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BIROKRATISASI ISLAM DI INDOCINA Meninjau Ulang Hubungan Negara Dan Minoritas Muslim

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BIROKRATISASI ISLAM DI INDOCINA Meninjau Ulang Hubungan Negara Dan Minoritas Muslim BIROKRATISASI ISLAM DI INDOCINA Meninjau Ulang Hubungan Negara dan Minoritas Muslim i UU No. 28 Tahun 2014 tentang Hak Cipta Ketentuan Pidana Pasal 113 (1) Setiap Orang yang dengan tanpa hak melakukan pelanggaran hak ekonomi sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 9 ayat (1) huruf i untuk Penggunaan Secara Komersial dipidana dengan pidana penjara paling lama 1 (satu) tahun dan/atau pidana denda paling banyak Rp 100.000.000 (seratus juta rupiah). (2) Setiap Orang yang dengan tanpa hak dan/atau tanpa izin Pencipta atau pemegang Hak Cipta melakukan pelanggaran hak ekonomi Pencipta sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 9 ayat (1) huruf c, huruf d, huruf f, dan/atau huruf h untuk Penggunaan Secara Komersial dipidana dengan pidana penjara paling lama 3 (tiga) tahun dan/atau pidana denda paling banyak Rp 500.000.000,00 (lima ratus juta rupiah). (3) Setiap Orang yang dengan tanpa hak dan/atau tanpa izin Pencipta atau pemegang Hak Cipta melakukan pelanggaran hak ekonomi Pencipta sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 9 ayat (1) huruf a, huruf b, huruf e, dan/atau huruf g untuk Penggunaan Secara Komersial dipidana dengan pidana penjara paling lama 4 (empat) tahun dan/atau pidana denda paling banyak Rp1.000.000.000,00 (satu miliar rupiah). (4) Setiap Orang yang memenuhi unsur sebagaimana dimaksud pada ayat (3) yang dilakukan dalam bentuk pembajakan, dipidana dengan pidana penjara paling lama 10 (sepuluh) tahun dan/atau pidana denda paling banyak Rp 4.000.000.000,00 (empat miliar rupiah). ii Pengantar Ahli Prof. Dr. M. Arskal Salim GP., M.Ag. (Guru Besar Politik Hukum Islam, UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta) BIROKRATISASI ISLAM DI INDOCINA Meninjau Ulang Hubungan Negara dan Minoritas Muslim KHAIDIR HASRAM NUSA LITERA INSPIRASI 2020 iii Birokratisasi Islam di Indocina: Meninjau Ulang Hubungan Negara dan Minoritas Muslim Diterbitkan pertama kali oleh Penerbit Nusa Litera Inspirasi Cetakan pertama Maret 2020 All Right Reserved Hak cipta dilindungi undang-undang Penulis: Khaidir Hasram Perancang sampul: NLI Team Penata letak: NLI Team Birokratisasi Islam di Indocina: Meninjau Ulang Hubungan Negara dan Minoritas Muslim xx + 254: 14.5 cm x 20.5 cm ISBN: 978-623-7276-71-5 Anggota Ikatan Penerbit Indonesia (IKAPI) Penerbit Nusa Litera Inspirasi Jl. KH. Zainal Arifin Kabupaten Cirebon, Jawa Barat [email protected] www.nusaliterainspirasi.com HP: 0852-3431-1908 Isi di luar tanggungjawab percetakan. iv PENGANTAR AHLI Prof. Dr. M. Arskal Salim GP., M.Ag. Alhamdullilah, segala puji syukur bagi Allah SWT yang telah melimpahkan taufiq dan hidayah-Nya. Kita semua patut ber- syukur atas terbitnya buku Birokratisasi Islam di Asia Tenggara yang begitu menarik dan membanggakan. Sholawat serta salam selalu tercurah untuk baginda Nabi Muhammad SAW beserta kelu- arga, para sahabatnya, dan semua umatnya yang senantiasa selalu berdoa menginginkan syafaatnya. Kosa kata birokrasi kadang kala dimaknai sebagai sebuah sistem yang bersifat negatif karena cara kerjanya yang hirarkis dan berbelit-belit: menyempitkan makna birokrasi itu sendiri. Bahkan karena sifatnya itu, dianggap sebagai sistem yang tidak demokratis (undemocratic) dan bertentangan dengan prinsip negara-negara modern yang dibangun di atas fondasi demokrasi dan kesetaraan. Namun belakangan ini, konsep birokrasi yang semula merupakan topik kajian dalam studi ilmu pemerintahan ditarik ke wilayah stu- di sosial oleh para sarjana: digunakan sebagai kerangka untuk me- ninjau ulang hubungan Islam dan Negara. Max Weber menjadi orang yang pertama mendiskusikan tentang birokrasi. Weber melakukan kategorisasi model organisasi kekuasaan (authority) menjadi tiga model: kekuasaan tradisional, kekuasaan kharisma, dan kekuasaan legal-rasional. Model kekuasa- an terakhir, legal-rasional, disebut sebagai model kekuasaan yang bertumpu pada cara kerja birokrasi, yaitu segala sesuatu diatur ber- dasarkan pembagian tugas-tugas khusus yang dibebankan kepada suatu lembaga khusus (bureau) yang bertanggung jawab kepada tu- gas yang bersifat spesifik. Pembagian-pembagian kerja tersebut se- muanya diatur berdasarkan suatu aturan hukum (kratie). Saat ini, semua negara dijalankan dengan prinsip birokrasi tersebut. Bahkan struktur-struktur masyarakat yang pada awalnya hanya bertumpu pada sistem kepatuhan kepada tokoh tertentu (kha- v risma) atau mengakui kekuasaan keturunan tertentu (tradisional), secara cepat berubah menjadi struktur kekuasaaan yang bertumpu pada kepatuhan legal-rasional. Gelombang birokratisasi melanda tidak hanya pada negara, melainkan juga pada struktur-struktur non-negara: agama dan adat, mau tidak mau harus berjalan dengan prinsip birokratis. Fenomena ini yang kemudian disebut sebagai zaman birokrasi (the age of bureaucracy), zaman yang secara prin- sip mengikat manusia untuk berada dalam sistem kepatuhan berda- sarkan sistem kekuasaan legal-rasional. Islam dalam bentuknya sebagai struktur juga melewati tiga model kekuasaan ini. Dalam sejarah perkembangannya, secara se- derhana kita bisa menjelaskannya sebagai berikut: Pertama, sistem kepatuhan politik bertumpu pada sosok otoritas kharismatik Nabi Muhammad dan kharisma empat pemimpin pada masa Khulafaur- rasyidin. Terlepas dari ragam dinamika sejarah politik Islam yang mengikuti perbincangan tentang pengangkatan keempat pemimpin pasca wafatnya Nabi. Suksesi pengangkatannya sangat dipengaruhi oleh kharisma ketokohannya: Abu Bakar dipilih berdasarkan bai’at oleh perwakilan kelompok besar masa itu. Setidaknya ada dua indi- kator: karena sosoknya yang ditunjuk Nabi untuk menjadi imam shalat jika Nabi sakit dan sosoknya yang tampil bijaksana ketika berusaha menyatukan dua kabilah (suku) yang masing-masing akan mengangkat pemimpinnya. Begitupun Umar bin Khattab dan Utsman bin Affan, kedua- nya dipilih berdasarkan sistem bai’at dari tokoh-tokoh terpercaya di masa itu, tentu saja indikatornya didasarkan kepada sosok kha- risma dari masing-masing pemimpin tersebut. Berbeda dengan ke- duanya yang dipilih melalui kepanitian yang dipilih oleh khalifah, disebabkan oleh dinamika politik pasca wafatnya Utsman karena terbunuh, tidak ada wasiat atau kepanitian tertentu yang terbentuk. Sehingga umat Islam yang khawatir kekuasaannya (daulah) tidak memiliki pemimpin, bersama-sama membai’at Ali bin Abi Thalib yang terkenal kecerdasan dan kedekatannya dengan Nabi. Bai’at ini dilakukan oleh hampir semua pemimpin daerah Islam, kecuali daerah Syam yang saat itu dipimpin oleh Muawiyah. vi Kedua, sistem kepatuhan politik yang bertumpu pada jalur keturunan, disebut Weber sebagai sistem otoritas tradisional. Dina- mikanya dimulai ketika Ali naik tahta menjadi khalifah. Pemerin- tahannya diguncang oleh berbagai isu dari berbagai golongan. Salah satunya adalah isu pembunuhan Utsman, menjadi fitnah pertama dalam sejarah Islam. Penolakan Muawiyah untuk berbait kepada Ali diakibatkan fitnah tersebut, Ia menuntut pembunuh Utsman dihukum terlebih dahulu. Isu ini memicu terjadinya perang Shiffin yang dimenangkan oleh Muawiyah. Kemenangannya menjadi awal mula dimulainya sejarah dinasti dalam Islam. Muawiyah naik tahta menjadi khalifah. Sistem kekuasaan diturunkan melalui jalur kelu- arga: Dinasti Bani Umayyah, Dinasti Bani Abbasiyah, Dinasti Tur- ki Ustmani, dan lainnya. Ketiga, sistem kepatuhan politik yang didasarkan pada prin- sip legal-rasional. Hampir secara serentak, secara signifikan kekua- saan ini dimulai ketika perang dingin selesai dan negara-negara bangsa (nation-state) terbentuk sebagai sistem negara modern. Se- panjang awal abad ke-20, setelah era kolonialisme berakhir secara dramatis. Negara-negara mengorganisasi dirinya dalam sebuah sis- tem yang birokratis dan saling terikat satu sama lain. Organisasi- organisasi negara kawasan terbentuk dan kerjasama internasional terjalin semakin intim antar negara. Fenomena ini menjadi menarik untuk mempertanyakan kem- bali di mana dan bagaimana posisi Islam dalam hubungannya de- ngan kekuasaan negara modern yang bersifat birokratis itu? Saat membimbing Khaidir dalam menyelesaikan naskah ini, saya mem- berikan semacam roadmap sebagai kerangka birokratisasi Islam di negara-negara minoritas muslim. Saya menyebutkan terdapat em- pat model birokratisasi Islam oleh negara minoritas muslim, yaitu: birokratisasi refresif, tanpa birokratisasi, birokratisasi terbatas, dan birokratisasi minimum. Roadmap ini belum memiliki landasan kajian yang mendalam, hanya dijadikan kerangka untuk memudah- kan Khaidir dalam menyusun analisis tesisnya. Dalam buku ini, ia mengeksplorasi dan memberikan contoh- contoh negara mana saja yang ia kategorikan dalam model-model birokratisasi. Meski belum detail, ia juga memberikan penjelasan vii atas indikator-indikator yang ia gunakan dalam melakukan katego- risasi tersebut. Menariknya, dua negara yang diteliti, Vietnam dan Kamboja mengalami birokratisasi Islam, namun dalam kategori yang berbeda. Vietnam dikategorikan dalam birokratisasi terbatas, sementara Kamboja dikelompokkan dalam kategori birokratisasi minimum. Secara umum, kajian terhadap birokratisasi Islam di Asia Tenggara telah dimulai oleh para sarjana yang didekati dengan ber- bagai pendekatan. Misalnya oleh Dominik M Muller yang meng- kaji birokratisasi Islam di Brunei Darussalam dengan pendekatan antropologi; kawan saya Kerstein Steiner yang menganalis feno- mena birokratisasi melalui pasal-pasal hukum di empat negara: Malaysia, Brunei, Singapura dan Filipina; dan Walid Jumblatt Ab- dulla yang meneliti bagaimana Singapura melakukan controling terhadap Islam melalui format birokratisasi Islam. Negara-negara yang banyak dikaji oleh para sarjana tersebut terletak di kawasan Asia
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