWRU\KDGOHGWRWKHHPHUJHQFHLQ the zone of interaction between speakers of dialects from the Germanic and Slavic dialect continua, of the IROORZLQJHWKQLFJURXSVZLWKWKHLURZQVSHFL¿FODQJXDJHVWKH/XWKHUDQ0D]XUVWKH&DWKROLF.DVKXEV WKH&DWKROLFDQG/XWKHUDQ6RUEVDQGWKH&DWKROLF6LOHVLDQV7KH0D]XUVRULJLQDOO\OLYLQJLQ0D]XULD WRGD\LQQRUWKHDVWHUQ3RODQGIURP']LDáGRZRWR2OHFNR GLVDSSHDUHGDVDJURXSGXULQJWKHV due to their massive, largely forced, emigration to . The live across the present-day %UDQGHQEXUJ6D[RQDGPLQLVWUDWLYHERUGHULQHDVWHUQ*HUPDQ\EHWZHHQ&RWWEXVLQWKHQRUWKDQG%DXW]HQ in the south. Of the four groups mentioned above, between the mid-nineteenth century and 1945, the Prus- sians and Germans collected statistical date on the vernaculars of the Kashubs, Mazurs, and Sorbs as the .DVKXELDQ0D]XULDQDQG6RUELDQ :HQGLVK ODQJXDJHVUHVSHFWLYHO\22 Interestingly, in the same statis- WLFVWKH6LOHVLDQV¶YHUQDFXODUZDVFODVVL¿HGDV³3ROLVK´23 though most Silesians did not at that time see their speech or identity as Polish. Since its low-key introduction in 1849, Polish functioned as a language RILQVWUXFWLRQLQWKH¿UVWWKUHH\HDUVRIHOHPHQWDU\VFKRRO XQWLO DQGDVDODQJXDJHRIUHOLJLRXV songbooks in the areas inhabited by Slavophone and bilingual Silesians.24 Hence, the authors decided to focus on the contrasting cases of the Kashubs and the Silesians, who survive as important regional / ethnic / ethnolinguistic / linguistic groups in today’s Poland. The former, with Kashubian already recognized as a language in some cases in the nineteenth century, reside LQ.DVKXELDLQQRUWKHUQ3RODQGRUDWWKH%DOWLFOLWWRUDOQRUWKZHVWZHVWDQGVRXWKZHVWRIWKHFLW\SRUWRI *GDĔVNRULQWKHVZDWKRIODQGIURP:áDG\VáDZRZRLQWKHQRUWKWR%UXV\LQWKHVRXWK2QWKHRWKHUKDQG WKH6LOHVLDQVOLYHLQWKHKLVWRULFDOUHJLRQRI8SSHU6LOHVLDEHWZHHQWKHFLWLHVRI2SROHDQG.DWRZLFHLQ the west and in the east, respectively. Concentrated efforts to standardize Silesian and to have it formally UHFRJQL]HGDVDODQJXDJHEHJDQRQO\DWWKHWXUQRIWKHWZHQW\¿UVWFHQWXU\

To Recognize or Not to Recognize?

,QLQWHUZDU3RODQGLQOLQHZLWKHWKQROLQJXLVWLFDOO\GH¿QHGQDWLRQDOLVPDVDGRSWHGE\WKH3ROLVK

:\GDZQLF]D  22*U]HJRU]-DVLĔVNL0D]XU]\ZGUXJLHMSRáRZLH;,;ZLHNX.V]WDáWRZDQLHVLĊĞZLDGRPRĞFLQDURGRZHM [The Mazurs in the Second Half of the 19th Century: The Shaping of their National Identity@ 2OV]W\Q2ĞURGHN%DGDĔ 1DXNRZ\FKLP:RMFLHFKD.ĊWU]\ĔVNLHJR ±)ULHGULFK/RUHQW]Geschichte der pomoranischen NDVFKXELVFKHQ 6SUDFKH [7KH+LVWRU\RIWKH3RPHUDQLDQ .DVKXELDQ /DQJXDJH@ %HUOLQ:DOWHUGH*UX\WHU  (UQVW7VFKHUQLN'LH(QWZLFNOXQJGHU6RUELVFKHQ%HY|ONHUXQJYRQELV [The Development of the 6RUELDQ3RSXODWLRQIURP@ %HUOLQ$NDGHPLH9HUODJ  23 Felix Triest, 7RSRJUDSKLVFKHV+DQGEXFKYRQ2EHUVFKOHVLHQ [The Topographic Handbook of @ %UHVODX .RUQ  24 Tomasz Kamusella,6FKORQ]VNDPRZD-Ċ]\N*yUQ\ĝOąVNLQDFMRQDOL]P [The : Language, and Nationalism@9RO,, =DEU]H126 

39 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

QDWLRQDOPRYHPHQWLQWKHVWKH.DVKXEVDQG6LOHVLDQVZHUHFODLPHGDV3ROHVZKRKDG³IRUJRWWHQ´ WKHLU³WUXH3ROLVKHWKQLFDQGKLVWRULFDORULJLQ´2QWKHRWKHUKDQG*HUPDQ\VXEVFULELQJWRWKHVDPHNLQG RI QDWLRQDOLVP EXW IDFHG ZLWK WKH XQGHQLDEOH 6ODYRSKRQH RU ELOLQJXDO 6ODYRSKRQH*HUPDQLRSKRQH  character of the two populations,25 claimed them as Germans connected by a shared German culture that was postulated to trump language.26 These antagonistic claims were simultaneously given credence and frustrated by the fact that DIWHU:RUOG:DU,WKHDUHDLQKDELWHGE\WKH.DVKXEVZDVVSOLWDPRQJ*HUPDQ\WKH)UHH&LW\RI'DQ]LJ and Poland, and the Silesians’ , among , Germany, and Poland. In the latter FDVHWKH6LOHVLDQSRSXODWLRQIURPWKHVRXWKRISUH*HUPDQ\¶V8SSHU6LOHVLDZDVDOVRFODLPHG as Czech by .27 Members of the same were subjected to contradictory assimilation pressures that taught them to adapt to these by formally declaring whatever the authorities wanted. When WKH\FURVVHGWKHVWDWHERUGHU RUWKHIURQWLHUFKDQJHGWRWKHVDPHHIIHFW WKH\VLPSO\FKDQJHGWKHLU GHFODUDWLRQVWKDQNVWRWKHLUSRO\JORWLVP%XWDPRQJRWKHU.DVKXEVD.DVKXEFRXOGUHPDLQDQGEHVHHQ as a proper Kashub, and the same was true of a Silesian in exclusively Silesian company. No switches RIJURXSDOOHJLDQFHZHUHUHTXLUHGXQOLNHLQWKHFRPSDQ\RIWKH³LQGXELWDEOH´HWKQLF*HUPDQVRU3ROHV This facility of adapting to the rapidly changing geopolitical situation proved to be invaluable ZKHQ.DVKXELDDQG8SSHU6LOHVLDIRXQGWKHPVHOYHVXQGHUWKHVXFFHVVLYHVZD\RIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\¶V two totalitarianisms of Germany’s national and of Soviet-style socialism between 1933 and 1989. This pragmatic approach allowed most of them to save their lives and livelihoods, following the 1945 westward shift of the German-Polish frontier to the -Neisse line. Millions of Germans were H[SHOOHGIURPWKH³IRUPHU*HUPDQWHUULWRULHV´JLYHQWRSRVWZDU3RODQGE\WKH.UHPOLQWKHLUSODFHWDNHQ by millions of Poles similarly expelled from the eastern half of interwar Poland, which had been seized E\WKH6RYLHW8QLRQ28 7KH YDVW PDMRULW\ RI .DVKXEV DQG 6LOHVLDQV FRXOG DQG GLG HYDGH H[SXOVLRQ /LNHZLVH WKH\ could not leave for postwar Germany because from ’s ideological vantage it would appear as allowing for the voluntary Germanization of Poles. In Poland’s communist economy of constant dearth, WKHSRVVLELOLW\RIOHDYLQJWKH³ZRUNHUV¶SDUDGLVH´IRUFDSLWDOLVW:HVW*HUPDQ\EHFDPHRQHRIWKHPRVW VRXJKWDIWHUUHVWULFWHG³JRRGV´7KHJUDVVURRWVDQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOSUHVVXUHZDVVXFKWKDW:DUVDZDOORZHG IRU HPLJUDWLRQ RI WKH PRVW SHUVLVWHQW %HWZHHQ  DQG  WKHUH ZDV D PDVV HPLJUDWLRQ RI RYHU

25-DPHV(%MRUNNeither German nor Pole: Catholicism and National Indifference in a Central European Borderland $QQ$UERU0,8QLYHUVLW\RI0LFKLJDQ3UHVV  26&DUVWHQ(LFKHQEHUJHUDie Deutschen in Polen: Von der verleugneten Minderheit zur anerkannten Volksgruppe [Poland’s Germans: From Suppressed Minority to Recognized National Group@ $XJVEXUJ%XNRZLQD,QVWLWXW   279LOpP3ODþHNPrajzáci. $QHENRVXGĤP+OXþtQVND± [7KH3UXVVLDQV2URQWKH)DWHRIWKH+OXþtQ Region@ +iMYH6OH]VNX)UDQWLãHN0DM  28 Philipp Ther'HXWVFKHXQG3ROQLVFKH9HUWULHEHQH*HVHOOVFKDIWXQG9HUWULHEHQHQSROLWLNLQGHU6%=''5XQG LQ3ROHQ± [German and Polish Expellees: Society and Policies Directed at the Expellees in the Soviet 2FFXSDWLRQ=RQHRI*HUPDQ\DQGLQ3RODQG±@ *|WWLQJHQ9DQGHQKRHFN 5XSUHFKW 

40 Kamusella and Nomachi

6LOHVLDQV29 ,Q6WDOLQLVW3RODQG ± QROLQJXLVWLFHWKQLFRUUHJLRQDOVHSDUDWHQHVVRIWKH.DVKXEV or Silesians was permitted or even publically considered. In 1956, the Zrzeszenie Kaszubskie [Kashubian 8QLRQ@ZDVUHJLVWHUHG%XWLWVDSSDUHQWO\H[SOLFLWHWKQROLQJXLVWLFFKDUDFWHUZDVRIQROLNLQJWRWKHDX- thorities. Hence, it became a more regionally oriented organization in 1964, the change sealed by its QHZQDPH²=U]HV]HQLH.DV]XEVNR3RPRUVNLH>.DVKXELDQ3RPHUDQLDQ8QLRQ@3RPHUDQLDLVDKLVWRULF region, coterminous with the northwestern corner of modern-day Poland, not associated with any ethnic or linguistic group. 1RVLPLODURUJDQL]DWLRQVZHUHHVWDEOLVKHGIRUWKH6LOHVLDQV7KH\ZHUHXQRI¿FLDOO\FRQVLGHUHG as more German/ized than the Kashubs, and as such the Silesians required a more concentrated and relentless .31)XUWKHUPRUH8SSHU6LOHVLDFRXOGEHVHHQDVWKH6LOHVLDQV¶HWKQLFRUQDWLRQDO KRPHODQG7HOOLQJO\WZRDFDGHPLFLQVWLWXWHVZHUHIRXQGHGIRUWKHVDNHRI3RORQL]LQJWKH6LOHVLDQV WKH ,QVW\WXWĝOąVNL>6LOHVLDQ,QVWLWXWH@LQ2SROHDQGWKHĝOąVNL,QVW\WXW1DXNRZ\>6LOHVLDQ6FLHQWL¿F,QVWLWXWH@ LQ.DWRZLFH@ZKLOHRQO\RQHZDVHVWDEOLVKHGLQWKHFDVHRIWKH.DVKXEV WKH,QVW\WXW%DáW\FNL>%DOWLF ,QVWLWXWH@LQ*GDĔVN 7KHUHIRUHD.DVKXERU6LOHVLDQKDGWREHD3ROHEXWLIDQLQGLYLGXDORSSRVHGWKLV ascription from above for long enough, the authorities would let the person become a German and leave IRU:HVW*HUPDQ\'HFODULQJRQHVHOID.DVKXERU6LOHVLDQZDVQRRSWLRQDVQHLWKHU:DUVDZQRU%RQQ ZDVUHDG\WRDFFHSWVXFKDVLPXOWDQHRXVO\QRQ3ROLVKDQGQRQ*HUPDQFKRLFHRILGHQWL¿FDWLRQ With regard to language, in communist Poland, Kashubian and Silesian were treated as dialects dialekt VXEGLDOHFWV gwara RUJURXSVRIVXEGLDOHFWV gwary RIWKH3ROLVKODQJXDJH,QWKHFDVHRI 6LOHVLDQPRVWIRUHLJQVFKRODUVGHDOLQJZLWKWKHOLQJXLVWLFGLPHQVLRQRI8SSHU6LOHVLDFRQFXUUHGWKRXJK some did see it as a language in its own right,32 while others saw it as a mixed, Germanic-Slavic, language or variety.332QWKHRWKHUKDQGRXWVLGH3RODQG.DVKXELDQZDVRIWHQFODVVL¿HGDVD6ODYLFODQJXDJH34

297RPDV].DPXVHOOD³(WKQLF&OHDQVLQJ´± -y]HI%RU]\V]NRZVNL³$+LVWRU\RIWKH.DVKXEVXQWLOWKH(QGRI&RPPXQLVP´LQThe Kashubs: Past and PresentHGV&H]DU\2EUDFKW3URQG]\ĔVNLDQG7RPDV]:LFKHUNLHZLF] 2[IRUG3HWHU/DQJ ± 31%HUQDUG/LQHN2GQLHPF]DQLHZRMHZyG]WZDĞOąVNLHJRZODWDFK±ZĞZLHWOHPDWHULDáyZZRMHZyG]NLFK [7KH'H*HUPDQL]DWLRQRI6LOHVLDQ9RLYRGHVKLSLQ±LQ/LJKWRIWKH9RLYRGHVKLS$UFKLYDO0DWHULDOV] 2SROH,QVW\WXWĝOąVNL  32(ZDOG2VHUV³6LOHVLDQ,GLRPDQG/DQJXDJH´LQSlavonic HG-RVHSK65RXFHN 1HZ

41 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

The age of totalitarianisms was over in 1989 in Poland, following the simultaneous fall of FRPPXQLVPDQGWKHEUHDNXSRIWKH6RYLHWEORF3RODQGDVZLWKRWKHUSRVWFRPPXQLVWVWDWHVLQ(XURSH became democratic and its economy was overhauled from a centrally planned into a free market one. Ascribing ethnic and linguistic identities from above, with no regard for the feelings and wishes of the populations concerned, would not do in this new Poland. Kashubian and Silesian activists, not altogether VXUHRIKRZORQJWKLVXQH[SHFWHGZLQGRZRIIUHHGRPPLJKWODVWWUHDGHGFDUHIXOO\LQWKHV%XWE\ WKHWXUQRIWKHWZHQW\¿UVWFHQWXU\WKH\KDGFRPHWRWKHFRQFOXVLRQWKDWLWZDVVDIHIRULQGLYLGXDOVDQG their groups to reassert their own identities whatever they might be. Warsaw awoke to the novel devel- RSPHQWVLQWKH¿UVWGHFDGHRIWKHWZHQW\¿UVWFHQWXU\LQLWLDOO\JLYLQJLQWRWKHNQHHMHUNUHDFWLRQRIWKH previous, national communist regimes, by denying the right of separate national or linguistic identity to the Kashubs and the Silesians alike. Recently, the authorities have been nuancing their position so as not to hurt the international image of Poland as a democratic country that duly observes and protects human and minority rights.

Distinguishing between National and Ethnic Minorities

Following the collapse of communism, the democratization and the systemic change that Po- land underwent afterward entailed recognition and acceptance of the national minorities living in the FRXQWU\LQFOXGLQJ*HUPDQV7KHUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKH*HUPDQPLQRULW\DIWHUKDOIDFHQWXU\RILWVRI¿FLDO QRQH[LVWHQFHDSSHDUHGWRWKH3ROLVKSXEOLFDVD³VXGGHQUHHPHUJHQFHRIFU\SWR*HUPDQV´RURI³IDOVH *HUPDQV´7KLVUHFRJQLWLRQZDVWLJKWO\FRQQHFWHGWRWKHHQGRIWKH&ROG:DULQ(XURSH7KH7UHDW\RQ WKH)LQDO6HWWOHPHQWZLWK5HVSHFWWR*HUPDQ\ SRSXODUO\NQRZQDVWKH³7UHDW\´ LQZKLFK the four wartime Allies returned full to Germany, obliged the latter to contract a treaty with 3RODQGRQWKH¿QDOUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKH2GHU1HLVVHOLQHDVWKHOHJLWLPDWHIURQWLHUEHWZHHQWKHVHWZRVWDWHV ,QUHWXUQWKH*HUPDQ3ROLVK%RUGHU7UHDW\  ZDVIROORZHGE\WKH3ROLVK*HUPDQ7UHDW\RQ*RRG 1HLJKERUOLQHVVDQG)ULHQGO\&RRSHUDWLRQ   7KHODWWHUWUHDW\RI¿FLDOO\UHFRJQL]HGDQGJXDUDQWHHGWKHULJKWVRIWKH*HUPDQPLQRULW\LQ3R- ODQG,WZDVWKH¿UVWHYHUELODWHUDODJUHHPHQWFRQWUDFWHGDIWHU:RUOG:DU,,LQ(XURSHWKDWJXDUDQWHHGWKH rights of a minority. One explanation for the outbreak of this war maintains that it was triggered by the SRVWPLQRULW\WUHDWLHVWKDWDOORZHG³KRPHFRXQWULHV´WRXVHVXFKPLQRULWLHVDV³¿IWKFROXPQV´LQ neighboring states with an eye towards territorial aggrandizement. Hence, after World War II, the ques- WLRQRIPLQRULWLHVZDV¿UVW³VHWWOHG´E\WKHH[SXOVLRQRIPLQRULWLHVEHWZHHQDQG$IWHUZDUG WKHLVVXHRIPLQRULWLHVZDV³IUR]HQ´ZKHQWKH&ROG:DUFRQIURQWDWLRQDVVXPHGFHQWUDOLPSRUWDQFHLQ (XURSHDQDQGJOREDOSROLWLFV 7KHVXEVHTXHQW³XQIUHH]LQJ´RIERUGHUDQGPLQRULW\WHQVLRQVIROORZLQJWKHIDOORIFRPPXQLVP DQGWKHEUHDNXSVRIWKH6RYLHWEORFDQGWKH6RYLHW8QLRQUHTXLUHGVLPXOWDQHRXVO\WKHZRUNLQJRXWRI DVROXWLRQDQGSUHYHQWLRQPHDVXUHVDVFOHDUO\H[HPSOL¿HGE\WKHRXWUDJHRIWKHSRVW

42 Kamusella and Nomachi

LQFOXGLQJDFWVRIHWKQLFFOHDQVLQJDQGJHQRFLGH)UHQFK3ULPH0LQLVWHUeGRXDUG%DOODGXU¶V3DFW RQ6WDELOLW\LQ(XURSHZDVDQLQLWLDWLYHRIWKHUHFHQWO\UHQDPHG(XURSHDQ8QLRQWRGHIXVHSRWHQWLDOWHQ- VLRQV7RDGHJUHHWKH%DOODGXU3ODQDQGWKH%DOODGXUSDFWV\VWHPDUHWKHVDPHWKLQJ7KH%DOODGXU3ODQ RI¿FLDOO\NQRZQDVWKH³3DFWRQ6WDELOLW\LQ(XURSH´ ZDVWRSXVKWKHSRVW6RYLHWDQGSRVWFRPPXQLVW states to sign bilateral treaties, among others, on the inviolability of their mutual borders and protection of minorities. The signing of the treaties created a treaty system of security and guarantees, sometimes UHIHUUHGWRDV³%DOODGXU3DFW6\VWHP´7ZR\HDUVODWHUFRXQWULHVLQ&HQWUDODQG(DVWHUQ(XURSHVLJQHG the Pact. In its wake, most signed numerous bilateral treaties, modeled on the German-Polish Treaty on Good Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation, thus guaranteeing their mutual borders and protection for their respective minorities in the neighboring states. 7KH³%DOODGXU3DFW6\VWHP´EHDUVDFORVHVLPLODULW\WRWKHPLQRULW\WUHDWLHVLQLQWHUZDU(XURSH The treaties, devised and often imposed by the victorious Allies were binding for Germany and Austria DQGWKHWKHQQHZQDWLRQVWDWHVO\LQJHDVWRIWKHPWKH6RYLHW8QLRQ¶VZHVWHUQERUGHUEHLQJWKHOLPLWLQWKH HDVW/LNHZLVHWKH%DOODGXU3DFW6\VWHPFRQFHLYHGLQWKHFDSLWDOVRI:HVWHUQ(XURSHZDVWREHLPSOH- PHQWHGLQ&HQWUDODQG(DVWHUQ(XURSHRQO\LWVZHVWHUQHGJHFRQVWLWXWHGE\'HQPDUN*HUPDQ\$XVWULD DQG,WDO\+HQFHVRPH:HVWHUQ(XURSHDQVWDWHV HVSHFLDOO\)UDQFH DUHQRWFRPSHOOHGWRUHFRJQL]HDQ\ minorities or grant them any rights. 7KHQDWXUHRIWKH%DOODGXU3DFW6\VWHPLVVXFKWKDWE\LWVVWDWHRULHQWHGQDWXUHLWJXDUDQWHHVWKH ULJKWVRIPLQRULWLHVWKDWHQMR\WKHLURZQ³NLQQDWLRQVWDWHV´3RODQG¶V*HUPDQSRSXODWLRQKDVWKHSRVVL- bility of formal or informal recourse to Germany in order to intercede on their behalf. The same is true of WKH+XQJDULDQVLQ5RPDQLDRUWKH%HODUXVLDQVLQ3RODQG%XWIRUWKH5RPD5XV\QVRU*DJDX]HV±ZLWK no kin national polity – recognition of stateless minorities, and observance of their rights, rest solely in the hands of the nation-states in whose territory they reside. The implicit creation of two classes of minorities, those with kin states and stateless ones, was GXO\UHÀHFWHGLQ3ROLVKOHJLVODWLRQ3RODQGSURPXOJDWHGLWV¿UVWSRVWFRPPXQLVWFRQVWLWXWLRQLQ Article 35 introduced the legal categories of national and ethnic minorities. However, for all practical purposes, all the minorities recognized in the country, either with kin states or stateless, were treated as QDWLRQDOPLQRULWLHVEHIRUH35 This was so because no legal distinction was provided for distinguish- ing between these two types of minorities. The plan was to adopt a legally binding distinction on minority rights, but an act of this kind ZDVQRWSDVVHGE\WKH3ROLVK3DUOLDPHQWXQWLORQH\HDUDIWHU3RODQG¶VDFFHVVLRQLQWRWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ  ,QDFHUWDLQFRQMXQFWLRQZLWKWKHORJLFRIWKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHG%DOODGXU3ODQLQWKH(XURSH- DQ8QLRQGHOLQHDWHGWKHVRFDOOHG&RSHQKDJHQ&ULWHULDWREHPHWE\DQ\FDQGLGDWHVWDWHEHIRUHLWFRXOG MRLQWKH(8$QLQWHJUDOSDUWRIWKHSROLWLFDOFULWHULDLVUHVSHFWIRUPLQRULWLHV

356áDZRPLUàRG]LĔVNL5yZQRĞüLUyĪQLFD0QLHMV]RĞFLQDURGRZHZSRU]ąGNXGHPRNUDW\F]Q\PZ3ROVFHSR roku [(TXDOLW\DQG'LIIHUHQFH1DWLRQDO0LQRULWLHVLQWKH3ROLVK'HPRFUDWLF2UGHU$IWHU@ :DUVDZ6FKRODU  

43 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

%UXVVHOVDVSURRIRIIXO¿OOLQJWKHPLQRULW\VHFWLRQRIWKHSROLWLFDOFULWHULRQZDQWHGWKHFDQGL- GDWHVWDWHVWROHJLVODWHDFWVRQPLQRULWLHV3RODQGGLGVRLQHDUO\ZKHQWKH3DUOLDPHQWSURPXOJDWHG DQ$FWRQ1DWLRQDODQG(WKQLF0LQRULWLHVDQGRQWKH5HJLRQDO/DQJXDJH367KH$FWGH¿QHVQDWLRQDO PLQRULWLHVDVWKRVHWKDWLGHQWLI\ZLWKWKHLUNLQQDWLRQVWDWHV%\WKHVDPHWRNHQHWKQLFPLQRULWLHVDUH WKRVHWKDWGRQRWKDYHVXFKNLQQDWLRQDOSROLWLHV,QWKHGH¿QLWLRQVRIERWKW\SHVRIPLQRULWLHVWKLV$FW HPSKDVL]HVODQJXDJHDVWKHLUPRVWIXQGDPHQWDOGH¿QLQJIHDWXUH7KLVVKRZVWKHFRQWLQXHGSROLWLFDODQG legislative importance of ethnolinguistic nationalism as the constitutive and legitimizing principle of Polish statehood. On the other hand, the inherent arbitrariness of minority rights protection as guaranteed by in- WHUQDWLRQDOODZLVYLVLEOHLQWKHIDFWWKDWWKH$FWLQFOXGHVDVLWVLQWHJUDOSDUWWZROLVWVRQHRIWKHQDWLRQDO minorities and the other of the ethnic ones that Warsaw decided to recognize. These lists do not contain DOO WKH PLQRULWLHV LQ 3ROLVK WHUULWRU\ WKXV WKH\ H[FOXGH ± DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH ¿UVW WZR SRVWFRPPXQLVW FHQVXVHVRIDQG±3RODQG¶VODUJHVWPLQRULW\WKH6LOHVLDQVZKRQXPEHUDURXQG7KH .DUDLPVKRZHYHUPDGHLWRQWRWKHOLVWRIHWKQLFPLQRULWLHVWKRXJKWKH\QXPEHUDPHUHSHRSOH %ODWDQWH[FOXVLRQVDUHPL[HGZLWKSKRQ\RYHULQFOXVLYHQHVV 7KHVDPHLVWUXHRIWKH$FW¶VDSSURDFKWRODQJXDJHDVWKHGH¿QLQJIHDWXUHIRUWKHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQ of minorities. The provision for the protection of minority languages sounds rather awkward when in the FRQWH[WRI3RODQG¶V7DWDUVZKRKDYHQRWXVHG7DWDUDVWKHODQJXDJHRIWKHLUFRPPXQLW\VLQFHWKH¿IWHHQWK FHQWXU\$QRWKHUVLQJXODULW\LVHYLGHQWLQWKHSKUDVH³WKHUHJLRQDOODQJXDJH´LQWKH$FW¶VWLWOH,WZDVD ERZRIWKH3ROLVK3DUOLDPHQWWRWKH(XURSHDQ&KDUWHUIRU5HJLRQDORU0LQRULW\/DQJXDJHVVLJQHGE\ 3RODQGLQLQSUHSDUDWLRQIRULWVUDWL¿FDWLRQWKDWZDVFRQFOXGHGLQ,QOLQHZLWKWKLV(XURSHDQ &KDUWHUWKH3ROLVK$FWRQ1DWLRQDODQG(WKQLF0LQRULWLHVDQGRQWKH5HJLRQDO/DQJXDJHGLVWLQJXLVKHV between minority and regional languages, though the latter is mentioned only in the singular, while it is generally accepted that there is more than one minority language in Poland. $UWLFOHRIWKH$FWGH¿QHV³PLQRULW\ODQJXDJHV´DVODQJXDJHVVSRNHQE\QDWLRQDODQGHWKQLF PLQRULWLHV$UWLFOHRSSRVHVODEHOLQJWKHP³UHJLRQDOODQJXDJH´VLPXOWDQHRXVO\VWDWLQJWKDWLWLVGLIIHU- HQWIURPWKHVWDWH QDWLRQDO ODQJXDJHDQGLVQRWDGLDOHFWRIWKHVWDWH QDWLRQDO ODQJXDJH)XUWKHUPRUH VSHDNHUVRIWKHUHJLRQDOODQJXDJHDUHFLWL]HQVZKR DVLVLPSOLHGUDWKHUREOLTXHO\ GRQRWEHORQJWRDQ\ of the recognized national or ethnic minorities. Therefore, speakers of regional languages are deemed to EHPHPEHUVRIWKH3ROLVKQDWLRQ$UWLFOHLGHQWL¿HV.DVKXELDQDVWKH$FW¶VRQO\³UHJLRQDOODQJXDJH´ 7KLVLGHQWL¿FDWLRQLVUHLQIRUFHGE\WKHUDWL¿FDWLRQRIDQLQVWUXPHQWWKDWSURYLGHG3RODQGZLWKOLVWV RIODQJXDJHVWREHSURWHFWHGLQWKHFRXQWU\XQGHUWKHSURYLVLRQVRIWKH(XURSHDQ&KDUWHU7KHODQJXDJHV LQOLQHZLWKWKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHG$FWDUHGLYLGHGLQWRWKUHHJURXSVWKHODQJXDJHVRIQDWLRQDOPLQRULWLHV the languages of ethnic minorities, and the group of regional languages that includes the sole specimen

36 8VWDZDR0QLHMV]RĞFLDFK1DURGRZ\FKL(WQLF]Q\FKRUD]R-Ċ]\NX5HJLRQDOQ\P [The Act on National and Ethnic Minorities, and on the @  $FFHVVHG0D\KWWSLVDSVHMPJRYSO'HWDLOV6HUYOHW" LG :'8

44 Kamusella and Nomachi

RI.DVKXELDQ 3RODQG 37 Interestingly, the aforementioned current legal conceptualization of Kashubian as a regional ODQJXDJHLQ3RODQGOHDGVWRWKHXQH[SHFWHGFRQFOXVLRQWKDWWKH3ROLVKQDWLRQKDVWZRRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHV the state and national language of Polish and the regional language of Kashubian. This is not an abnor- mal organization of ethnolinguistic relations in a polity, but a paradoxical and somewhat delegitimating QDWLRQDOVWDWHKRRGLQ&HQWUDO(XURSHZKHUHWKHPRGHORIWKHHWKQROLQJXLVWLFDOO\GH¿QHGQDWLRQVWDWHKDV ruled supreme since 1918. This model requires that the nation-state be for one nation only and that its members speak a single national language. The normative drive of this ethnolinguistic principle of state- KRRGFUHDWLRQDQGOHJLWLPDWLRQFRQWLQXHVDVH[HPSOL¿HGE\WKH

Warsaw and the Kashubs: Recognizing the Language but Not the Ethnic Group

Toward the Standardization of Kashubian

To have an elaborated orthography with orthoepic, grammatical, and lexical norms of a given linguistic system is one of the crucial elements in the development of a written language. In this context, Kashubian has been unique, because since the mid-nineteenth century until the communist period, an orthography was developed for Kashubian. 'XULQJFRPPXQLVPWKLVWUDGLWLRQZDVPDLQWDLQHG,QWKH*GDĔVNEUDQFKRIWKH=ZLą]HN /LWHUDWyZ3ROVNLFK $VVRFLDWLRQRI3ROLVK:ULWHUV KHOGDPHHWLQJRQ.DVKXELDQRUWKRJUDSK\DQGGHWHU- PLQHGWKDWLWVRUWKRJUDSK\VKRXOGEHFORVHWRWKH3ROLVKRQH)ROORZLQJWKLVWUHQGLQUHJLRQDODF- WLYLVW$OHNVDQGHU/DEXGDSXEOLVKHG6áRZQLF]HNNDV]XEVNL[A Small Kashubian Dictionary] in Warsaw.38 According to Popowska-Taborska,39/DEXGDLQWHQGHGWRSXEOLVKWKHGLFWLRQDU\DVD.DVKXELDQ 3ROLVK.DVKXELDQGLFWLRQDU\EXWWKHDXWKRULWLHVGLGQRWSHUPLWWKLVWLWOHKRZHYHUWKLVGLFWLRQDU\LVGH IDFWR WKH ¿UVW .DVKXELDQ3ROLVK GLIIHUHQWLDO GLFWLRQDU\ ZKLFK LQFOXGHV QHRORJLVPV$FFRUGLQJ WR WKH author, its primary purpose was to help non-Kashubian teachers working in as WHDFKHUVXQGHUVWDQGORFDOFKLOGUHQVSHDNLQJLQ.DVKXELDQGLDOHFWV%XWWKHDXWKRU¶VWUXHLQWHQWLRQZDVWR

37 3RODQG'HFODUDWLRQ&RQWDLQHGLQWKH,QVWUXPHQWRI5DWL¿FDWLRQ  $FFHVVHG0D\FRQYHQWLRQV FRHLQWWUHDW\&RPPXQ/LVWH'HFODUDWLRQVDVS"&/ (1* 17  9/  38 A different type of spelling, developed by two Warsaw scholars, Hanna Popowska-Taborska and Zuzanna 7RSROLĔVNDZDVDSSOLHGLQWKLVGLFWLRQDU\ 39 This information is based on a personal communication with Prof. Popowska-Taborska.

45 Eurasia Border Review < Article > underscore the lexical differences between Kashubian and Polish. In 1967 the Polish Academy of Sciences began publishing 6áRZQLNJZDUNDV]XEVNLFKQDWOH kultury ludowej [The Dictionary of the Kashubian Dialects Contextualized Against the Background of the Kashubian Folk Culture±@ZKLFKFRQVLVWVRIPRUHWKDQHQWULHVE\DORFDOSULHVWQDPHG %HUQDUG6\FKWD$OWKRXJK6\FKWDDLPHGWRFROOHFWDVPDQ\OH[LFDOLWHPVDVSRVVLEOHDQGGLGQRWLQWHQGWR GLIIHUHQWLDWH.DVKXELDQIURP3ROLVKWKLVGLFWLRQDU\WDSSHGWKHULFKYRFDEXODU\DQGSKUDVHRORJ\VSHFL¿F to Kashubian and soon became the most important reference book for Kashubian activists, including those who were trying to codify the language. In 1974, on the initiative of local activists, writers, and scholars, a commission on the question of Kashubian orthography was established, and a year later, the commission published Zasady pisowni kaszubskiej [3ULQFLSOHVRI.DVKXELDQ2UWKRJUDSK\, 1975]. This publication also illustrates grammati- FDOIRUPVIURPDQRUPDWLYHSHUVSHFWLYH%DVHGRQDQRUWKRJUDSKLFV\VWHPVLPLODUWR3ROLVKQXPHURXV OLWHUDU\ZRUNVDSSHDUHGGXULQJWKHV,QWKLVFRQWH[WLWLVZRUWKPHQWLRQLQJ%UH]DDQG7UHGHU¶V Gramatyka kaszubska. Zarys popularny [.DVKXELDQ*UDPPDU$3RSXODU2XWOLQH, 1981], which had a de facto normalizing effect and became a grammar handbook, contrary to the authors’ declared in- WHQWLRQ6RRQ/DEXGD¶V6áRZQLNSROVNRNDV]XEVNL [$3ROLVK.DVKXELDQ'LFWLRQDU\, 1981] and 6áRZ{U] NDV]sEVNRSROVF]L [$.DVKXELDQ3ROLVK'LFWLRQDU\, 1982] with numerous neologisms were published. The aforementioned works stimulated the Kashubian elite to elaborate their mother tongue into DSRO\YDOHQWOLWHUDU\ODQJXDJH$FFRUGLQJWR2EUDFKW3URQG]\ĔVNL41E\WLWOHVDQGRQHPLOOLRQ copies had been published. Thus, it can be concluded that the late communist period prepared the ground IRUIXWXUHGLVFXVVLRQVRQDFRGL¿HGOLWHUDU\.DVKXELDQ$IWHUZDUGWKHUHZHUHVHYHUDODWWHPSWVWRVWDQ- dardize the language, for instance, 6áRZQLNSROVNRNDV]XEVNL [$3ROLVK.DVKXELDQ'LFWLRQDU\] by and :VN{]sNDV]sEVF]pJzSLVsQN [$*XLGHWR.DVKXELDQ2UWKRJUDSK\] and Kaszëb VF]LVáRZ{U]QRUPDWLZQ\ [A Kashubian Normative Dictionary@E\(XJHQLXV]*RáąEHN%XWWKHVH references were normative-oriented only.42 6LQFHZKHQWKHQHZ.DVKXELDQ/DQJXDJH&RXQFLOZDVHVWDEOLVKHGLWVPHPEHUVKDYH been trying to codify a standard literary language.43

7KHILUVWGUDIWVRIERWKGLFWLRQDULHVZHUHSUHSDUHGLQ7ZRUHYLHZHUV %UH]DDQG7UHGHU QHJDWLYHO\ evaluated the dictionaries and declined to publish them. One of the reasons was the dictionaries include too many neologisms and pseudo-archaic terms. In addition, the reviewers stated that there was no necessity to publish a Polish-Kashubian dictionary. Nevertheless, the dictionaries were published. This internal review was consulted in WKHSHUVRQDODUFKLYHRIWKH/DEXGDIDPLO\ORFDWHGLQ7áXF]HZR 41&H]DU\2EUDFKW3URQG]\ĔVNL7KH.DVKXEV7RGD\&XOWXUH/DQJXDJH,GHQWLW\ *GDĔVN,QVW\WXW.DV]XEVNL   42$FFRUGLQJWR*RáąEHNKHKDGWRSXEOLVKDGLFWLRQDU\RIVWDQGDUGL]HG.DVKXELDQDJDLQVWWKHRSSRVLWLRQRIRWKHU .DVKXELDQDFWLYLVWV IURPDQLQWHUYLHZZLWK*RáąEHNFRQGXFWHGE\WKHDXWKRUVLQ  43,QWKH=U]HV]HQLH.DV]XEVNR3RPRUVNLHSXEOLVKHG:LHONL6áRZQLN3ROVNRNDV]XEVNL [$*UHDW3ROLVK Kashubian Dictionary@FRPSLOHGE\*RáąEHN7KHGLFWLRQDU\LVLQWHQGHGDVDVWHSSLQJVWRQHIRUVWDQGDUGL]LQJ Kashubian as a literary language, though the author himself did not foresee it as a normative dictionary.

46 Kamusella and Nomachi

Kashubian Publishing in the Communist Period

7KH¿UVWDFWLYLW\DIWHU:RUOG:DU,,VWDUWHGLQZKHQWKHVRFDOOHG=U]HV]HĔF\>8QLRQHUV@ published the newspaper Zrzesz Kaszebska [The Kashubian Union@ (YHQ LQ WKH HDUO\ V GXULQJ 6WDOLQLVPWKH.DVKXELDQHOLWHFRQWLQXHGZULWLQJLQ.DVKXELDQGHVSLWHRI¿FLDO3RORQL]DWLRQDziennik %DáW\FNL [The Baltic Daily] started to publish Rejsy [Cruises], which included texts in Kashubian. )XUWKHUPRUHWKH*G\QLDEDVHGSXEOLVKHU:\GDZQLFWZR0RUVNLH 0DULWLPH3XEOLVKLQJ+RXVH DQGHYHQ WKHSXEOLVKLQJKRXVHLQ:DUVDZ/XGRZD6SyáG]LHOQLD:\GDZQLF]D 3HRSOH¶V3XEOLVKLQJ&RRSHUDWLYH  published books in Kashubian. In 1956 when ended, the Zrzeszenie Kaszubsko-Pomorskie started its publishing ac- WLYLWLHV$OWKRXJKWKHUHZDVQR¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUWIURPWKHVWDWHWKH=U]HV]HQLHDFWLYHO\SXEOLVKHGOLWHUDU\ ZRUNVLQ.DVKXELDQ7KHLURI¿FLDOMRXUQDO%LXOHW\Q=U]HV]HQLD.DV]XEVNR3RPRUVNLHJR [The Bulletin of WKH.DVKXELDQ3RPHUDQLDQ8QLRQ], which was later renamed , became the main medium for GLVFXVVLQJUHJLRQDOVRFLDOFXOWXUDOOLWHUDU\OLQJXLVWLFDQGRWKHUWRSLFVUHODWHGWR.DVKXELD,QLWV UXQUHDFKHGFRSLHVDQGVHQVLWLYHWRSLFVVXFKDVWKHVHSDUDWHQHVVRI.DVKXELDQIURPWKH3ROLVK language were discussed. Since the Zrzeszenie Kaszubsko-Pomorskie showed a clear anti-communist VHQWLPHQWWKHSXEOLFDWLRQRILWVMRXUQDOZDVVXVSHQGHGGXULQJWKHV ,QWKHVZKHQWKHUHZDVQRORQJHUDQ\VHULRXVFRQÀLFWZLWKWKH:DUVDZDXWKRULWLHVOR- FDODFWLYLVW:RMFLHFK.LHGURZVNLEHFDPHDQLPSRUWDQW¿JXUHLQ.DVKXELDQSXEOLVKLQJ+HFRQWLQXHG VXSSRUWLQJWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI.DVKXELDQDVZHOODVWKHLGHDRIFRGLI\LQJLWDVDIXOO\ÀHGJHGOLWHUDU\ language.

Religion and Language: Toward Kashubian Prestige

The existence of the holy texts in a given language can often be one of the main arguments MXVWLI\LQJWKHFRGL¿FDWLRQRIDOLWHUDU\ODQJXDJH44 Traditionally, in Kashubia where most are Catholic, WKHRI¿FLDOODQJXDJHRIWKH&KXUFKKDVEHHQ3ROLVK6LQFH.DVKXELDQKDVEHHQXVHGLQPRVWFDVHVDVD ODQJXDJHRIXQRI¿FLDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQHYHQORFDO.DVKXELDQDFWLYLVWVGLGQRWWU\WRXVHLWLQSUD\HU%XW LQDORFDOZULWHUDQG%LVKRS)UDQFLV]HN*UXF]D¿UVWWULHGWRLQWURGXFHD+RO\0DVVLQ.DVKXELDQ45 7KH&DWKROLF&KXUFKLQWKLVUHJLRQUHDFWHGQHLWKHUQHJDWLYHO\QRUSRVLWLYHO\WRWKLVPRYHPHQW%XWWKLV event triggered a discussion among the Kashubs on the use of their language in church.

44-RKQ(GZDUGVLanguage and Identity: Key Topics in Sociolinguistics &DPEULGJH&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV   45$FFRUGLQJWR.D]LPLHU].OHLQD)DWKHU*UXF]DKDGDOUHDG\JLYHQDVHUPRQLQ.DVKXELDQLQ6HH(XJHQLXV] Pryczkowski.DV]XEVNL.RUGHFNLĩ\FLHLWZyUF]RĞüNVSUDá)UDQFLV]ND*UXF]\ [A Kashubian Kordecki: Life and Work of Prelate Franciszek Gducza@ %DQLQR:\GDZQLFWZR5RVW 

47 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

The crucial moment in the Kashubs’ religious life was the visit of John Paul II to Kashubia in June 1987. In his address, the Pope stressed that the Kashubs should cultivate their cultural heritage DQGLGHQWLW\LQFOXGLQJWKHLUODQJXDJH$IWHUWKLVHYHQW%LVKRS%RJXVáDZ*áRGRZVNLLQWURGXFHGD+RO\ 0DVVVDLGLQ.DVKXELDQRQFHDPRQWKLQ*GDĔVN&DWKHGUDO8QGHUKLVLQÀXHQFHORFDODFWLYLVW(XJH- QLXV]*RáąEHNSXEOLVKHGD.DVKXELDQWUDQVODWLRQRIDSDUWRIWKH1HZ7HVWDPHQWLQ,QWKHVDPH \HDU%LVKRS*UXF]DDOVRSXEOLVKHGDIUDJPHQWRIWKH1HZ7HVWDPHQWLQ.DVKXELDQ,Q*RáąEHN SXEOLVKHGKLV.DVKXELDQWUDQVODWLRQRIWKH3VDOPVDQGLQWKHSUD\HUERRN7RMHVáRZ{%RĪH [This is God’s Word@,QDGGLWLRQ%LVKRS$GDP6LNyUDSXEOLVKHGD.DVKXELDQWUDQVODWLRQRIWKHIRXU*RVSHOV WUDQVODWHGIURPWKH*UHHNRULJLQDO ±  $OOWKHVHERRNVZHUHRI¿FLDOO\SURPXOJDWHGE\WKH&DWKROLF&KXUFK$VDUHVXOWWKHVWDWXV RI.DVKXELDQEHFDPHPRUHSUHVWLJLRXV+RZHYHUDVRIWKHUHDUHRQO\DIHZFKXUFKHVZKHUHWKH Kashubian-language Mass is on offer.

Introducing Kashubian to Schools

'XULQJFRPPXQLVPLWZDVLPSRVVLEOHWRLQWURGXFH.DVKXELDQLQWRWKHHGXFDWLRQDOV\VWHP,Q 1981, a regional education program was adopted, but the introduction of Kashubian to schools failed, because trained teachers, teaching materials, or curriculum were unavailable. In addition, Kashubian LWVHOIKDGQRW\HWKDGDXQL¿HGVWDQGDUGIRUP'HVSLWHWKLVVLWXDWLRQLQLQDQHOHPHQWDU\VFKRROLQ *áRGQLFDIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHHYHU.DVKXELDQEHJDQWREHRIIHUHGDVDVXEMHFW ,Q  WKH 3ROLVK 0LQLVWU\ RI 1DWLRQDO (GXFDWLRQ LQFOXGHG .DVKXELDQ LQ WKH FXUULFXOXP IRUPLGGOHVFKRRO gimnazjum ,QVWXGHQWVZHUHJLYHQWKHRSWLRQRIWDNLQJRQHRIWKHLUVHFRQG- DU\VFKRROOHDYLQJH[DPLQDWLRQV LQ.DVKXELDQ ,Q*GDĔVN8QLYHUVLW\EHJDQWRRUJDQL]HDQLUUHJXODU.DVKXELDQODQJXDJHFRXUVH,Q the university’s Institute of Polish Philology established a regular course in Kashubian studies, including WKHODQJXDJH,QWKLVFRXUVHEHFDPHDQLQGHSHQGHQWHQWLW\UHQDPHGWKH8QLWIRU.DVKXELDQ(WK- nophilological Studies.

The Legal Status of the

In 1991 when a new law on the system of education was adopted, the Kashubs’ right to maintain WKHLUUHJLRQDOHWKQLFUHOLJLRXVDQGOLQJXLVWLFLGHQWLW\ZDVRI¿FLDOO\JXDUDQWHHG,QWKH/DZRQWKH 3ROLVK/DQJXDJHSURYLGHGWKHSRVVLELOLW\RILQWURGXFLQJDQDX[LOLDU\ODQJXDJH+RZHYHUWKHODZODFNV appropriate executive regulations and it does not contain any provisions for minority language usage in jurisdiction or state administration.46

46 Tomasz Wicherkiewicz, The Kashubian Language in  /MRXZHUW/HHXZDUGHQ0HUFDWRU (GXFDWLRQ 

48 Kamusella and Nomachi

,Q3RODQGVLJQHGWKH(XURSHDQ&KDUWHUIRU5HJLRQDORU0LQRULW\/DQJXDJHV,Q WKH3ROLVK3DUOLDPHQWDGRSWHGWKH$FWRQ1DWLRQDODQG(WKQLF0LQRULWLHVDQGRQWKH5HJLRQDO/DQJXDJH Thanks to this Act, Kashubian gained the status of a regional language. Today, bilingual – Polish and .DVKXELDQ±VLJQDJHLVLQXVHLQWHQFRPPXQHVZKHUHPRUHWKDQSHUFHQWRIWKHLQKDELWDQWVDUH Kashubs. The Kashubs, however, do not have the status of an ethnic minority since most Kashubs do not desire such a status and consider themselves to be Poles.47 ,Q DGGLWLRQ WKH /DZ RQ 5DGLR DQG7HOHYLVLRQ %URDGFDVWLQJ   REOLJHV WKH SXEOLF PDVV media to meet the needs of national and ethnic minorities. Thanks to this law, the sphere of the use of .DVKXELDQKDVH[SDQGHGWKDQNVWR*GDĔVN5DGLR¶VSURJUDPTedë jo! [Then, Yes!], Radio Kaszëbë [Radio Kashubia], and other local programs. Although this law was employed to this end, the Kashubs were not and are still not recognized as a minority, and Kashubian gained a modicum of formal recognition as a UHJLRQDOODQJXDJHRQO\LQ

Research Institute of Kashubian Linguistic and Cultural Heritage

7KHLGHDRIHVWDEOLVKLQJD.DVKXELDQUHVHDUFKLQVWLWXWHEXGGHGLQWKHVEXWLWZDVQHYHU UHDOL]HGGXULQJWKHFRPPXQLVW\HDUV)RUGHFDGHVWKH0XVHXPRI.DVKXELDQ3RPHUDQLDQ/LWHUDWXUH and Music in has played this role as part of its activities. Only in 1996 did the Institute of .DVKXELDQ/LQJXLVWLFDQG&XOWXUDO+HULWDJHVWDUWRSHUDWLQJLQ*GDĔVNDQGKDVEHHQVXSSRUWHGE\VHYHUDO Polish ministries. It organizes conferences, and engages in educational and publishing activities. To conclude, in breach of the national communist model of one nation - one language and other XQIDYRUDEOHSROLWLFDODQG¿QDQFLDOFLUFXPVWDQFHVWKH.DVKXEVFRXOGVXUYLYHDQGFXOWLYDWHWKHLUOLQJXLV- WLFDFWLYLW\EHIRUHXVLQJWKHUKHWRULFRIUHJLRQDOLVP%XWWKHODFNRIUHFRJQLWLRQIRU.DVKXELDQ as a language, and its absence in schools meant constant decline in the Kashubian linguistic heritage. In 1989, the Kashubs already knew what they should do to ameliorate the situation. Their goals are to FRGLI\LPSOHPHQWDQGHODERUDWHWKH.DVKXELDQODQJXDJH$FKLHYLQJDFRGL¿HGXQL¿HGOLWHUDU\ODQJXDJH KDVEHHQDQGZLOODOZD\VEHDVLJQL¿FDQWSUREOHPIRUWKH.DVKXEVEHFDXVH¿UVWWKHUHDUHPDQ\GLDOHFWV LQ.DVKXELDQWKDWGLIIHUIURPRQHDQRWKHUVLJQL¿FDQWO\DQGVHFRQGWKHUHDUHSHRSOHZKRDUHDSSUH- KHQVLYHDERXWORFDOIHDWXUHVWKDWFRXOGEHVLGHOLQHGDQGXOWLPDWHO\ORVW%XWDV6LDWNRZVND48 points out, Kashubian today is close to becoming a literary language with polyvalent functions.49

47 See footnote 14. It is worth noticing, however, that the members of the .DV]HEVN{-HGQRWs[Kashubian Unity] GHPDQGWKHRI¿FLDOVWDWXVDVDPLQRULW\IRUWKH.DVKXEVWRSURWHFWDQGGHYHORSWKHLUOLQJXLVWLFDQGFXOWXUDOKHULWDJH Although there has been a long discussion on this issue, this idea lacks broader support among the Kashubs. It is EHFDXVHRIWKLVDFFRUGLQJWR2EUDFKW3URQG]\ĔVNLThe Kashubs Today  :DUVDZGLGQRWDFFRUGWKH.DVKXEV the status of an ethnic group. 48(ZD6LDWNRZVND6]NLFH]G]LHMyZOLWHUDFNLFKMĊ]\NyZVáRZLDĔVNLFK[2QWKH+LVWRU\RIWKH6ODYLF/LWHUDU\ Languages@ :DUVDZ7RZDU]\VWZR1DXNRZH:DUV]DZVNLH  49 For instance, the of ’s epic poem LQWR.DVKXELDQE\6WDQLVáDZ-DQNH

49 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

Warsaw and the Silesians: Neither Recognizing the Language nor the Ethnic Group

A new space of freedom opened after the end of communism in Poland and in the neighboring states. It has facilitated the emergence of voices, ideas, and groups whose existence and relevance may FRQWUDGLFWWKHVWDWH¶VRI¿FLDOLGHRORJ\RIHWKQROLQJXLVWLFQDWLRQDOLVP+RZHYHUGHPRFUDWL]LQJFKDQJHV removed from the state administration’s hands totalitarian or authoritarian instruments that before 1989 had been customarily employed to suppress dissent and opposition. 8SSHU6LOHVLDZDVWKHLQGXVWULDOOLIHOLQHRIERWKLQWHUZDUDQGFRPPXQLVW3RODQG7KHUHJLRQ¶V shape altered with full conformity to the state’s requirements, but with little if any concern for the needs DQGZLVKHVRI8SSHU6LOHVLD¶VLQKDELWDQWV7KHUDSLGGHLQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQRIWKHUHJLRQGXULQJWKHV FDXVLQJYDVWXQHPSOR\PHQWZDVFXVKLRQHGRQO\LQLWVZHVWHUQKDOI ZRMHZyG]WZRRSROVNLHRU2SROH 3URYLQFH E\WKHULVHRIWKHUHFRJQL]HG*HUPDQPLQRULW\%HJLQQLQJLQ WKDWLVDIWHUUDWL¿FDWLRQLQ RIWKH*HUPDQ3ROLVK%RUGHU7UHDW\DQGRIWKH3ROLVK*HUPDQ7UHDW\RQ*RRG1HLJKERUOLQHVVDQG )ULHQGO\&RRSHUDWLRQ *HUPDQ\EHJDQWRJUDQW3RODQG¶V*HUPDQPLQRULW\*HUPDQFLWL]HQVKLSDQGSDVV- SRUWV7KLVFLWL]HQVKLSPDGHWKHPLQWR(XURSHDQ8QLRQFLWL]HQVWRROHWWLQJWKHVHQHZ*HUPDQSDVVSRUW KROGHUVXQGHUWDNHOHJDOVHDVRQDORUSHUPDQHQWHPSOR\PHQWLQ*HUPDQ\RUHOVHZKHUHLQWKH(XURSHDQ 8QLRQ 7KLVRSWLRQZDVODUJHO\XQDYDLODEOHWRWKHLQKDELWDQWVLQHDVWHUQ8SSHU6LOHVLD ZRMHZyG]WZR NDWRZLFNLH RU .DWRZLFH 3URYLQFH ZKLFK ZDV FRQIXVLQJO\ UHQDPHG ZRMHZyG]WZR ĞOąVNLH RU 6LOHVLDQ 3URYLQFHLQ 7KH\IHOWWKH\KDGEHHQLJQRUHGE\WKH3ROLVKVWDWHDQGWKHPDLQVWUHDPSROLWLFDO SDUWLHV,QVRPHRIWKHGLVJUXQWOHGHVWDEOLVKHGWKH5XFK$XWRQRPLLĝOąVND 5$ĝ6LOHVLDQ$XWRQ- RP\0RYHPHQW WKHVREULTXHW³6LOHVLDQ´XVHGIRUYDULRXVKLVWRULFDODQGSROLWLFDOUHDVRQVEXWDFWXDOO\ VWDQGLQJIRUWKHKLVWRULFDOUHJLRQRI8SSHU6LOHVLDRQO\,Q5$ĝDFWLYLVWVGHFLGHGWRDGGDQHWKQR- linguistic component to their previously largely ethnicity-free regional-cum- program. To this HQGWKH\IRXQGHGWKH=ZLą]HN/XGQRĞFL1DURGRZRĞFLĝOąVNLHM =/1ĝ8QLRQRIWKH3RSXODWLRQRIWKH 6LOHVLDQ1DWLRQDOLW\ 7KHKRSHZDVWKDWDVDUHFRJQL]HGQDWLRQDOPLQRULW\WKH6LOHVLDQVZRXOGYRWHIRU their representatives who would then enter the Polish Parliament without the need for meeting the 5 per cent threshold, thanks to the exemption for national minority organizations. %XWWKHVWDWHUHDFWHGZLWKUHSHDWHGUHIXVDOVWRUHJLVWHUWKH=/1ĝ7KHHQVXLQJOHJDOEDWWOHWRRN :DUVDZDQGWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQWRWKH(XURSHDQ&RXUWRI+XPDQ5LJKWVLQ6WUDVERXUJLQDQGLWFRQ- WLQXHVWRWKLVGD\$IWHU5$ĝOHGE\-HU]\*RU]HOLNIHOOEDFNRQLWVRULJLQDOUHJLRQDOFXPDXWRQ-

VLJQL¿FDQWO\FRQWULEXWHGWRLPSURYLQJWKHSUHVWLJHRI.DVKXELDQDVDOLWHUDU\ODQJXDJH6HH$GDP0LFNLHZLF] 3yQ7DGHV]WRMHzVWDWQ\QDMDFKQNQD/sWZLH6]ODFKHFN{KLVWRUL{]URNLZGZDQ{VFHNQpJDFK ZLpUV]m[Lord Thaddeus, or the Last Foray in : A 1811 and 1812 Story on the Nobles in the Twelve Books of Verse@ :HMKHURZR0X]HXP3LĞPLHQQLFWZDL0X]\NL.DV]XEVNR3RPRUVNLHMDQG*GDĔVN:\GDZQLFWZR 0DV]RSHULD/LWHUDFND  7RPDV].DPXVHOOD³'XDO&LWL]HQVKLSLQ2SROH6LOHVLDLQWKH&RQWH[WRI(XURSHDQ,QWHJUDWLRQ´Facta 8QLYHUVLWDWLV3KLORVRSK\6RFLRORJ\DQG3V\FKRORJ\ 1Lã8QLYHUVLW\RI1Lã ±

50 Kamusella and Nomachi

RP\SURJUDPDIWHUWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQ¶VYLFWRU\LQWKHORFDODQGUHJLRQDOHOHFWLRQV5$ĝDOORZHGLWV UHSUHVHQWDWLYHVWRHQWHUWKHUHJLRQDOJRYHUQPHQWRI6LOHVLDQ3URYLQFH2WKHUZLVH5$ĝUHSUHVHQWDWLYHV KDYHEHHQUHSUHVHQWHGLQWKHSURYLQFH¶VQXPHURXVFRPPXQLW\ gmina DQGFRXQW\ powiat VHOIJRYHUQ- PHQWVVLQFHWKHODWHV 7KH=/1ĝZKHQLWWXUQHGRXWWKDWUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKH6LOHVLDQVDVDQDWLRQDORUHWKQLFPLQRULW\ would be impossible in Poland in any foreseeable future, shifted its attention to the protection and de- YHORSPHQWRIWKH6LOHVLDQODQJXDJH0HDQZKLOHWKHUHVXOWVRIWKH¿UVWSRVWFRPPXQLVWQDWLRQDOFHQVXV  YLQGLFDWHGWKH=/1ĝ¶VSULQFLSOHGVWDQFHDVWKHKLJKO\PDQLSXODWHGUHVXOWVVKRZHGWKDWZLWKD SRSXODWLRQRIWKH6LOHVLDQVLQQXPHULFDOWHUPVDUHFRQWHPSRUDU\3RODQG¶VODUJHVWPLQRULW\ albeit unrecognized. ,QWKH=/1ĝ¶VOHDGHU$QGU]HM5RF]QLRNIRXQGHGWKHĝOǀQVNR1DF\MQRпF\QR1DUR- GRZD2¿F\QDĝOąVND 6LOHVLDQDQG3ROLVKUHVSHFWLYHO\IRU6LOHVLDQ1DWLRQDO3XEOLVKLQJ+RXVH ,WSXE- OLVKHGWKH¿UVWHYHUKLVWRU\RIWKH6LOHVLDQQDWLRQDQGWKHQDWLRQ¶VKRPHODQGRI8SSHU6LOHVLDZULWWHQIURP a Silesian national perspective.51 The activities of the publishing house and the organization are closely UHODWHGDVERWKDUHKHDGHGE\WKHVDPHSHUVRQ,Q5RF]QLRNUHSUHVHQWLQJWKH6LOHVLDQODQJXDJH SDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHIRXQGLQJRIWKH3ROLVKEUDQFKRIWKH(XURSHDQ%XUHDXIRU/HVVHU8VHG/DQJXDJHV (%/8/ 7KDQNVWRKLVHQGHDYRUVIRXU\HDUVODWHULQ6LOHVLDQZDVJUDQWHGWKH,62FRGH szl, which amounts to international recognition of it as a language. +HQFHLQ6LOHVLDQUHDFKHGDSRVLWLRQVLPLODUWRWKDWZKLFK.DVKXELDQKDGHQMR\HGEH- IRUHQDPHO\UHFRJQLWLRQDVDODQJXDJHDEURDGEXWFRQWLQXHGWUHDWPHQWDVDGLDOHFWRIWKH3ROLVK language in Poland itself. As a sign of the growing importance of cyberspace, a grassroots initiative led WRWKHODXQFKRID6LOHVLDQODQJXDJH:LNLSHGLDĝOĤQVNR:LNLSHG\MR. At present, it is the largest 6LOHVLDQODQJXDJH³ERRN´ FRUSXVRIWH[WV DYDLODEOH,QWKHVDPH\HDU5RF]QLRNDQGDOLQJXLVWRIWKH 3ROLVKODQJXDJH-RODQWD7DPERURIWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI6LOHVLDLQ.DWRZLFHRUJDQL]HGXQGHUWKHDXVSLFHVRI the Polish and the Self-Government of Silesian Province, a conference on the standardization of WKH6LOHVLDQODQJXDJH,QWKLVFRQIHUHQFH¶VOHJDF\ERUHIUXLWLQWKHIRUPRIDVWDQGDUGL]HGVSHOOLQJ system for the Silesian language. 0RVWRIWKH6LOHVLDQODQJXDJHERRNV DERXW¿IW\ SXEOLVKHGEHWZHHQDQGHLWKHULQ YDULRXVSUHVWDQGDUGRUVWDQGDUGRUWKRJUDSKLHVZHUHEURXJKWRXWE\WKHĝOǀQVNR1DF\MQRпF\QR$Q- RWKHUERRVWWRWKH6LOHVLDQPRYHPHQWZDVJLYHQE\WKHUHVXOWVRIWKHQDWLRQDOFHQVXV7KLVWLPHIUHH RIPDQLSXODWLRQWKHFHQVXVUHFRUGHG6LOHVLDQVDQG6LOHVLDQVSHDNHUV52 In light of the

51'DULXV]-HUF]\ĔVNL+LVWRULD1DURGXĝOąVNLHJR3UDZG]LZHG]LHMH=LHPĝOąVNLFKRGĞUHGQLRZLHF]DGRSURJX WU]HFLHJRW\VLąFOHFLD [History of the Silesian Nation: The True History of the Silesian Lands from the to the Turn of the Third Millennium@ =DEU]H12ĝ  52)RUDOOSUDFWLFDOUHDVRQVWKHPDMRULW\RI6LOHVLDQVDUHELOLQJXDOLQ6LOHVLDQDQG3ROLVK +RZHYHURYHU 6LOHVLDQV¶FRPPDQGRI3ROLVKLVVRVKDN\WKH\FRQVLGHUWKHPVHOYHVWREHPRQROLQJXDOLQ6LOHVLDQ ,QWKHFHQVXV DSDUWIURPWKHLU6LOHVLDQQDWLRQDOLW\SHUVRQVGHFODUHG3ROLVKQDWLRQDOLW\DQG*HUPDQQDWLRQDOLW\ 7KHQXPEHURISHRSOHGHFODULQJ6LOHVLDQQDWLRQDOLW\DVWKHLURQO\QDWLRQDOLW\DPRXQWHGWR(YHQWDNLQJ

51 Eurasia Border Review < Article > data, the Silesians are indisputably Poland’s largest minority and, likewise, the speakers of the Silesian language constitute Poland’s second-largest speech community after the speakers of Polish. ,WLVGLI¿FXOWIRUWKHVWDWHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQWRGHQ\WKHZLOORIVRPDQ\RILWVFLWL]HQVWREH6LOH- sians and to speak their own Silesian language without the state appearing ridiculous on the international DUHQD$VLJQRIFKDQJHLQWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKHVWDWHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQLVWKHVXFFHVVIXOUHJLVWUDWLRQRI WKH6WRZDU]\V]HQLH2VyE1DURGRZRĞFLĝOąVNLHM 621ĝ6RFLHW\RIWKH3HRSOHRIWKH6LOHVLDQ1DWLRQ- DOLW\ DFKLHYHGE\DJURXSOHGE\3LRWU'áXJRV]ZKRLVWKH5$ĝOHDGHULQ2SROH3URYLQFH53 The new RUJDQL]DWLRQVXFFHHGHGLQKDYLQJWKHFROORFDWLRQ³6LOHVLDQQDWLRQDOLW\´LQFOXGHGLQLWVRI¿FLDOQDPH7KLV JRDOFRQWLQXHVWRHOXGHWKH=/1ĝEXW621ĝLQLWVVWDWXWHHPSKDVL]HGWKDWWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQZRXOGQRW SDUWLFLSDWHLQDQ\QDWLRQDOHOHFWLRQV%HFDXVHRIWKLVGHFODUDWLRQ621ĝFORVHGIRULWVHOIWKHRSSRUWXQLW\ to participate in Parliament, but on the other hand, it elicited from the state administration a tacit agree- PHQWWRWKHH[LVWHQFHRID³6LOHVLDQQDWLRQDOLW\´7KLVPD\EHVHHQDVWKH¿UVWORQJRYHUGXHSRVLWLYHVWHS toward the recognition of the Silesians as an ethnic minority in light of the Polish and of the $FWRQ1DWLRQDODQG(WKQLF0LQRULWLHVDQGRQWKH5HJLRQDO/DQJXDJH %HFDXVHWKHVWDWHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQDSSHDUVWRKDYHEHHQOHVVUHOXFWDQWWRUHOHQWLQWKHPDWWHURI UHFRJQL]LQJ6LOHVLDQDVDODQJXDJHDJURXSRI03VIURP6LOHVLDQ3URYLQFHKDYHUHSHDWHGO\VLQFH requested the Polish Parliament to recognize the Silesian language, preferably by including it, next to .DVKXELDQDVDVHFRQGUHJLRQDOODQJXDJHLQWKH$FWRQ1DWLRQDODQG(WKQLF0LQRULWLHVDQGRQWKH5H- JLRQDO/DQJXDJH,QWHUHVWLQJO\LQWKH0LQLVWU\RI$GPLQLVWUDWLRQDQG'LJLWL]DWLRQLQFOXGHG6LOH- sian as one of the traditional languages of modern-day Poland, in which parallel forms of the country’s geographical names are to be recorded.54 For the time being, the waiting game continues. The gradual reorientation of the organizational DQGLGHRORJLFDODLPVRI5$ĝ621ĝDQGWKH=/1ĝLQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHGRPHVWLFDQGLQWHUQDWLRQDO shame mobilization55DSSOLHVLQFUHDVLQJSUHVVXUHRQWKH3ROLVKVWDWHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQWRDGRSWDPRUHÀH[-

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52 Kamusella and Nomachi ible attitude toward the Silesians’ demands. This may result in a compromise solution within a decade or VR,QDOOSUREDELOLW\LWZLOOEHD³.DVKXELDQVROXWLRQ´WKDWLV:DUVDZDJUHHLQJWRUHFRJQL]H6LOHVLDQDVD regional language only. The recognition of the Silesians as an ethnic group is unlikely to follow any time VRRQ8QOLNHWKH6LOHVLDQVWKHYDVWPDMRULW\RI.DVKXEVGHFODUHGWKHPVHOYHVWREHHWKQLF3ROHVLQWKH FHQVXV1RZDOUHDG\ZLWKUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKHLUODQJXDJHXQGHUWKHLUEHOWSHUVRQVGHFODUHG .DVKXELDQQDWLRQDOLW\LQWKHFHQVXV56 So in the long run, Warsaw may need to recognize both the Kashubs and the Silesians as ethnic minorities, or face a deepening sociopolitical crisis and a delegitima- WLRQRILWVVWDWHDXWKRULW\HVSHFLDOO\LQ8SSHU6LOHVLDEXWDOVRLQ.DVKXELD (DUOLHUWKHKRSHRQWKHSDUWRIWKHVWDWHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQZDVWKDWWKHQXPEHURI6LOHVLDQVZRXOG drop substantially from census to census, as happened in the Czech , where their number plum- PHWHGIRXUIROGIURPLQWRLQ$VVKRZQDERYHWKHRSSRVLWHZDVWUXHDVEHWZHHQ DQGWKHQXPEHURI6LOHVLDQVUHFRUGHGLQWKH3ROLVKFHQVXVHVJUHZDOPRVW¿YHIROG3HUKDSVWKLV unexpected development and the inclusion of the and Poland in the Schengen Area of ERUGHUOHVVWUDYHOLQJDYHDERRVWWR6LOHVLDQGRPLQWKHIRUPHUFRXQWU\WRRZKHUHWKHFHQVXV UHJLVWHUHG6LOHVLDQV57 The disappearance of the border as a physical hindrance to free travel allows for the renewing RIIDPLO\DQGFRPPXQLW\OLQNVEHWZHHQWKH3ROLVKDQG&]HFKVHFWLRQVRIKLVWRULFDO8SSHU6LOHVLDDQG DPRQJWKH6LOHVLDQVOLYLQJDFURVVWKHVWDWHIURQWLHU6LQFHWKHVWDQGDUGRUWKRJUDSK\RIWKH6LOHVLDQ language is based on Polish-style spelling, it may not be accepted among Silesians in the Czech Republic. And if the resurfacing of the Silesians there proves to be permanent, they may loathe the efforts of the SUHVHQWGD\FRGL¿HUVRIWKH6LOHVLDQODQJXDJHLQ3RODQGWRVXEVXPHLQWRLWWKHYHU\VFDQWOLWHUDU\WUDGLWLRQ RIWKH3UXVVLDQDQG/DFKLDQODQJXDJHVFRQQHFWHGUHVSHFWLYHO\WRWKHZHVWHUQDQGHDVWHUQHQGVRI&]HFK 8SSHU 6LOHVLD /DVW EXW QRW OHDVW WKH SURVSHFWLYH UHFRJQLWLRQ RI 6LOHVLDQ DV D UHJLRQDO ODQJXDJH PD\ SRVH PRUHSDUDGR[HVIRUWKH3ROLVKVWDWHWKDQLWVRI¿FLDOHVSRXVDORI.DVKXELDQ,V3ROLVKHWKQROLQJXLVWLFQD- WLRQDOLVPÀH[LEOHHQRXJKWRZLWKVWDQGZLWKQREDFNODVKRUWKHGDQJHURIVWDWHKRRGGHOHJLWLPDWLRQWKH emergence of a Polish nation with its own three languages, the national Polish and the regional languages RI.DVKXELDQDQG6LOHVLDQ"6KRXOG:DUVDZGHFLGHWRVWLFNWRWKHGRJPDRIHWKQROLQJXLVWLFQDWLRQDOLVP the aforementioned dangers may become an unappealing reality. However, de-politicization and a certain de-ethnicization of language is not unthinkable, and it would allow Poland to become a more democratic

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53 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

DQGDWWUDFWLYHSROLW\LQDXQLWHG(XURSHFDSDEOHRIHVSRXVLQJDOOLWVLQKDELWDQWVGHVSLWHDQ\OLQJXLVWLF ethnic, or national differences. as the Polish Constitution proposes.

Conclusion: A Reluctant Retreat from the Dogma of the Normative Isomorphism of State Frontiers and Ethnolinguistic Borders?

'HVSLWH WKH SRVW UKHWRULF RI GHPRFUDWL]DWLRQ DQG UHVSHFW IRU PLQRULW\ ULJKWV WKH QD- WLRQVWDWHVRI&HQWUDO(XURSHFOLQJWRWKHH[FOXVLYHO\HWKQROLQJXLVWLFPRGHORIQDWLRQDOLW\7KHVROHH[- FHSWLRQWRWKLVUXOHLVSRVW6RYLHW%HODUXVZKHUHVSHDNLQJWKHQDWLRQDOODQJXDJHGHIDFWRLVQRWWKHPDLQ PDUNHURI%HODUXVLDQQDWLRQDOLW\VLPLODUWRWKHFDVHRIRI¿FLDO,ULVKLQWRGD\¶V,UHODQG58 The turn toward HWKQROLQJXLVWLFSDUWLFXODULVPVKDVEHHQYLVLEOHLQ&HQWUDO(XURSHVLQFHWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHWZHQW\¿UVW FHQWXU\DVHYLGHQFHGE\WKHSRSXODUVORJDQRI³(XURSHRIIDWKHUODQGV´DQGWKHULVHRIYDULRXVHWKQROLQ- guistic nationalist parties and organizations across the region. The normative force of the ethnolinguistic PRGHORIVWDWHKRRGOHJLWLPDWLRQKDVEHHQDPSO\SURYHGE\WKHVORZEUHDNXSVRI

58/RHN+DOPDQ,QJH6LHEHQDQG0DUJDYDQ=XQGHUWAtlas of European Values: Trends and Traditions at the Turn of the Century /HLGHQ%ULOODQG7LOEXUJ7LOEXUJ8QLYHUVLW\ ±

54 Kamusella and Nomachi

FKDQJHVDQGRIWKHGLUHFWLQFRUSRUDWLRQVLQWRWKH6RYLHW8QLRQWKHLQWHUZDU(XURSHRIHWKQROLQJXLVWLF nation-states was recreated after 1945. This recreation was conducted under Soviet tutelage and connected to the wholesale Soviet- L]DWLRQRI&HQWUDO(XURSH,WEXLOWRQHDUOLHUGHYHORSPHQWVWKDWFDPHIURPWKH:HVW7KHSURJUDPRI vast ethnic cleansing instituted and approved by the Western powers at the close of saw the forced emigration and expulsions across the borders of the ethnolinguistic nation-states during the inter- war period, undertaken in order to increase the degree of ethnolinguistic homogeneity in these national polities. The Allies put some paradoxical checks on the process in the form of the minority treaties regime WKDWZDVLPSRVHGE\WKHVWDWHVRI&HQWUDO(XURSH+RZHYHUWKHV\VWHP¶VVWDQGDUGVZHUHQHLWKHUREVHUYHG LQ:HVWHUQ(XURSHQRULQWKH6RYLHW8QLRQ59 $QRWKHUZDYHRIHWKQLFFOHDQVLQJLQWKHHOXVLYHTXHVWIRU³KRPRJHQHLW\´ZDVLQLWLDWHGE\WKH :HVWHUQSRZHUVLQDFTXLHVFLQJWR*HUPDQ\E\WKHSLHFHPHDOSDUWLWLRQRI&]HFKRVORYDNLD%HUOLQ DQG0RVFRZVWURQJO\UHLQIRUFHGWKHWUHQGRIGHFLGLQJDERXW&HQWUDO(XURSHZLWKRXWUHIHUULQJWRWKH RSLQLRQRIWKRVHFRQFHUQHGZKHQLQWKH\RFFXSLHGDQGGLYLGHGWKHUHJLRQHQWDLOLQJDJUHHGXS- on mass expulsions and population exchanges. The horrors of the genocide of the and the Roma in *HUPDQRFFXSLHG&HQWUDO(XURSHZHUHFRPSRXQGHGE\XQSUHFHGHQWHGZDYHVRIH[SHOOHHVDQGUHIXJHHV numbering in the millions. The wartime horrors were condemned and it was promised that they would never be repeated, but one of its effects, or the unprecedented ethnolinguistic homogeneity of the postwar nation-states in &HQWUDO(XURSHZDVQRWDEDQGRQHG,QWKHUHJLRQ¶VKLVWRU\WH[WERRNVWKHSUHSHULRGRI³QDWLRQDO UHYLYDOV´DQG³QDWLRQDOSDWULRWV´LVUHPHPEHUHGDQGFKHULVKHGEXWWKHZD\LQZKLFKWKHHWKQROLQJXLVWLF ³SXULW\´RI&HQWUDO(XURSH¶VSROLWLHVZDVDFKLHYHGGXULQJWKH6HFRQG:RUOG:DUDQGLQLWVLPPHGLDWH DIWHUPDWKLVUDUHO\PHQWLRQHGOHWDORQHDQDO\]HG%XWDVPXFKDVWKH.UHPOLQ¶VLPSRVLWLRQRIFRPPX- QLVPRQJHQHUDOO\DQWLFRPPXQLVW&HQWUDO(XURSHPLJKWEHGLVOLNHGE\WKHUHJLRQ¶VHOLWHVDQGSRSXODFHV at large, the Soviet pledge to keep and deepen the freshly gained ethnolinguistic homogeneity of Central (XURSH¶VSROLWLHVERXJKWWKHLPSRVHGFRPPXQLVWV\VWHPPXFKQHHGHGOHJLWLPDF\61 The national-communism of the communist years was over after the breakup of the system, the 6RYLHWEORFDQGWKH6RYLHW8QLRQ%XWRQO\E\KDOIDVZKLOHFRPPXQLVPZDVJRQHLQWKHQHZGHPR- FUDWLFUHDOLW\QDWLRQDOLVP±HWKQROLQJXLVWLFDOO\GH¿QHG±UHPDLQHGWKHQRUPDQGEDVLVRIVWDWHKRRGOH- gitimation, complete with the close political attachment to the principle of ethnolinguistic homogeneity, even when, as in the case of Poland, the post-communist Constitution openly disavows ethnolinguistic QDWLRQDOLVPE\GH¿QLQJWKH3ROLVKQDWLRQSXUHO\LQWHUPVRIFLWL]HQVKLS,QUHDOLW\HWKQROLQJXLVWLFQDWLRQ- DOLVPFRQWLQXHVWRGHOLQHDWHERWKWKHFRQWRXUVDQGFRQWHQWVRIWKH3ROLVKQDWLRQVWDWHDQGLWVSROLWLFV'H

59 Philipp Ther&LHPQDVWURQDSDĔVWZDQDURGRZ\FK&]\VWNLHWQLF]QHZQRZRF]HVQHM(XURSLH[The Dark Side of 1DWLRQ6WDWHV(WKQLF&OHDQVLQJLQ0RGHUQ(XURSH@ 3R]QDĔ:\GDZQLFWZR3R]QDĔVNLH ± ,ELG± 61,ELG±

55 Eurasia Border Review < Article > facto Poland is a nation-state for all Polish-speakers, construed as the Polish nation.62 ,QRXUDUWLFOHZHWRRNDORRNDWWKHFRQÀLFWLQJG\QDPLFVRI3ROLVKRI¿FLDOFLYLFQDWLRQDOLVPDQG de facto ethnolinguistic nationalism by analyzing the cases of the Kashubs and the Silesians in today’s 3RODQG7KHJDSEHWZHHQWKLVRI¿FLDODQGGHIDFWRNLQGVRIQDWLRQDOLVPLVGHHSHQHGDQGPDGHPRUHSDUD- GR[LFDOE\WKHQHZXQGHFODUHGUHJLPHRIPLQRULW\ULJKWVSURWHFWLRQWKDWLQWKHVZDVLPSRVHGE\WKH :HVWRQ&HQWUDO(XURSH¶VSRVWFRPPXQLVWSRVW6RYLHWDQGSRVW

62 Ibid., 381–415. 63/XGQRĞüZHGáXJGHNODUDFML

56 Kamusella and Nomachi

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57 Eurasia Border Review < Article >

WLRQDOLW\DQGPRUHWKDQKDOIRIWKHP± SHUFHQW ±6LOHVLDQQDWLRQDOLW\$OVRDQXQH[SHFWHG .DVKXEV SHUFHQW SHUKDSVHPEROGHQHGE\WKHRI¿FLDOUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKHLUODQJXDJHVL[ years earlier, declared Kashubian nationality, too. It goes without saying that Warsaw did not recognize these declarations of Silesian and Kashubian nationality, thus reducing the total number of declarations RIQRQ3ROLVKQDWLRQDOLW\WRRUDOPRVWH[DFWO\WRSHUFHQWRI3RODQG¶VSRSXODWLRQ65 The number of non-Polish national declarations increased considerably because in this census LWZDVDOORZHGIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHHYHUIRUDUHVSRQGHQWWRGHFODUHPRUHWKDQRQHQDWLRQDOLW\7KLVPRYH perhaps limited by half the number of people whose nationality was not established, in comparison with WKHFHQVXVQDPHO\WRORZHULQJWKHWKUHVKROGRIVWDWLVWLFDOHUURUIRUWKLVFDWHJRU\RIGDWDWR DGDVKPRUHWKDQSHUFHQW+HQFHSHRSOH SHUFHQW GHFODUHGMRLQW3ROLVKQDWLRQDOLW\ZLWK DQRQ3ROLVKRQH7KHQXPEHURIGHFODUDWLRQVRIH[FOXVLYHO\QRQ3ROLVKQDWLRQDOLW\DPRXQWHGWR SHUFHQW )URPWKLVQXPEHULQWKHUHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVRIWKHUHVXOWVH[FOXVLYHGHFODUDWLRQVRI6LOHVLDQ QDWLRQDOLW\  DQGRI.DVKXELDQQDWLRQDOLW\  ZHUHGHGXFWHG\LHOGLQJRQO\GHF- ODUDWLRQV SHUFHQW RIH[FOXVLYHO\QRQ3ROLVKQDWLRQDOLW\66 It was a golden arrow that allowed for reducing the number of people declaring recognized QRQ3ROLVKQDWLRQDOLW\E\KDOILQFRPSDULVRQZLWKWKHUHVXOWVRIWKHFHQVXVIURPSHUFHQWWR SHUFHQW0D\EHZHDVVXPHUDWKHUWRRPXFKEDGZLOORQWKHSDUWRIWKH3ROLVKDXWKRULWLHVEXWDSDUW from permitting respondents to declare multiple nationalities, Warsaw did not concede to allowing them to declare that they had no nationality at all. Ideologically speaking, in an ethnolinguistic nation-state, it would be like accepting an a-national heresy. However, it is well known that nationality, or the fact of EHORQJLQJWRDQDWLRQLVDFXOWXUDOWUDLWDQGLVWKXVDFRQVWUXFWGHSHQGHQWRQWKHLQGLYLGXDO¶VZLOO8QWLO WKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\LQ(XURSHLQFHQVXVHVLWZDVXQWKLQNDEOHWKDWDSHUVRQZRXOGGHFODUHWREHRIQR UHOLJLRQ1RZDGD\VUHOLJLRQEHLQJHYHU\RQH¶VSULYDWHPDWWHULQOLEHUDOGHPRFUDFLHVQRRI¿FLDOZRXOG UDLVHDQH\HEURZZKHQDUHVSRQGHQWGHFODUHVWREHDQDWKHLVW ,QWKHFHQVXVSHUVRQV> SHUFHQW@GHFODUHGWKHPVHOYHVWREHRIQRUHOLJLRQDQGWKHUHOLJLRQRI>SHUFHQW@ZDVQRW established at all.671DWLRQVDUHQROHVVDSK\VLFDO¿FWLRQWKDQJRGV REYLRXVO\ERWKSKHQRPHQDDUHSDUW DQGSDUFHORIWKHVRFLDOUHDOLW\JHQHUDWHGE\KXPDQPLQGVLQFRQMXQFWLRQZLWKRQHDQRWKHU ,QOLJKWRI the Polish Constitution, equating the Polish nation with all the citizens of Poland, having no nationality is OHJDOO\DQGSROLWLFDOO\SRVVLEOH±FLWL]HQVKLSVKRXOGVXI¿FH±EXWSROLWLFDOO\XQDFFHSWDEOH ,QUHVSRQGHQWV SHUFHQW GHFODUHGWKDWWKH\VSRNHDQRQ3ROLVKODQJXDJHDW home. The number had almost doubled in comparison with the previous census, mostly on account of

65/XF\QD1RZDNHG/XGQRĞü6WDQLVWUXNWXUDVSRáHF]QRGHPRJUD¿F]QD1DURGRZ\6SLV3RZV]HFKQ\/XGQRĞFL L0LHV]NDĔ [3RSXODWLRQ,WV6WDWHDQG6RFLR'HPRJUDSKLF6WUXFWXUH7KH1DWLRQDO&HQVXVRIWKH3RSXODWLRQ and Accommodation@ :DUVDZ*áyZQ\8U]ąG6WDW\VW\F]Q\ $FFHVVHG$XJXVWKWWSZZZVWDW JRYSOJXVBB3/.B+70/KWP 66 Ibid., 91. 67 Ibid., 99.

58 Kamusella and Nomachi

DYRLGLQJYDULRXV³LUUHJXODULWLHV´ RUPDQLSXODWLRQV FRPPLWWHGE\WKHFHQVXVFRPPLVVLRQHUVZKHQJDWK- HULQJGDWDIURPUHVSRQGHQWVLQ7KLVWLPHLQWKHRI¿FLDOUHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHUHWXUQVRQO\GHFOD- UDWLRQVRIVSHDNLQJWKH6LOHVLDQODQJXDJH RUSHUFHQW ZHUHWREHGHGXFWHGIURPWKHWDOO\QRW WKRVHVSHDNLQJWKHDOUHDG\UHFRJQL]HG.DVKXELDQODQJXDJH RUSHUFHQW +HQFHWKHRI¿FLDO QXPEHURIQRQ3ROLVKVSHDNHUVLQWRGD\¶V3RODQGLV SHUFHQW $GGLWLRQDOO\DVWKHQXPEHU RIDFWXDOQDWLYHVSHDNHUVRI*HUPDQGLGQRWJURZEHWZHHQDQGZHSURSRVHWRDFFHSWWKHPRUH UHDOLVWLFHVWLPDWHRIDJDLQPHDQLQJWKDWWKHGHFODUDWLRQVRIVSHDNLQJWKLVODQJXDJHZHUH mostly of an ideological or ethnocultural character. This lowers the overall number of native speakers of QRQ3ROLVKODQJXDJHVWR SHUFHQW RUEHORZSHUFHQWDJDLQ68 Obviously, we have no knowledge of internal discussions on the census data on nationality and language behind closed doors at the meetings of the Polish government, or in the relevant ministries, GHSDUWPHQWVDQGRWKHUJRYHUQPHQWDOLQVWLWXWLRQV2XUGLYLQLQJRIWKHZKLPVLFDOO\GXEEHG³SULQFLSOHRI SHUFHQW´RUWKH³SULQFLSOHRIVWDWLVWLFDOHUURU´IURPWKHSXEOLVKHGGDWDDQGLWVRI¿FLDOUHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQV GRHVQRWLPSO\WKDWVRPHRI¿FLDOVDQGGHFLVLRQPDNHUVPDGHDFRQVFLRXVGHFLVLRQWRNHHSWKHQXPEHUVRI declarations of non-Polish nationality and language below the 1 per cent threshold. This is a rather knee- jerk – and as such, largely unconscious – reaction aimed at preserving and deepening the ethnolinguistic ³SXULW\´RIWKH3ROLVKQDWLRQVWDWHE\ZKLFKQXPHURXVJHQHUDWLRQVKDYHEHHQFRQGLWLRQHGE\VFKRRODQG via mass media since the founding of the Polish nation-state in 1918. +RZHYHULIWKHSULQFLSOHKROGVWKHUHLVEDVLFDOO\QR³GHPRJUDSKLFVSDFH´±DVFRQVWUXHGLQ line with the still-vibrant ideological tenets of ethnolinguistic nationalism – for recognizing either the Silesian language or Silesian as an ethnic or national minority. This would send the numbers of ethnic QRQ3ROHVDQGRIVSHDNHUVRIQRQ3ROLVKODQJXDJHVZHOODERYHWKHSHUFHQWEDUULHU

68 Ibid., 96. 69 Ibid., 96.

59