The Boyash in Hungary a Sociolinguistic Outline of Two (Romanian) Vernaculars in Decline Ioana Aminian Jazi

The Boyash in Hungary A sociolinguistic outline of two (Romanian) vernaculars in decline Ioana Aminian Jazi

Anglia Ruskin–Cambridge Romance Linguistics Seminars, 25th May 2021 1 Outline

1. Introduction ❖ Methods of Research ❖ Roma Groups in Hungary ❖ Research Location ❖ Origins of Boyash ❖ “Gypsy”, “Roma” or “Romanian”? 2. Sociolinguistic Profile ❖ Similarities and Differences ❖ Education ❖ Standardization Efforts 3. Comparative Grammar ❖ Phonology Greeting on the school door in Alsószentmárton ❖ Morphosyntax Introduction Methods – Comparative – Qualitative

20 Interviews (a/v): 10 in Gilvánfa 10 in Alsószentmárton in 2010, 2011, 2013

a. questionnaire – language attitudes; sociolinguistic profile

Data Acquisition b. linguistic questionnaire containing 800 questions (Rusu et al. 1992)

c. participant observation through community immersion

1. check out our open access multimedia collection (in work)

2. Kahl, T. and Nechiti (/Aminian) I. (2019): The Boyash in Hungary. A Comparative Study among the Arĝeleni and Munĉeni Communities. Vienna, Results Austrian Academy of Sciences. VLACH, Vol. 1.

3. Kahl, T. and Nechiti (/Aminian) I. (2012): Aschenputtel bei den Bajeschi und Rudari. Vergleich zweier Märchen anhand von Feldaufnahmen in Ungarn und Griechenland…(see bibliography) Introduction Roma Groups in Hungary

3 Main Roma groups:

Romungro Vlach Roma Boyash

~ 71% ~ 21% ~ 6-8% settled around 16th/17th c. emigrated ~19th c. from emigrated ~ end 19th c. speak mostly Hungarian present day Romania from present day Romania identify themselves as speak a variant of Romani speakers of ‘archaic Hungarians or cziganyok with Romanian influences Romanian varieties’ (i.e. Gypsies) live mainly in Baranya do not self-identify as Roma! (Marushiakova 2004: 38-42) Introduction Roma groups in Hungary

3 Main Roma groups: Introduction Research Location

1 Arĝeleni - in Gilvánfa (338 inh., 2020) - in Pécs (141,843 inh., 2020)

2 Munĉeni - in Alsószentmárton (1,190 inh., 2020)

(source: http://www.ksh.hu/) (Kahl/Nechiti 2019:132) Introduction Research Location – Boyash Villages

▪ anthropologically classified as Roma ▪ in Central and Eastern Europe since 14th century ▪ forced into slavery and serfdom in the Rom. Principalities (slavery was abolished in 1856) ▪ as ‘gold washers’, probably lived in the Apuseni Mountains, Little Wallachia (Vâlcea) or Greater Wallachia (Argeş) ▪ after liberation, forced to take up woodworking occupations

▪ → “second wave of Gypsy migration” (Zamfir/Zamfir 1993: 82-83)

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apuseni_Mountains Introduction “Gypsy Slaves for Sale“

Gypsy slaves (Bucharest, 1852) Boyash (Pécs, 1956) (Neber Artekics in Artekics 2007: 245) Introduction Origins of Boyash Introduction “Gypsy”, “Roma” or “Romanian”?

IN LITERATURE…

• WEIGAND (1908: 174) “Romanian speaking Gypsy“

• SIKIMIĆ (2008: 227) “sometimes considered Gypsies by locals“

• ASCHAUER (2006: 65) “already-almost-no-Roma-anymore“

• MARUSHIAKOVA (1997: 99) “Romanian-speaking Roma”

• BENGELSDORF (2009) “the other Gypsies” (Presenter‘s translation) Introduction “Gypsy”, “Roma” or “Romanian”?

IN THEIR OWN WORDS…

• a vení mulţ romîní aíća (many Romanians [Boyash] came here) (A.P., Pécs, 2012) • șî băéșii, romîní i, nu să-prićépe cu, cu gol’éţi (and the Boyash, the Romanians, don‘t get

along with the Roma) (A.P., Gilvánfa, 2011)

• băéș, romîní , țîganí , cum vréi (Boyash, Romanians, Gypsy, as you wish) (M.O., Pécs, 2012)

• nói țîgáni, nu istém lăcătári. (We are gypsy, not Roma) (N.K., Alsószentmárton 2011)

• Dácă-ǐ úngur, atúnĉa- om, dacă-ǐ țîgán, îῐ țîgán (If he is Hungarian, then he is a man, if he is a Gypsy, then he is a Gyspy) (A.P., Alsószentmárton 2011) Investigated Groups Boyash Professions Today

• wood workers • spoon makers

• basket weavers • seasonal workers • high unemployment

COMMMON TO BOTH VARIETIES • endangered varieties → private domain, as an affective language • no registered monolingual speakers of Boyash • self-denomination* țîgáń, Arĝelέń (Arĝ.)/țîgáni, Munĉέńì (Munĉ.) • Negative attitudes towards Boyash*, calling it şîşcávă (mangled) or sărácă (poor) • however, language represents a core value in their identity • reject being labelled as Roma, however, willingness to act jointly with the Roma when it comes to representing both groups at the local, regional, and even national level • both varieties looked upon as a cause of shame, ostracism, lack of integration Sociolinguistic profile Example – Denominations

Urbέşĉe, urbέşĉe, ĭi urbέşĉe, noĭ sfătíń şî nu ţîgănív nu ţîgăńέşĉe, noĭ zîșeń́ bằĭeșắșĉe. D-aĭ, cîn lăcătárì zîșé pă noĭ că noĭ nu ńi-s ţîgań́ , zîșé că noĭ ńis rumîń́ , lăcătárì zîșé pă noĭ că noĭ ńis, di şe nu mirźéń acásă, în͓ Rumîńíe, anúme, ńíş no dátă şî nu ńe ţîńé pă noĭ dă ţîgań́ . Șî atúnś aíş îs munĉέńì cáre şî ĭéĭ îs băĭáş, da ĭi să ţîńé dă ţîgań́ şî zîșé , noĭ urbíń ţîgănív ĭi zîc. Atúnś ĭi şíńi-s?

(2010_09_24a Anna Orsós, Pécs) (We call our language the Boyash language, not the Gypsy language. The Romani-speaking Lacatari don’t recognize us as Gypsy and ask us why we don’t go back home to Romania. And there are also the Munĉeni who say they are Boyash, but they say they speak the Gypsy language. Who are they after all?) Sociolinguistic profile Example – Language Attitudes

Hᴐt , cum să-ț zîc. […] Míe mi róu că límba nɔ́ stă să pέrĝe, da ĭέșĉe lu cári nu-ǐ róu că ímba asta să pέrĝe. Iέșĉe cári-ĭ fălós că ásta s-o pérdùt ímbă. Șî mi drágă dă ímba mέ. Iέșĉe lu cárɪ nu-ĭi drag dă ímba ásta. Pέrse , că i rușîńé dă ĭé. Maĭ bíńe táșe, nu sfăťέșĉe.

(2011_06_08 Joli Bogdán,Gilvánfa) (How can I put it. […] I feel very bad about us losing our mother tongue, but there are some people who don’t care at all. There are some who rather happy that they don’t speak it anymore. And I like this language. There are some who don’t like it. Because they are ashamed of it. They would rather be silent than speak it.) Sociolinguistic profile Differences

Arĝeleni (Gilvánfa) Munĉeni (Alsószentmárton)

• Bilingualism only above ~ 50 • Bilingualism at all ages (*not universal), trilingualism among elderli people (Croatian)

• extreme loss of vocabulary and inability to • Hungarian is beginning to replace the Boyash create new words language even in everyday life • intense linguistic contact with Hungarian • Intense inguistic contact with Hungarian, Croatian and through it, with German • since 1994, the Arĝelean vernacular enjoys greater prestige (! Gandhi High School) • lack of “representation“ in standardization efforts seems to accelerate language shift Sociolinguistic profile Example – Arĝelean vs. Munĉan

Noĭ maĭ întîí ań vińít şî ma nu sfătíń așá bíńe ca munĉέńì, aşá bíńe, aşá mult. Noĭ maĭ múlĉe vórbe ań lᴐt dîn͓ ímba dă únguŕ. La noĭ înĉepút nu-ĭ, noĭ ‘kizdilíń’, acoló íncă ĭέșĉe ‘înşepút’. Noĭ zîșéń ‘mirẑéń’, ĭeĭ zîșé ‘mirẑém’. Noĭ zîșéń cînd, cînd o ţîgarétă bágă-n gúră, ‘ĭo trag’, ĭeĭ zîșé , munĉέńì zîșé , ‘io bĭɔ, bĭɔ o ţîgarétă’, da.

(2010_09_24a Anna Orsós, Pécs) (We were the first to come to these lands and that’s why we do not speak the language as well as the Munĉeni. We borrowed more words from Hungarian. We don’t have înĉepút [beginning], we kizdilíń, there they have înĉepút. We say mirẑéń [we go], they say mirẑém. We say, when we smoke a cigarette, ĭo trag [I drag]; the Munĉeni say bĭɔ [I drink] a cigarette, yes.) Sociolinguistic profile Education – Gandhi High School

!!!Schoolbooks - written in the Arĝelean vernacular

basket weavers seasonal workers

Private song collection of Gyöngyi Kalányos (Pécs) with Croat symbols

In Romanian orthography, this would be: un câine -> 7 câini (1 dog → 7 dogs) mult/multă/mulți/multe (‘many’ in dif. Inflections) cățălu nostru-i dă 7 luni © Ioana Aminiancățălu nostru & Thede d ăKahl, 7 luni 2010 îi -2012 © Ioana Aminian,© Thede 2010 Kahl, 2010 Sociolinguistic profile Language Standardisation Efforts

We use few of these books because they [the Arĝeleni] speak a different dialect. They aren’t quite willing to accept our dialect either. They believe that the only good dialect is Arĝelean, and the Munĉan one is not so important (2011_06_07 József Lenkó, Alsószentmárton; translated from German)

After-School centre, Gilvánfa Town hall sign, Alsószentmárton

Hungarian vs. Romanian orthography Comparative Grammar Phonology: Accentuation

Accentuation deviating from standard Romanian especially in third-conjugation verbs with the infinitive in [-e] as in a merge ‘to go’

Arĝelean Munĉan Standard Romanian English merźéń merźém mérgem we go priśepéń priśepém pricépem we understand mága mácar măcár at least rắtund rắtund rotúnd round cávε cávε cafeá coffee ĉíniva, śiniva ĉíniva cinevá somebody ĉéva ĉéva cevá something

(Kahl/Nechiti 2019: 142) Comparative Grammar Phonology: Vowels

Velarization of vowels

Vowel Phonetical Arĝeleni Munĉeni Standard English phenomena Romanian

[a] [a] > [ă] dăzbrắc dăzbrắc dezbrac I undress [ă] [ă] > [î] pîmî́nt (cf. pîmắnt) pământ earth In the Munĉan vernacular we can observe a general tendency toward velarization of the final [-e] in plural nouns, articulated with the definite article -le: (cf. fétiľe) fétilɪ fetele the girls

(Kahl/Nechiti 2019: 143) Comparative Grammar Phonology: Consonants

Palatalization of consonants in the Arĝelean vernacular

Arĝelean Munĉan Stand. Romanian English strong palatalization: no/weak palatalization:

fráĉe fráte frate brother

ĉáptăn pέptăn pieptăn comb

urέĉe urέke ureche ear

sprî́nșină dă óĉi sprînĉénă sprânceană eyebrow

puĉέre putέrε putere power

śinúșă ĉinúșă cenușă ash

(Kahl/Nechiti 2019: 152) Comparative Grammar Morphosyntax: Case – Clitic Doubling

Case Arĝelean Munĉan The pairs NOM/ACC, GEN/DAT - as in standard Romanian. The accusative is expressed in combination with the prepositions: pă, la, în, dîn, cu, etc. NOM/ D-aĭ, cîn lăcătárì zîșé pă noĭ că noĭ nu ńi-s ţîgań́ , zî́șe că noĭ Îl cunóş pă Şándor? Nu cunóș tu ACC ńis rumîń́ , lăcătárì zîșé pă noĭ că noĭ ńis, di şe nu mirźéń pă Şándor? acásă, în͓ Rumîńíé

(That’s why, when the Lacatari say that we are not Gypsy, (Do you know Șandor? they say that we are Romanian and ask us why we don’t go Don’t you know Șandor yet?) home to Romania) (2010_09_24 Anna Orsós) (2013_01_14 Persa) Clitic doubling in the accusative no longer seems to be used in the two vernaculars. The accusative is used for objects that in standard Romanian are in the dative or genitive. zî́śe ĭε pă mine ‘îmi spune mie’ (tells me) Nu dúce nimílea pă tine în tîrg. zîc ĭo pă iε ‘îi spun ei’ (I tell her) ‘Nimeni nu te duce pe tine în (2011_06_08 János Orsós) oraș.’ (Nobody takes you to the city.) Comparative Grammar Morphosyntax: Case – Clitic Doubling

Case Arĝelean Munĉan The phenomenon of clitic doubling in the dative is typical of both vernaculars formed with the help of the preposed personal pronouns lu ‘lui’ / a lu ‘a lui’ (SG.M.GEN) and postposed genitive article -i (SG.F.GEN), -lui (SG.M.GEN), -lor (PL.M./F.GEN). However, in fairy tales and songs the genitival construction is preserved in the Arĝelean vernacular as in standard Romanian.

GEN./ Sî lu úngurìlor maĭ vɔ́ ĭe ĭi dă băĭáș dăcî́t dă lăcătáŕ. Li drag a lu mulț dă el. DAT. ‘Și ungurilor le place mai mult de băieși decât de ‘el place multora’ lăcătari’. (The Hungarians like the Boyash more than the Roma.) (many people like him) (2010_09_23 Gyöngyi) (2011_06_05 Persa)

A lu țîgánśì cupíl A lu búsului cásă ‘copilul țigăncii’ lit.‘casa autobuzului’ (The Gypsy woman’s child) (the bus‘s house, i.e. bus station) (2011_06_08 Joli) (2013_01_14 Persa)

(Kahl/Nechiti 2019: 170) Comparative Grammar Morphosyntax: Case – Vocative

Case Arĝelean Munĉan Like in standard Romanian, the vocative is not morphologically marked in most of the registered examples, being identical with the nominative. However, there are examples of the vocative in -o for the feminine and in -e for the masculine in text styles that preserved more archaic forms (e.g. songs, fairy tales). VOC cupílu! copílùle! ‘copilule!’ (child) fátă! pắpúșă! fáto! ‘fato!’ (woman, doll) fráțîlor! fráțîlor! ‘fraților!’ (brothers) fέćilor! fέtilor! ‘fetelor!’ (girls) mùnćeșîțó ! țîgánco! ‘femeie/nevastă!’ (woman/wife) munćáșe! țîgáne! ‘om/bărbate!’ (man/husband)

(Kahl/Nechiti 2019: 173) Comparative Grammar Morphosyntax: Personal Pronouns

In both varieties, we recorded a double use of the personal pronouns in ACC:

➢ m-am spărέtu-mă (Munĉ.) ‘m-am speriat’ (I got scared) ➢ m-am spălátu-mă (Munĉ.) ‘m-am spălat’ (I washed myself) ➢ l-a adúsu-lă (Arĝ.) ‘l-a adus’ (he/she brought him)

Standard Arĝelean Munĉan English Romanian a mńo a míe al meu mine a țóu a țíe al tău yours a luĭ/a ľíe a lui/a ĭe / ĭeĭ al lui/ al ei his/hers a nɔ́ stră a nɔ́ ă/nɔ́ vă a noastră our a vɔ́ stră a vɔ́ ă/vɔ́ vă a voastră your a lor a lor al lor their

(Kahl/Nechiti 2019: 173-174) Comparative Grammar Morphosyntax: Demonstrative Pronouns

Arĝelean Munĉan Stand. Romanian English

The demonstrative pronoun of identity --- ístumắla același the same (NOM/ACC.M.SG)

a fel dă-ĭ (a) ístumáĭa aceeași the same (NOM/ACC.F.SG)

a fel dă-s ìstumắĭaș aceeași the same (NOM/ACC.M.PL)

--- ìstumắluĭaș aceluiaș to the same (GEN/DAT.M.SG)

--- ìstumắlăĭaș aceleeași to the same (GEN/DAT.F.SG)

(Kahl/Nechiti 2019: 176) Comparative Grammar Morphosyntax: Demonstrative Pronouns

Arĝelean Munĉan Stand. Romanian English The demonstrative pronoun of difference hằlalánt ằlalált celălalt the other (NOM/ACC.M.SG) hàĭalántă/ hàlalántă ằláltă cealaltă the other (NOM/ACC.F.SG) hèĭlánț ằĭalálț ceilalți the others (NOM/ACC.M.PL) hèĭelánťe ằĭalálťe celelalte to the other (GEN/DAT.F.PL) hằĭunlánt ằluĭlált celuilalt to the other (GEN/DAT.M.SG) hèĭalánće álĭlálťe celeialte to the other (GEN/DAT.F.SG) (Kahl/Nechiti 2019: 176-177) Comparative Grammar Morphosyntax: Adjectives

Arĝelean Munĉan Standard Romanian English The comparative of equality Ánna așá mî́ndră îĭ ca Ánna așá-ĭ mîndrắ dă Ana e la fel de frumoasă Anna is as beautiful Édit. Édit. ca Edit. as Edith. The comparative of inferiority Ánna maĭ puț́în mîndră îĭ Ánna maĭ slábă-ĭ mî́ndră Ana e mai puțin Anna is less beautiful ca Édit. dă Édit. frumoasă ca Edit. than Edith. The comparative of superiority Ánna ma̎ĭ mî́ndră-ĭ Ánna maĭ mîndrắ -ĭ dă Ana e mai frumoasă Anna is more dắcînd Édit. Édit. decât Edit. beautiful than Edith. Superlative Ánna șî ma̎ i mîndrắ -ĭ Ánna máĭ mîndrắ -ĭ Ana e cea mai frumoasă. Anna is the most beautiful. --- Ĭo șî̎ máĭ t-am plăcút. Eu te-am plăcut cel mai I liked you the most. mult. (Kahl/Nechiti 2019: 179) Comparative Grammar Morphosyntax: Moods and Tenses

Arĝ. Munĉ. Arĝ. Munĉ.

a fi ‘to be’ a avea ‘to have’

Indicative Present

mis mesc am am ĭéșĉ eșt aĭ aĭ ăĭ i/îĭ áre áĭe ńis/ișĉéń istém avéń aĭém ișĉéț istéț avéț aĭéț ăs sînt/îs áre áre

(Kahl/Nechiti 2019: 182) Comparative Grammar Morphosyntax: Moods and Tenses

Nűma, ń-o apucát pă noĭ în͓ Ròmîńíĭɪ, pă băĭáşì, ń-o apucát şî în͓ Ròmîńíĭɪ, acoló slugáń, slúgă sînĉέń şî acoló în͓ bằnăríe sînĉέń, lucrà, în bằnăríe şî -d áĭa ań căpătát noĭ núme ahắsta, băĭáş. Vóĭ nu şĉíεţ d-ahásta? Nu şĉiáţ. (2010_09_23j Gyöngyi Kalányos, Pécs)

‘Numai că ne-au prins pe noi în România, pe băieși, ne-au prins în România, acolo eram sclavi în mine și acolo în mine lucram, în mine și de aceea am căpătat numele acesta de băieși.’

(Only that were caught in Romania and we were enslaved there, we used to work in mines, for that reason we got the name Boyash.)

(Kahl/Nechiti 2019: 184)

Bibliography

Aschauer, Wolfgang (2006): „Lustig ist das Zigeunerleben“ – Bild und Realität der südosteuropäischen Roma, in: Südosteuropa Mitteilungen 04/2006, 56-71. Bengelstorf, Jens (2009): Die „anderen Zigeuner“. Zur Ethnizität der Rudari und Bajeschi in Südosteuropa.Leipzig: Eudora Verlag. Calotă, Ion (1971): „Observaţii asupra graiului unei familii de rudari“, in: Actele celui de-al XII-lea congres internaţional de lingvistică şi filologie romanică II. Bucureşti: Editions de l’Academie de la Republique de Roumanie, 343-350. Calotă, Ion (1974): Graiul rudarilor din Oltenia. Rezumatul tezei de doctorat. Craiova: Sectorul de reprografie al Centrului de ştiinţe sociale. Caragiu Marioțeanu, Matilda (1975): Compendiu de dialectologie română nord- și sud-dunăreană, București: Editura științifică și enciclopedică. Kahl, Thede (2011): „Die Zigeuner und das Rumänische. Zur Sprache und Kultur der Vlach-Roma, Bajeschi und Rudari“. In: Doppel bauer, Max; Kremnitz, Georg; Stiehle r, Heinrich (ed.), Die Sprachen der Roma in der Romania. Wien: Praesens, 190-223. Kahl, Thede& Nechiti, Ioana (2012): „Aschenputtel bei den Bajeschi und Rudari. Vergleich zweier Märchen anhand von Feldaufnahmen in Ungarn und Griechenland“. In: Dahmen, Wolfgang, Günter Holtus, Johannes Kramer, Michael Metzeltin, Wolfgang Schweickard und Otto Winkelmann, Hrsg. Südosteuropäische Romania: Siedlungs- /Migrationsgeschichte und Sprachtypologie. Tübingen: Narr, 191-226. Kahl, Thede. and Nechiti (/Aminian) Ioana (2019): The Boyash in Hungary. A Comparative Study among the Arĝeleni and Munĉeni Communities. Vienna, Austrian Academy of Sciences. VLACH, Vol. 1. Rusu, Grigore; Bidian, Viorel; Loșonți, Dumitru (ed., 1992): Atlasul lingvistic român pe regiuni.Transilvania, București: Editura Academiei Romîne, Academia Romînă, Institutul de Lingvisticăşi Istorie Literară „Sextil Puşcariu“. Contact Ioana Aminian Jazi [email protected] 38 Video Sources and Links

1. Nu să pɔ́ će șći dă únd’-ań vińít – Nobody knows where we came from; performer: János Orsós, camera/ interview/ transcription/ translation: Thede Kahl, Ioana Nechiti, editor: Mehdi Aminian, retrieved from www.oeaw.ac.at/VLACH, ID-number: baya1254HUV0002a.

2. Țî́gań, băĭáș, lăcătáŕ, tíĉań, lováŕ – Gypsies, Boyash, Lacatari, Tiszani, Lovara; performer: Anna Orsós, camera/ interview/ transcription/ translation: Thede Kahl, Ioana Nechiti, editor: Mehdi Aminian, retrieved from www.oeaw.ac.at/VLACH, ID-number: baya1254HUV0008a.

3. Munĉaș ș-Munĉeșîță – Munĉaș and Munĉeșîță; performer: János Orsós, camera/ interview: Ioana Nechiti, transcription/ translation: Thede Kahl, Ioana Nechiti, editor: Mehdi Aminian, retrieved from www.oeaw.ac.at/VLACH, ID-number: baya1254HUV0009a.

Documentation Project on Romanian Varieties at the Austrian Academy of Sciences

https://www.oeaw.ac.at/vlach/collections/romanian-varieties

Transcription guidelines used for the original texts

https://www.oeaw.ac.at/vlach/lab/transcription-guidelines/vlach-symbols-for-romanian-varieties