Masaryk University
Faculty of Education
Department of English Language and Literature
French influence on English fashion vocabulary
Bachelor thesis
Brno 2017
Supervisor: Author:
Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D. Aneta Vyšehradová
Prohlášení
Prohlašuji, že jsem závěrečnou bakalářskou práci vypracovala samostatně, s využitím pouze citovaných pramenů, dalších informací a zdrojů v souladu s Disciplinárním řádem pro studenty Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy univerzity a se zákonem č. 121/2000 Sb., o právu autorském, o právech souvisejících s právem autorským a o změně některých zákonů (autorský zákon), ve znění pozdějších předpisů.
………...... ….
Brno 15 March, 2017 Aneta Vyšehradová
Acknowledgements:
Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D. for his helpful advice and beneficial impulses while working on the thesis and especially for his understanding and patience. Secondly, I would like to thank my family and friends for their ceaseless support and benevolence throughout my studies and their encouragement to overcome all kinds of obstacles. Abstract
The aim of this paper is to examine the influence of French on the English language, especially on the fashion vocabulary. The purpose is to chronicle the historical background, which determined the formation of new expressions related to fashion based on already existing French terms, to depict basic procedures of enriching English lexicon and to examine concrete examples of the vocabulary.
The theoretical part includes historical research portraying the development of English language and its connection with French culture, language and lifestyle. It also determines specific methods used to create or transform words in order to expand English lexicon. The practical part then analyses a list of chosen English fashion vocabulary items inspired by French language and classifies them from the historical point of view, takes into consideration word classes of given words and evaluates particular resemblances and anomalies throughout the process.
As a whole, the thesis serves as a source of comparison of historical and modern forms of the fashion vocabulary and may be used as an initial point to further studies of the given subject.
Key words
Fashion vocabulary, French influence, borrowings, French-English relation, historical development, expanding lexicon Abstrakt
Tato práce se zabývá studií vlivu francouzského jazyka na jazyk anglický a především na slovní zásobu týkající se tématu móda. Jejím záměrem je popsat historické pozadí, které zapříčinilo vznik nových módních termínů v angličtině ovlivněných již existujícími termíny z francouzštiny, poskytnout přehled způsobů rozšiřování anglické slovní zásoby a pozorovat konkrétní příklady.
Teoretická část zahrnuje historickou rešerši, která dokládá vývoj anglického jazyka a jeho vztah s francouzskou kulturou, jazykem a životním stylem. Zároveň uvádí jednotlivé metody pro tvorbu nebo úpravu slov se záměrem rozšířit anglické lexikum. Praktická část zkoumá seznam vybraných anglických výrazů spojených s významovým okruhem módy, která byla ovlivněna francouzštinou, klasifikuje je z historického hlediska s ohledem na slovní druhy a vymezuje určité podobnosti a anomálie, ke kterým během procesu došlo.
Práce jako celek slouží jako porovnání historické a současné podoby dané slovní zásoby a může být využita jako výchozí bod pro další studie zvolené problematiky.
Klíčová slova slovní zásoba móda, vliv francouzštiny, slovní výpůjčky, francouzsko-anglický vztah, historický vývoj, rozšiřování lexika List of abbreviations and symbols used in the thesis
Abbreviations adj. adjective n° number AL. Anglo-Latin n. noun AN. Anglo-Norman OE Old English alt. alternation OF. Old French Arab. Arabic OHG. Old High German Balt.-Sl. Balto-Slavonic Old Fris. Old Frisian c. century ON Old Norse Celt. Celtic ONF. Old Northern French CODEE The Concise Oxford orig. origin Dictionary of English OS. Old Saxon Etymology perh. perhaps conj. conjuction Pers. Persian dial. dialect, dialectal prep. preposition F. French prob. probably Frank. Frankish Pr.-Ger. Proto- Germanic G. German Prov. Provençal Gmc. Germanic Rom. Roman, Romance Gr. Greek Sp. Spanish interj. interjection unkn. unknown It. Italian v. verb L. Latin var. variant(s) MHG. Middle High German VL. Vulgar Latin
Symbols < = from
Contents
Preface ...... 9
I. Theoretical part ...... 10
1. Introduction to language and to English ...... 11
1.1. Functions of a language ...... 11
1.2. Historical development of English ...... 12
1.2.1 Old English ...... 13
1.2.2 Middle English ...... 14
1.2.3 Modern English ...... 15
2. Enriching English lexicon ...... 16
2.1. Affixation ...... 17
2.2. Compounding ...... 17
2.3. Conversion and back-formation ...... 18
2.4. Clipping and blending ...... 19
2.5. Eponymy and onomatopoeia ...... 20
2.6. Reduplication and acronyms ...... 20
2.7. Borrowings ...... 21
3. French influence on individual domains of English ...... 22
3.1. Spelling ...... 22
3.2. Pronunciation ...... 23
3.3. Syntax ...... 24
3.4. Vocabulary ...... 25
II. Practical part ...... 27
4. Historical assortment ...... 28
4.1. Twelfth century ...... 30
4.2. Thirteenth century ...... 30 4.3. Fourteenth century ...... 31
4.4. Fifteenth century ...... 32
4.5. Sixteenth century ...... 32
4.6. Seventeenth century ...... 33
4.7. Eighteenth century ...... 34
4.8. Nineteenth century ...... 35
4.9. Twentieth century ...... 35
5. Foreign influence on fashion vocabulary ...... 36
5.1. Latin ...... 37
5.2. Germanic, Roman, Italian ...... 38
5.3. Greek, Frankish, Arabic, Persian ...... 39
5.4. Celtic, Dutch and other origins ...... 40
5.5. Solely French influence ...... 40
5.6. French dialects ...... 41
5.7. Proper name based vocabulary ...... 41
6. Multiple meanings of fashion vocabulary ...... 42
6.1. Shifts in meanings ...... 42
6.2. Different meanings between French and English ...... 44
Summary of the practical part ...... 46
7. Conclusion ...... 47
Reference List ...... 50
Preface
Historical circumstances caused a long-term interaction between English and French language that lead up to obvious resemblances in their vocabulary. English is nowadays considered as an international language, which influences other languages and provides its expressions to them. However, the contemporary form of English would not be the same without the vocabulary and grammatical features inspired by French. During many centuries, these two countries have undergone a complex evolution, which was, in many cases, common for both of them owing to certain historical events depending on the period. The development of English was therefore repeatedly connected to the French one because of multiple ambitions to spread the sphere of French power and extend its territory. This is, briefly, why English could profit from French vocabulary in different spheres of language such as science, art, politics and literature. An abundant category of French words that were adopted into English is the vocabulary associated with fashion since France, as a country with a significant authority at this field always quoted new trends and presented original style not only in England.
This bachelor thesis deals with historical aspects that induced this close relation and is interested in specific incidents with a strong impact on the process of acquiring new vocabulary. Subsequently, the thesis specifies various strategies that allow English to accomplish the objective of expanding its lexicon. Naturally, the thesis emphasizes the process of borrowing from foreign languages but does not omit other methods that contribute to an extensive vocabulary and are therefore relevant. Apart from this, the thesis takes into consideration other spheres of the English language than vocabulary, which were influenced by French such as pronunciation and syntax.
The aim of the thesis is therefore to determine theoretical facts based on multiple literary and online sources mentioned in the list of references in order to create a foundation for the practical study. The practical part is composed of a complex study of chosen fashion vocabulary provided in Table 7 in appendices. The purpose is to examine the vocabulary primarily at the etymological level, explore possible similarities and deviations that appeared throughout the process of borrowing word from French. Hopefully, the whole paper may serve a comprehensible source of information about English-French relation, its evolution and their common fashion vocabulary.
9
I. Theoretical part
10 1. Introduction to language and to English
The intention of this chapter is to present basic information about a language in general and its ways of utilisation to better understand the circumstances surrounding its evolution. Primarily, the thesis concentrates on different situations of the use of a language, which may well refer to the necessity of broadening the vocabulary and changes as a consequence of interpersonal activities.
1.1. Functions of a language Language in general is an implement possessing multiple functions and naturally, people do not use it uniquely to communicate with other people. Crystal (1987, p. 10) mentions seven essential functions divided according to the different ways of usage. The first one is called emotional expression, which specifies the part of a language that is employed to describe and express internal experience and feelings. Usually, it is used in situations when people want to ventilate their emotions, to ease their troubles and to indicate their affections. The second category is social interaction, probably the most common one since the communication is considered to be a tool to create (and to maintain and restore) relationships with other human beings. The power of sounds, the third category stated by Crystal (1987, p. 12), describes the importance of being surrounded by sounds and voices, a very important feature which helps to extend the vocabulary of a person, create new ideas and enjoy everyday life since childhood. Subsequently, he speaks about the control of reality comprising the aspect of religion and faith that serves as an instrument to ideational communication. This is a type of an inner conversation, which does not expect any clear answer. A more systematized application of language is used to record the facts that might serve as a source of information for people living in the future. On that account, it is imperative to arrange the information into a comprehensive aggregate that provides objective knowledge prepared for further use. In everyday life, people encounter another lingual ability that enables to organise the flow of ideas and reflections. As an instrument of thought, languages facilitate finding a solution, overcoming an obstacle and explaining (everyday) problems. Crystal (1987) completes his chapter with a feature called the expression of identity, in other words the way of presenting personal attitude to readers or listeners. By using a specific lingual means, people give a definition of their character and mind-set. As everybody has an individual life experience, all these features are a personal matter that differs for every single human being.
11 Famous Russian-American linguist Roman Jakobson (1990, pp. 73-79) provides another division of language functions. In his work On Language, Jakobson (1990) distinguishes following six categories. Referential function, as the name indicates, refers to messages apprising of real facts as for example ‘The days are becoming longer now.’ The function referring to personal approach is called emotional function owing to which it is possible to express one’s temper and feelings. The so-called conative function is used when asking somebody to do something or when giving orders. Imperative or vocative forms primarily effectuate this function. The following phatic function, resides in the interaction within a communication. It also applies for “ritualized formulas”, a term used by Jakobson (1990, p. 75), that are supposed to fill quiet moments, animate or revive a conversation. When the artistic application of a language is taken into consideration, it is imperative to mention poetic function. Literature and poetry form an inseparable part of a language that has specific rules and do not correspond with regular language patterns. However, poetic function does not necessarily mean language used in the poetry. Moreover, it may be applied in a normal conversation in the form of preferences we give to particular vocabulary simply because it is more appropriate or it “sounds better”. Finally, the last term of the list, metalingual function operates as a code employed for speaking about the language itself.
The number of concepts that describe and explain language functions is inexhaustible. Whatever theory one may be inclined to, it stays true that language is an extensive issue difficult to describe as it depends on a personal attitude. Nevertheless, there are some common features observed by several scientists that provide a compact theory of language functions.
1.2. Historical development of English Historically speaking, English language has gone through a complicated development strongly influenced by particular historical eras and their specific events. During each period describes in this chapter, English language obtained a whole range of new vocabulary and grammatical habits, mostly based on the historical background. For a correct understanding of the evolutional tendencies of English, it is crucial to state basic historical turning points that resulted in the present form on the English language.
As Hollister (1976, pp. 3-6) states, since 55 B.C., it is possible to start to date the commencements of history on the territory of contemporary England supported by the first appearances of textual sources. English territory was put on the map for the first time owing
12 to Julius Caesar and his endeavours to spread the Rome’s power and multiple invasions with the intention to extend the sphere of his might. Hereby, the importance of Latin as an administrative language began to rise and spread throughout England. Subsequently, the transformations of English language may be divided into three main categories: Old English, Middle English and Modern English. (Graddol et al., 1996, p. 41)
1.2.1 Old English The period of Old English (450-1150) may be dated from the end of Roman dominance and the beginning of Anglo-Saxon invasions. Anglo-Saxons were Germanic tribes usually distinguished to the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. Regardless of their names, all these tribes were looking for a new land where they could settle down and for new sources of wealth as well. (Hollister, 1976, p. 20) During their invasions, many Germanic dialects enriched the local language. Nevertheless, the Latin still kept its importance thanks to the relation to the church. (Graddol et al., 1996, p. 41)
Svartvik & Leech (2006, pp. 22-24) then assert that in these times, English was also influenced by the presence of settlers coming from Scandinavia that actually started by the attack of Vikings aimed on the monastery of Lindisfarne on Holy Island in summer 793 that was documented in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The complex of the Scandinavian dialects of that period, the so-called Old Norse, is considered the ancestor of Danish, Swedish, Norwegian and Icelandic. Svartvik & Leech (2006) also claim that Old Norse and Old English were both Germanic languages with a wide common vocabulary as Old English adopted many words from Old Norse. Some of these words, mainly those of everyday use, survived up to now in the form of northern and Scottish dialects as follows (with the actual English meaning stated in brackets) : ken (know), lake (play), gate (street). Moreover, the contemporary vocabulary still applies certain Old Norse loanwords such as skill, sick, skirt, ill and die. Nevertheless, Svartvik & Leech (2006, p. 27) clearly state that “we can hardly speak of ‘an English language’ before the time of King Alfred in the ninth century” whose reign means the beginning of liberation from Vikings. King Alfred was also the first person to use the expression Englisc to speak about the English language.
Old English is a period of a great import because of the first literature that started to emerge. Beowulf, a heroic poem counting more than 3000 lines rich in alliteration, metaphors and kennings, stands for the most quoted example of the then form and graphical appearance
13 of English that was recorded in an alphabet called runes. (Baugh & Cable, 2013, p. 67; Svartvik & Leech, 2006, p. 30)
1.2.2 Middle English For the intention of this work, the following period, called Middle English (1150-1500), is highly significant since it began the initial impact of French culture and language. The Norman Conquest, period that ensued after the battle of Hastings (1066) won by a Norman king William the Conqueror, was, according to Walter (2001, p. 90) the period of first contacts between English and French. Owing to his potential that William had acquired by getting on the throne of England, he was able to make many changes not only in the existing English administrative and religious system but also in the language. Upper class Norman people who were appointed to important posts on the English territory did not intend to learn a new language and that is why they did not relinquish their original language, French. In those times, England ended up as a bilingual country divided to French speaking upper class and the English-speaking majority of the population. This division started to disappear during the following centuries. (Baugh, & Cable, 2013, pp. 104-121)
However, the impact of French remained present in both the culture and the language up to present. By the fifteenth century, English importance increased and the knowledge of French was regarded “as an accomplishment“. (Baugh & Cable, 2013, p. 150) Nevertheless, it never dissolved completely due to the fact that it was always understood as a noble mean of communication used by the upper class. On that account, Baugh & Cable (2013, p. 152) state that English retained many words of the French origin, sometimes after multiple adjustments. Although these changes penetrated to all the levels of English language including grammar, Graddol et al. (1996, p. 122) provide the opinion that the effect is the most evident at the level of the lexicon. Based on the Baugh’s theory (Baugh & Cable, 2013, pp. 167-174), French borrowings may be sorted out into these categories followed by concrete examples of borrowed vocabulary:
• Administration (government, administer, state, statute, court, council, empire) • Army (army, enemy, arms, battle, combat, siege, defence, lieutenant, soldier) • Art (art, image, literature, music, beauty, painting, sculpture, colour, rime, prose) • Fashion (fashion, robe, collar, apparel, garment, petticoat, cloak, veil, boots) • Food (dinner, supper, appetite, taste, beef, mutton, bacon, orange, mustard) • Law (justice, judgement, complaint, verdict, jury, prison, punishment, heritage)
14 • Medicine (medicine, malady, pain, balm, poison, apothecary, surgeon) • Social life (quality, couch, cushion, poverty, fame, courtesy, royal, rein) • Religion (religion, theology, baptism, pastor, abbey, miracle, saint, virgin)
As a fine source of information on the form of Middle English may serve choice of the work of Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400), one of the greatest poets of the English history, namely his well-known collection of stories named The Canterbury Tales. (Graddol et al., 1996, p. 127)
1.2.3 Modern English With the arrival of a new intellectual movement called Renaissance, which originated in Italy in the fifteenth century, English entered into the third period today called Modern English (1500-present). This period included the work of William Shakespeare (1564-1616), the highly regarded author of sonnets and drama whose impact on English language and culture is remarkable. (Baugh & Cable, 2013, p. 199)
The period of Modern English, from the point of view of certain scientists, may be divided into two main parts as follow. Durkin (2015, p. 7) works with terms Early Modern English and Later Modern English. According to Durkin (2015), the former contributed to the development of English by a significant feature called Great Vowel Shift that relates to changes in the way of pronouncing vowels and with the standard form of English. Subsequently, in the following period, the process of establishing various rules for the language even intensified and resulted in creating many dictionaries and grammar collections.
During this period, England started to develop and change and therefore the English language. As England could profit from numerous sources of wealth, its importance in the economic sphere mounted. After the Reformation, the whole society underwent plenty of changes and scientists became more and more interested in the official form of English. Therefore, the language went through many changes summarised by the name standardisation. During this process, linguists succeeded in creating new rules for English. (Graddol et al., 1996, pp. 137-141)
Another historical moment, which strongly conditioned the transformation of language, is undoubtedly the invention of printing presented for the first time in England by William Caxton (1422-1491) about 1476. Not only did his work help to disseminate the printed literature to the society but he also accentuated the issues concerning English dialects and
15 drew attention to the varieties that may occur within a language. (Baugh & Cable, 2013, p. 199)
Contemporaneously, as Baugh & Cable (2013, pp. 213-216) assert, in the sixteenth century, some scientists tried to highlight the question of enriching English using vocabulary from other languages as Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish and French. Scientists incited this tendency because of the fact that English vocabulary in those times was not extensive enough to embrace translations of foreign texts. For some of them, it was essential to extend the possibilities of their own language based on the knowledge of for example Latin whose expressions and phrases were more affluent several times. Graddol et al. (1996, p. 41) then continue with the statement, that English did not only take from other languages but it started to infiltrate into other parts of the world. This phenomenon applies for the creation of English colonies in the new world, in America by the seventeenth century and other countries as well. Baugh & Cable (2013, pp. 253-294) declare that all these events were ensued by a long sequence of efforts to create a complex language and to establish a unified theory referring to English. These efforts were (and are up to present) realised in the form of dictionaries (e.g. The Oxford English Dictionary), vocabulary collections, phonemic handbooks and grammar textbooks.
In the course of time, the English language intervenes into many spheres of international life and became the international language. And knowledge of that is nowadays considered as crucial. Currently, when speaking about English, we may use the term lingua franca. This term originally expressed the “language used for trade in the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages.” (Svartvik & Leech, 2006, p. 232) In other words, the term lingua franca represents a language that enables the communication between people who do not share their first language. (Jenkins, 2014, p. 24) As the language is the part of everyday life, it is impossible to regard its development as if it was ended. The creation of new words and new phrasal structures is closely connected to the technological progress that affects not only people’s lives but also the way they speak about it.
2. Enriching English lexicon
As every other language, English has developed several strategies to expand the number words in its lexicon as a result of a need to create new expressions corresponding not only to new grammatical genders and moods but also to completely new words that come into existence due to technical and scientific progress and the increase of international relations.
16 The aim of the following chapters is to provide a survey of particular strategies mainly based on the work of Kim Ballard named The Frameworks of English supplemented with Crystal’s (1987) definitions and examples found mostly online.
2.1. Affixation Ballard (2007, p. 54) defines the first strategy (sometimes called derivation) as a „process by which bound morphemes (other than roots) are added to bases, either word-initially or word-finally, to form new words. A bound morpheme which is added in this way is an affix.“ Moreover, it is possible to differentiate two different types of affixes according to their positions. Prefix, the affix added word-initially, normally does not affect the incorporation into word classes. For example, when combining the prefix dis- with the verb agree, the resulting word disagree does not change its word class and remains a verb. (Ballard, 2007) Whereas, the so-called suffix that is connected word-finally, can be both class-preserving and class-changing. Ballard (2007) indicates this difference on the example king and kingdom, which both stay in the same word-class of nouns. On the contrary, the word sadly definitely changes the word-class by adding the suffix –ly. Moreover, the advantage of this strategy is the fact that one word can be supplemented by more affixes, which enables another expanding of vocabulary. See chosen examples from Ballard’s (2007, p. 55) table containing English prefixes and suffixes enclosed in appendices as Table 4.
2.2. Compounding As the name of the next strategy indicates, the process of compounding consists in connecting two different word roots together so that they may create a new word, so-called compound. There are two possibilities of correct writing. Firstly, the compound can be written as a single element without a space, e.g. passport, sunflower, firework or fireflies. These are called closed compounds. Secondly, some of the compounds words exist in a hyphenated form as for instance well-born. And the third option named open compounds are words written separately as two words (e.g. living room, dinner table or full moon). As for the word classes, final compounds do not necessarily belong to nouns but verbs, adverbs, pronouns, adjectives or conjunctions as well. As examples for these may be mentioned overlook, nowhere, something, online and however. (Ballard, 2007, p. 59)
The most productive possibility of compounding is the combination noun + noun resulting in a new noun, e.g. rainbow, sunlight etc. However, there are many other combinations possible in English to create a new noun as ‘verb + noun’ (e.g. showroom,
17 notebook, walkman), ‘adjective + noun’ (blackboard, madman, gentleman), ‘noun + and + noun’ (gin and tonic, day and night, black and white), ‘noun + prepositional phrase’ (mother- in-law). (Ballard, 2007, p. 60)
As for the adjectives, there are six possible ways of compounding with examples provided by Kosur (2014):
▪ noun + adjective (homesick, God-forsaken)
▪ verb + adverb/preposition (throwaway, go-ahead)
▪ adjective + adjective (good-looking, old-fashioned)
▪ adjective + noun (long-life, short-term)
▪ prepositional phrase (indoor)
▪ adjective + infinitive (ready-to-wear)
2.3. Conversion and back-formation Conversion is a type of word formation defined by Crystal (1987) as “a word changes its class without any change of form.” (p. 90) In other words, a word may work for example as a noun and as a verb in the same without adding, shortening or deriving its original form. Conversion may be accomplished either by transforming nouns into verbs or vice versa. However, conversion does not apply only for verbs and nouns. This process concerns also verbs made of adjectives or nouns made of prepositions, conjunctions or even interjections. (Ballard, 2007, pp. 62-63) See the following examples inspired by Kosur (2013) with the word classes marked in brackets.
• access (n.) – to access (v.) They wanted to access our database.
• to attack (v.) – attack (n.) Nobody knew their army was going to attack that day.
• green (adj.) – to green (v.) The grass started to green very early this year.
• up (prep.) – up (n.) The ups and downs of everyday life are unpredictable.
• if (conj.) – if (n.) I want to hear no ifs, ands or buts. Just do it.
• ho ho (interj.) – ho ho (n.) The ho ho hos of Christmastime make me angry!
18 In the way of changing word classes, back-formation resembles to conversion. The difference then resides in the process of creation that it intervenes into the word structure by detaching an affix of the original word and adjusting the rest to a new one. (Ballard, 2007, p. 63) In this case, it is possible to derive verbs from nouns or for example nouns/verbs from adjectives. The processes are displayed by Kosur’s (2012) examples:
• donation (n.) – to donate (v.)
• hazy (adj.) – haze (n.)
• obsessive (adj.) – obsess (v.)
2.4. Clipping and blending Crystal (1987, p. 90) defines clipping as “an informal shortening of a word, often to a single syllable.” In other words, during the clipping, the words are shortened and their meaning stays unchanged. This method is very productive in everyday life as we try to simplify the words we use often and that are too long or complicated to pronounce. Therefore, it is almost impossible to assemble all these neologism as they appear in dependence on our will. Depending on the part that disappears from the initial word, there are four main types of clipping stated by Kosur (2014):
▪ back clipping – detaching the end of a word (advertisement – ad)
▪ fore-clipping – detaching the beginning (telephone – phone)
▪ middle clipping – detaching both the end and the beginning (refrigerator – fridge)
▪ complex clipping – creates from different parts of multiple words (optical art – op art)
Blending happens when “two words merge into each other” (Crystal, 1987, p. 90) and create a new word to, again, simplify the pronunciation in spoken language. These new combinations, which are mostly represented by nouns and which are called portmanteau words, do not change their meaning in the end. Following examples are provided by Kosur (2014).
▪ breakfast and lunch → brunch
▪ motor hotel → motel
19 ▪ smoke and fog → smog
2.5. Eponymy and onomatopoeia Eponyms are resulting names for objects, places, actions or animals discovered, invented, or described by someone and this person’s name was lately used to refer to these objects and actions. Interestingly, this person does not have to be a real person but also a fictitious one as for example from a book. (Ballard, 2007, p. 64) See a list of chosen eponyms provided by Benwell (2015) in Table 5 included in appendices.
While eponyms are connected with names of people, onomatopoeic words are created by using a characteristic sound produced by a person, an animal or an object. This effort to transcribe these sounds is highly various in all languages since it depends on the phonetic features and pronunciation of different syllables. (Ballard, 2007, p. 64) See some chosen onomatopoeic English words:
• buzz – I can’t stand the buzz of the bees all around, it is annoying.
• click – Would you please stop clicking your pen? You are disturbing the others.
• tick – My alarm clock ticks so loudly that sometimes I can’t fall asleep.
2.6. Reduplication and acronyms Ballard (2007) understands reduplication as a process of “doubling of the first element of the word.” (p. 64) This means that we simply repeat the first part of a word but usually with a slight change inside of it. Frequently, we may change a consonant or a vowel to obtain a euphonic word easy to remember. At this point, it is necessary to mention that these words are usually informal and used in common speech, especially by children or in sarcastic meaning. This finding may be well demonstrated on Cook’s (2012) examples:
▪ without change: bye-bye, hush-hush, haha, blah blah, girly girly, night-night
▪ with change of vowel: flip-flop, ping-pong, see-saw, mish-mash, pitter-patter
▪ with change of consonant: walky-talky, hocus-pocus, mumbo-jumbo
Another common case of new words is called acronyms. Acronyms come into existence by taking initial letters of a words and using them together as one word. As states Ballard (2007, p. 63), this method helps us avoid long names, mainly names of organizations and
20 (technical) terms as in following examples taken from the online version of Oxford Dictionaries stated in the list of references:
• LASER – ‘light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation’
• NATO – ‘The North Atlantic Treaty Organization’
• SIM – ‘subscriber identification module’
2.7. Borrowings The most relevant method of expanding English vocabulary for the thesis is called borrowing, also called loanwords. As this process of expanding English lexicon is cardinal for the aim of the thesis, it is described in more detail than previous methods and the chapter takes into consideration historical development as well.
Since the beginnings of the mobility, expansions and trade tendencies of the society, we may observe multiple penetrations and reciprocal exchanges between world languages. The war conquering, mixing of cultures, international (royal) marriages, economic extension and many other features are the reason why languages do not stay closed behind the frontiers of their original countries and tend to diffuse into other parts of the world. As a consequence of this fact, we can find many words in every language that are of a foreign origin and English makes no exception. As states Ballard (2007, p. 64), English adopted many words from various languages but mostly from Latin, French, Greek and Scandinavian languages, however they are now adjusted to the English language conditions. Into these conditions belong pronunciation, orthography and syntax. (Ballard, 2007)
As for the procedure of borrowings, Serjeantson (1935, pp. 1-4) develops the idea of reasons of particular circumstances that induce a language to borrow words from another language. She states that these circumstances may be a period of conquest, colonization, trade or literature. As it was already mentioned in the historical overview, a dialect or language that conquered a territory usually strongly affects the already existing conditions and language. Serjeantson (1935) also declares that “it is usually the native language that survives” (p. 2), nevertheless, the impact of the incoming culture and language is noticeable as for instance in the case of Norman Conquest. However, this process is reciprocal since the native language sometimes enriched the new coming dialect as well because the newcomers needed to understand local conditions. When talking about trade,
21 Serjeantson (1935) highlights the importance of trade for English inhabitants, as it is a source of acquiring in multiple scientific areas. The last explained factor is literature, which is of great importance when talking about English. Hereby a new word first infiltrates the written sphere of a language that afterwards enriches spoken language.
The process of acquiring a new word from another language is a long-term complex issue that naturally could not happen without understanding the source language. The adopting of a word depends on its first users and their knowledge of the original language. In other words, those who came with a loanword for the first time and brought it into their language usually must have had at least basic awareness of how the word they want to borrow is originally pronounced and of the correct meaning as well. From those who understand the original meaning of the word, the usage gradually reaches wider spheres including people who do not speak the source language. Systematically, the new word is often anglicised, which involves certain adaptations, most frequently at the level of pronunciation so that it complies with already existing patterns. Should this process of incorporation be thorough and successful, the borrowed word becomes a part of ordinary language, often hardly considered as a loanword. (Ballard, 2007, p. 64 & Kemmer, 2004)
3. French influence on individual domains of English
So far, the thesis is dealing with single English words and parts of lexicon that have been created, modified or received from foreign languages. Nevertheless, it would be a big mistake to not to take into consideration the importance of other features that participate in the formation of English as for example orthography or pronunciation. Therefore, the following chapter is dedicated to certain modifications that occurred because of relations between English and French and their mutual impacts and its aim is to describe specific processes of adaptation and provide concrete examples. These are based on the work Histoire de la langue anglaise written by Michel Taillé (1995).
3.1. Spelling One of the most significant changes that followed after the presence of French on English territory and court is the sound /u/. Taillé (1995, p. 60) introduces the difference in the spelling of a pronounced /u/. While in Old English, it’s written form used to be the same as in many other languages (written “u”, pronounced /u/), with the coming of
22 French, English accepted the written form ‘ou’ typical for French such as bijou or caillou. Hence, English keeps the spelling of the word mouse, before recorded as mus.
Another component of French influence on English spelling may be represented by duplication of ‘u, in other words English ‘double u’ and French ‘double v’, which takes a form of ‘ow’. Namely, there are words as vue (fr.) that gives view in English. Historically speaking, Old English contained some words that respected this spelling, for instance mowse (mouse), owt (out), owr (our), hower (hour) etc. And some of them keep it up to now. These are mostly words that in French are written with ‘ou’ as for example power (pouvoir) and crown (couronne) or words that even stayed in the original French form such as trouble, touch, journey. More examples of changing English spelling are specified in Table 3.
When trying to simplify the reading English texts, French copyist had the tendencies to adapt and differentiate words that may have had different meanings based on the context. The changes consisted in doubling ‘o’ in words such as god (OE), meaning favourable, that in that time was pronounced [gɔːd] was transcribed as good. This word further underwent certain development of the vowel and became what is used nowadays, [gʊd]. There also alternatives to words including [e:] that are written with ‘ee’, ‘ea’ or ‘ie’, represented on the example of sæ [se:] that became see or also sea keeping the same pronunciation that changed later. To simplify the reading of [ɑː], the copyists preferred to replace it either with ‘oa’ or ‘oe’. Bat pronounced [bɑːt] changed into boat, ar [ɑːr] into oar and ac [ɑːk] into oak. Another vowel that was modified is [iː], so far noted as ‘i’ or ‘y’. After the process, it became ‘ie’ as in OE tigan that transformed into to tie [tiː]. Naturally, there are many other adjustments of the spelling available in the work of Taillé (1995, pp. 60-63) but for a brief introduction in this thesis, those mentioned above will be sufficient.
3.2. Pronunciation As the mixture of the both two languages was a matter of everyday use, English inevitably sustained some interventions at the level of pronunciation. Taillé (1995, pp. 63- 64) commences with existence of nasal sounds that are of such a big importance in French and are present in English as well. The process of borrowing words from French (starting in the 14th century) conditioned the establishment of nasal sounds in English. This process may be depicted by following French words adopted into English and their OE
23 equivalents and modern forms in brackets: branche (braunch > branch), France (Fraunce > France), estrange (straunge > strange), raison (reason > reason).
As for the phonemes that may be found at the end of words (so-called final phonemes), it is impossible to miss the resemblances in French and English. These similarities may be well observed between French final phonemes /e/ (written as ‘é’ or ‘ai’) and /e/ (‘ie’, ‘is’ or ‘i’) and English final [ɪ]. Thus English was enriched with simplified words as for example: city (from French cité), easy (from aisé), ease (from aise) or very that originated from French word vrai.
Another finding that people of those times had to deal with was the fact, that English and French have a very different accentuation (a process of emphasizing certain sounds or parts of a word to make them more prominent). Whereas English usually accentuates the roots of a certain word whether it is at the beginning or ending of the word, French prefers accentuating the final parts. For that reason, some modifications were necessary to facilitate the way of pronouncing adopted words that resulted in many irregular methods of accentuating.
Even though the influence of French was to a certain extent compelling, it was not strong enough to preserve the phoneme [y] that played an important role in the phonology of Old English. Although French in those times already had this phoneme at its disposal, it was not able to prevent it from absolute dissolution from English.
3.3. Syntax Not only that English found inspiration in French words and sounds but it also embraced some innovations that had certain impact on English syntax. Before this contact, English used to apply a relative pronoun ðe that served as the definite article (modern the), a demonstrative (that, this, those, these) and also as an adverb (there, thus, then) and then an interrogative pronoun hwa (used as modern who, whose, whom, which, what, where, when, how.) As for French, the situation was and still is a little different since French expression qui can function as an interrogative and as a relative pronoun too. That is why modern English is endowed with this double meaning as in the two following examples where the first underlined word stands for an interrogative pronoun:
• Who is the woman who you were talking to?
• Where is the city where you were born?
24 As the second sphere of French influence, Taillé (1995, pp. 64-66) mentions the way English imitates the meaning on French possessive form expressed by English preposition of (in French de). Initially, this English of represented mostly the meaning of separating into different parts as Taillé (1995) explains using the example of a friend of mine meaning “one of my friends”. This original meaning could therefore be extended by the above-mentioned possessive context. Finally yet importantly, syntactic changes are related to the indefinite pronoun one that gained its indefinite meaning due to confusions of French indefinite pronoun on and the English one.
3.4. Vocabulary Taillé (1995, pp. 66-69) highlights that the foreign vocabulary represents the largest impact of foreign languages in comparison with the previous issues as it is very open to accepting external effects. The words of French origin that have been adopted into English may be divided into many categories as was already mentioned above and all together, they occupy two thirds of the whole English lexicon (Taillé, 1995, p. 67). It is why this thesis deals predominantly with this aspect. A considerable proportion of these words, however, contain attributes of French dialects which means that the words do not come from the official French language spoken in Paris. This fact therefore influenced the written and pronounced form of certain expressions as for example following words:
• hour - in Norman dialect houre but in official French heure
• mount - from Norman mount, official French mont
• flour - from Norman flour, official French fleur
French words in English have one more specific aspect. A certain number of them create in English something that may be called bilingualism (Taillé, 1995, p. 67). This feature represents the fact that English contains multiple expressions that are synonymous but of a different origin. In other words, some French words that were adopted into English make a pair with another expression already present in English, however, their origin is not French but, for example, Germanic. As Taillé (1995) declares, some of these expressions comply with demands of different occasions, which means that some of them are, for example, rather of literary character. Following examples illustrate well this method: begin (Gmc.) – commence (F.), answer (Gmc.) – reply (F.), belief (Gmc.) – faith (F.), breathe out (Gmc.) – exhale (F.).
25 Frequently, a substantive of Germanic origin may correspond to a French (Latin) adjective as in provided examples: cat (Gmc.) – feline (F.), lip (Gmc.) – labial (F.), tooth (Gmc.) – dental (F.), dog (Gmc.) – canine (F.), tongue (Gmc.) – lingual (F.).
In certain cases, English has, as its disposal, a pair of adjectives for a single substantive; but in this case, these expressions are not necessarily synonyms. See following examples: blood – bloody (Gmc.) – sanguinary (F.), mother – motherly (Gmc.) – maternal (F.), will – wilful (Gmc.) – voluntary (F.).
Sometimes, English only imitates French prefixes and suffixes that are present in French borrowings and applies them even for word of Germanic origin as follows:
• prefix dis- for French dishonour but also for Germanic dislike
• suffix –age for French marriage but also for Germanic tillage
The influence of French is therefore obvious enough and owing to the previous chapter it is possible to state that it is omnipresent: French did not affect only English vocabulary even though the impact is most evident here but it participated in the creation of English syntax, formed modern English spelling and adjusted the pronunciation as well.
Overall, even though French and English have different origins and belong to different language families, their historical contact was of such a big extent that they now share so many common phenomena (grammatical, lexical and phonological) as a result of their many years’ coexistence in certain geographical, political and cultural areas. The modern influence of English (caused by international and technological development leading to a broader international awareness) on other languages is a matter of course, that is supposed to be natural. Nevertheless, its modern form could only develop owing to numerous historical interventions of other nations and the French one should definitely not be forgotten as many of its basic grammatical and lexical features conditioned the language on the English territory.
26
II. Practical part
27 Based on the knowledge of previous chapters that summarize basic information of the French impact on English and the process of borrowing from different languages, the aim of the practical part is to elaborate concrete English vocabulary that has foreign origin, to outline their etymological evolution throughout the history and its impact on today’s form of English.
The practical part is based on a list of 166 words (to see in the appendices) taken from multiple dictionaries and literature cited in the bibliography and which were further studied with the aid of etymological dictionaries in order to provide the most complex idea possible of the fashion vocabulary influenced by French language. From this list the vast majority are substantives (134) followed by verbs (16) and chosen adjectives (16). The proportion is displayed by the following graph.
Figure 1. Percentage of word classes in provided fashion vocabulary.
4. Historical assortment
First, the thesis organizes chosen English vocabulary connected to fashion according to the period of time when a given word was adopted to English. Provided information about their first appearance in English language are mainly taken from The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary as its authority is clearly without doubt. Nevertheless, some of the expressions are rather new and that is why they are not included in this dictionary. Therefore, the thesis derives some concrete dates from credible online sources that
28 proceed from adequate literature specified in the list of bibliography. The vocabulary is subsequently divided into groups of given centuries and is further completed with argumentations and observations emerging from these characteristics. The following diagrams display the proportion of words contained in the list of the thesis by the century they firstly appeared in English and their percentages.
Figure 2. Percentage of fashion entries per century.
Figure 3. Numbers of fashion entries per century.
29 4.1. Twelfth century From the whole list of 166 entries that this thesis is dealing with, there is only one single word connected to the fashion that was accepted into English before the 13th century and it is the word ermine. This expression meaning a white fur of an animal that was often used to decorate royal garments may be considered as a first entry from French vocabulary concerning fashion. It could mean that at the turn of the periods of Old English and Middle English, the contact with French language and culture commenced to be orientated towards aesthetical issues. Naturally, there are other words accepted from French during this century but these are from different fields such as administration, social ranks and religion. Serjeantson (1935, p. 107), for example, states following examples from the 12th century: abbat (abbot), cardinal, rent, iustice (justice), miracle. Walter (2001, p. 108) then presents some of the very first borrowings from French as proud that exists up to now but it used to have a different meaning corresponding to modern valiant.
4.2. Thirteenth century During the ensuing 13th century, the number of vocabulary related to fashion increases. From the total number of entries chosen for this thesis, 21 (approximately 12.7%) passed English borders in the 13th century: brooch, collar, colour, cloak (n.), diadem, fashion, gown, guise, habit, jewel, kerchief, label (n.), lace (v.), lace (n.), mantle, ornament, scarlet, tailor, tassel, vamp and powder. (Lace is counted twice, as a verb and as a noun that both appeared in this century.) At this point, it is necessary to provide more information about the words powder as it is classified to the 13th century but its meaning of that time was different from the contemporary meaning connected to cosmetics. As specifies the CODEE (1993), from the very beginning, its primary meaning was rather related to the consistency of a powder itself. Therefore, in the 13th century it was used as an expression for materials in minute particles, subsequently in the 15th century in the sense of gunpowder and in the 16th in its figurative sense referring to the cosmetics normally put on the body as a decoration. From the whole sample of words mentioned above, it is obvious that a big number of these words (9) represent accessories elements used to decorate the body, elements to complete existing clothes and general names for them: brooch, collar, diadem, jewel, kerchief, lace, ornament, scarlet, tassel. The resting expressions enriched either general naming as colour, fashion or guise or particular parts of clothes such as gown, mantle and habit. All of these entries function as substantives, which might be explained as an important need to find new expressions for new objects
30 that started to occur. Nonetheless, some of these also operated as verbs still within the 13th century as for example lace. From this observing, it is possible to derive the hypothesis that during this century, the contact between English and French languages started to pursue the trend of adopting words related to the lifestyle, mainly by accepting expression for the noble part of society as many of these objects were normally not accessible to every man. This hypothesis may be also substantiated by the presence of French on the English court. Walter (2001, p. 107) for example highlights the moment when Aliénor d’Aquitaine, the Duchesse of Aquitaine, married Henry II of England and brought French language and its cultural aspects to England that, subsequently, was going to imitate the style of French institutions.
4.3. Fourteenth century The 14th century was of a significant importance as its contribution of the borrowing from French into English was more advanced. The number of fashion expressions from the chosen sample increased twofold, as French was now present at the English court and territory in general. 25.9% (43 entries in total) of the list come from the 14th century as follows: adorn, apparel, attire, blue, bonnet, boot, buckle, button, chaperon, casual, coat (n.), coat (v.), coif, corset, cotton, crystal, diamond, doublet, dress (v.), embellish, embroidery, formal, frock, fur, galoshes, garment (n.), garter (n.), gusset, luxury, luxurious, mitre, mitten, orange, pearl, pleat (v.), ribbon, robe, sandal, satin, scarlet (adj.), turquoise, veil, velvet. As the number is considerably higher, it is possible to notice that they belong to multiple word classes and categories according to their meaning. They thus consist of 31 substantives, 7 adjectives and 5 verbs in which case one of them is a substantive and a verb, coat, that were created and used in the same century (which is not always a matter of course). The substantives stand for concrete names for concrete parts of clothing (bonnet, coat, mitten…), general naming (apparel, garment), accessories and decorative objects (bonnet, buckle, diamond…) and also three expressions to name colours (blue, orange and turquoise). These words are no longer a privilege of the upper class but broadened to other social classes and areas of usage. This hypothesis may be supported by Serjeantson’s (1935) statement that the new words “are no longer limited to special parts of the country, but are apparently used as freely in the north and west as in the east and south” (p. 136). The 14th century may therefore be considered as a century whose historical and lexical impact was fundamental for the development of English language as
31 the number of words connected to the fashion adopted during this period influenced many language spheres and is the highest from all the centuries studied in the thesis.
4.4. Fifteenth century The number of fashion words borrowed from French during the following centuries decreased in comparison with the 14th century. The thesis works with 13 fashion words that got into English during the 15th century (7.8% from the 166 words examined in the thesis): apron, bracelet, coif (v.), embroider, fabric, fringe, jacket, jewellery, petticoat, pleat (n.), pocket, sable, satin (adj.). These again belong to multiple categories. The majority (10), as in the rest of the borrowed vocabulary, are nouns that describe different features starting from types of garment such as apron or petticoat, materials (sable) and general expressions like jewellery, fabric etc. Satin, an adjective from the 15th century, is derived from a noun satin adopted during the 14th century. This time, its meaning allows defining an object with the qualities of the material. Furthermore, only one of the new words is a verb, coif, which also appeared as a noun within the previous century. It is a rule that are obvious when studying the sample of borrowed words that most often they come into English as nouns that later change their word class without changing their form and are related to the original meaning, often used to describe the action performed with the object. This development, however, may occur in the opposite direction. Words with different word classes but with the same form are elaborated in a separate chapter.
4.5. Sixteenth century The 16th century did not change the tendency from the 15th century as the number of the adopted words is 14 (8.4%): cape, cloak (v.), design (n.), design (v.), dress (n.), elegance, elegant, garment (v.), garter (v.), jean, manufacture, model, violet, vogue. All the nouns, again, apply to different meanings, for instance jean (material), cape and cloak (particular pieces of clothes) or elegance (general expression). Nevertheless, as the list shows, certain changes took place at the level of the numbers related to word classes. Even though the superiority of nouns is still a matter of course (7), the number of verbs increased to 5. For design, the meaning is already dual and it functions as a noun and as a verb as well. On the contrary, garter as a verb appeared two centuries later after it had been adopted which makes a considerable difference in the movement through the time. And it is also the case of garment whose evolution is the same. It is therefore possible to deduce that the primary need was to find new words to give a name to new objects and the
32 activity of several years’ duration connected to them enabled the formation of verbs to refer to these activities. Nonetheless, one example disproves the absolute applicability of this theory. Dress appears for the first time as a noun during the 16th century though it already existed in English as a verb in the 14th century. The crucial meaning of this word was then “to put on clothes” and the general name for a piece of garment formed afterwards. English already had at its disposal names of colours that had been taken from French (orange, turquoise) in the 14th century and two thousand years later make another loan of violet. Moreover, another adjective appeared during this period, elegant that came approximately at the same time as its related word elegance where CDEE mentions that its original meaning was “to choose carefully” (1993, p. 144).
4.6. Seventeenth century During the 17th century, the complete number slightly increased to 17 words (10.2%): bijou, brilliant (n.), brilliant (adj.), casual, cravat, denim, finery, fragrance, label (v), manteau, palette, parasol, sabot, sequin, synthetic, textile, tunic, vest. The list consists of 14 nouns, 2 adjectives and 1 verb. This affirms the previous tendency of accepting primarily nouns that this time contain many expressions from jewellery and decoration expressions as bijou, brilliant, cravat, finery, fragrance, palette, parasol and sequin. It is therefore presumable that people got more and more interested in details used to decorate their clothes and bodies. The function of fashion during the 17th century may be considered as a period that strengthened the aesthetical utilization of clothes. The hypothesis may be confirmed by Laver (2003, pp. 109-112) who claims that the 17th century was a period of highly extravagant garments adorned by lace and dresses decorated with satin ribbons. Laver (2003) also declares that manteaus in the 17th century were decorated for different ceremonies and often imitated colours of French baroque.
Subsequently, the list does not include any expression for headgear as it was for example in the 14th century or in the future centuries. That might be the result of what Laver (2003, pp. 106-107) states - in the 17th century, ladies in France no longer wear hats and preferred simple capuches or scarves and had therefore no need of expressions for the headgear. As for the adjectives, there are two of them, brilliant (that appeared as well as a noun within the same century) and casual that, however, during this time referred to ‘accidental, produced by chance’. In connection with fashion where referring to “informal”, the word occurred later in the 20th century.
33 4.7. Eighteenth century The numbers of the 18th century slightly increased as the percentage of studied words is 11.4%, specifically 19 entries as follows: bandeau, boutique, chenille, chiffon, costume, epaulette, etiquette, grisette, mannequin, negligee, ornament (v.), pelerine, pelisse, polonaise, pompom, rouge, tarlatan, toupee, and velour. The tendency of the superiority of nouns within the observed sample is even more evident as the 18th century imported 18 nouns from 19 entries, which is so far the highest ratio in comparison with the previous centuries. From these, 6 represent names for different materials as chenille, chiffon, grisette, pelisse, tarlatan and velour. It is necessary to notice the presence of the word epaulette meaning “an ornamental strip on the shoulders of a coat”. The origin of the word reaches the period when the uniform underwent a complete process of changes. As Laver (2003, p. 128) states, the military uniforms gave a unified appearance to armies as the soldiers were supposed to wear the same materials and details on the uniforms. Hence, the importance of uniforms and their forms became more relevant across various cultures.
Surprisingly, there is no fashion adjective adopted and only one verb ornament that, even more surprisingly, appeared five hundred years later after the noun of the same form. This evolution is unique, as the rest of the studied pairs normally do not have such a big delay. The majority of the vocabulary is used for objects and materials of fine quality, which instigates the assumption that the aim of this century was to enhance the aesthetical principles even more than the 17th century. This might be how these words gained its importance in France and why they spread to the English territory. The French fashion of this period may be therefore considered as a crucial style introduced in a wider area than only in France. This hypothesis may be again supported by Laver (2003) who asserts that the French influence of this period was at the top and the style of French nobility was imitated in the whole world as “to dress well meant to dress with the French style” (p. 127) and England was no exception. Nevertheless, it is important to mention what Laver (2003, pp. 155-157) describes in his work. By the end and at the turn of the 18th and the 19th centuries, the Anglo-French contact suffered from wars between the two countries and the fashion trends set apart. However, these problems had no radical impact on the number of words shared by English and French and rather contrarily, (as it is obvious from the following chapter) the process of language borrowings is superior to political issues.
34 4.8. Nineteenth century There is a long list of fashion expressions introduced during the 19th century that are studied in the thesis: atelier, beige, beret, blouse, camisole, chemise, chic, corsage, crepe, cretonne, crinoline, crochet, décolleté, delaine, fichu, frou-frou, guipure, jabot, jeans, jumper, layette, leotard, lingerie, lorgnette, maillot, peignoir, pince-nez, piqué, rivière, suède, trousseau. The number of all entries from the 19th century is 31 (18.7%) from which 29 are nouns (which again validates the theory of accepting more nouns rather than word from other word classes) and the resting 2 are adjectives (beige and chic). Beige, as a name for a colour, follows three hundred years later after the last expression adopted for colours, violet in the 16th century. The nouns may be divided into multiple categories according to their meanings. Seven expressions for materials (crepe, cretonne, crinoline, crochet, delaine, piqué and suède) is a number high enough to understand that the need of moving the fashion forward by finding new interesting materials from different parts of the world (Normandy, China etc.) was the principal ambition to reach. Although crinoline is classified into materials, during the second half of the 19th century, it took a meaning of a hoop skirt that, in that period, became popular again, according to Laver (2003, p. 177).
The plurality, however, remains in the domain of particular garments with the number 12. As well as new types of garments occurred, naturally, it was imperative to find new materials for them. An equally significant number is illustrated by 6 expressions for accessories and decoration elements that play an important part regardless of which century they appear in (beret, corsage, jabot, lorgnette, pince-nez, rivière). English also borrowed two concrete names for spectacles lorgnette and pince-nez, which as an evolution has no parallel in the history.
4.9. Twentieth century As for the 20th century, the work of finding words of French origin is an extensive research as the number of adopted words increased rapidly with the development of technologies and globalization. The words intervene into multiple categories starting with fashion and lifestyle, leisure activities, humanities, philosophy, politics, art and of course gastronomy. However, the number of borrowings from the 20th century is so high that it would be enough to write a whole thesis only about them. Therefore, the thesis deal only with 7 examples chosen from the sources mentioned in the bibliography. Most of the literature mentioned there do not even contain a chapter about the twentieth century and
35 provide only several examples. This is also the concept of the thesis even though there are many other French fashion borrowings. For further studies of the borrowings during the 20th century, it is recommended to study Twentieth Century Borrowings from French to English: Their Reception and Development written in 2012 by Julia. She, in her originally doctoral thesis published in 2013, specifies 77 entries of fashion vocabulary taken from French with more detailed description. 77 is nearly a half of the list included in this thesis, therefore it is not possible to study all of them, as the thesis is limited to a certain extent.
The list then includes 7 examples listed below that still bear much information that can be recognized: bikini, brassiere, cloche, culottes, haute-couture, prêt à porter, tutu. All of the examples are nouns except for prêt à porter functioning as an adjective. Culottes that came into English in the 20th century had already existed before. Laver (2003, p. 178) highlights that the trend of wearing culottes is a matter of the previous century but obviously, it got into English several years later. Haute-couture and prêt a porter represent two expressions adopted from French that consist of multiple words and are adopted as a single expression. The latter is even more special as in French, the expression is considered as a noun while in English it provides a characteristic in a form of a noun. The etymology of the word tutu is worth further explanation as it was adopted as a solely French expression that originated as an infantile variation of cucu from French cul meaning bottom. However, the word cul came into French from Latin as many other words. The rest of the words that are not explained in this chapter can be further studied in the complete list in the appendices.
Naturally, every single century had an important contribution to the modern English lexicon as during each of them, English language profited from the contact with French language and culture. Despite all the political and cultural inconsistencies, the relation between the two languages always surmounted these complications, maybe, as suggests Walter (2001, p. 103), owing to multiple marriages between French and English representatives of power. In any case, the importance of talking about things, whether they were positive and negative, might also be a reason why English accepted certain vocabulary from French in spite of all variances.
5. Foreign influence on fashion vocabulary
The fashion vocabulary the thesis is dealing with is considered as words that were adopted into English from French. Nevertheless, even the French language underwent
36 certain development and multiple foreign languages throughout the history had influenced its lexicon. This chapter is dedicated to a study of singular impacts on the vocabulary as the words are classified into groups by the languages that determined them. Naturally, many of the words contain several impacts from different languages and they are therefore classified into more than one category. Another finding must be mentioned before the study itself and it is the fact that sometimes the etymological analysis differs from certain dictionaries, as the exploration of the primal origin of a certain word is a very complex process depending on many literary sources. For this reason, some of the scholars may prove some theories false and some may be inclined to disparate assumptions. The thesis takes into consideration the authority of The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology (CODEE) from 1993 and other sources stated in the list of bibliography. French expressions are sometimes completed with etymology from French sources that, in certain cases, contains several divergences. Hopefully, this chapter may serve as a source of information for further, more detailed, studies of individual influences on English and French languages. The numbers are firstly displayed in the following graph and they are, subsequently, defined and explained in more detail.
Figure 4. Numbers of fashion entries influenced by individual languages. 5.1. Latin Latin played an important part in the creation of French language and served as a rich source of vocabulary for other languages such as Italian or Spanish (Walter, 2001, p. 16) This
37 is why it is important to examine the words that are not solely French but in the history of which Latin figured as well. From the whole number of 166 entries studied in the thesis, it is possible to detect certain Latin influence on 86 of them (51.8%), in other words on more than a half. This provides the idea of the significance of the dead language. In certain cases, the influencing of each other is considered as a simple process when English borrowed a word from French who borrowed or derived it from Latin as following examples:
• adorn – It was taken from Old French adorner that was refashioned from Old French ao(u)rner. This expression got into French from Latin word adornāre composed of two parts “ad” meaning ‘a motion towards something’ and ornare (furnish, deck).
• bonnet – It was taken from Old French bonet (the modern form is bonnet) which was a shortened form of chapel de bonet meaning ‘a hat made of a material called bonet’. This, again, was a successor of Latin bonetum whose origin is unknown.
Other cases consist of rather more complicated process as the French expression was influenced by Latin but between these two expressions stand other languages that brought their own adaptations as follows. This proves the fact that Latin got first into contact with another language that subsequently influenced French as obvious from the following example:
• costume – This expression was adopted to English from French costume brought into France from Italian costume meaning ‘custom, fashion or habit’. And into Italian, the word came from Latin consuetūdō meaning ‘custom’.
In English also exist cases when the French expression was influenced by Vulgar Latin. From the list of fashion words, there are 5 of them: dress, fringe, haute-couture, model, tassel. In the case of haute-couture, the influence of Vulgar Latin is apparent only in the second part of the compound word couture.
5.2. Germanic, Roman, Italian The list contains expressions whose etymology is marked with the characteristic ‘Germanic’, ‘Roman’ and ‘Italian’. Most of them then underwent other changes caused by other languages so they cannot be considered as the only influence. All together they amount to 39 entries (23.5%).
38 The first mentioned group, Germanic, comprises 16 expressions (9.6%): bandeau, button, chic, cravat, embroider, embroidery, ermine, frock, fur, garment, guipure, guise, ribbon, robe, toupee and vogue.
Roman languages then participated in the evolution of 15 (9%) of the studied expressions: apparel, blue, brooch, coat, guise, lace, mitten, petticoat, pince-nez, piqué, pleat, rivière, robe and tailor. Expressions guise and robe have a possible historical connection both with Germanic and Roman languages and are therefore classified into both groups.
The third group of words influenced by Italian constitutes 9 (5.4%) following words: brilliant, camisole, costume, delaine, model, parasol, sequin, vest and vogue. All these expressions were adopted into French directly from Italian without any intermediate stage and four of them contain certain Latin influence. Brilliant is not an exception but its origin before Italian is not certain. The word vogue therefore belongs to two on the mentioned groups, Germanic and Italian as there is a possibility that the Italian influence has its roots in Germanic languages.
5.3. Greek, Frankish, Arabic, Persian French, before it enriched English with fashion words, was inspired by Greek language in 7 cases: brassiere, crystal, diadem, mitre, sandal, scarlet and synthetic. Almost all of them experienced a similar progression on their way to English where they were adopted from French inspired by Latin that had had Greek origin. Nonetheless, sometimes the presence of Greek element is not that easy to prove as for example in the case of scarlet where CODEE (1993) questions this relation and prefers to state that its origin before French is unknown.
Words marked with Frankish origin form a group of 5 words (3%) to which we attribute this origin. These are: coat, etiquette, frock, fur and pocket. However, CODEE (1993) assigns this origin only to two of them, coat and frock. The possibility within the rest is based on the online version of an etymological dictionary mentioned in the bibliography.
Arabic influence in 4 following words (2.4%) cotton, orange, satin and sequin is confirmed by CODEE (1993). The first three were taken into French directly from Arabic language and the last one from Italian that borrowed this expression from Arabic.
Persian origin is with certainty attributed to the word orange (by CODEE, 1993) and there is a possibility that another word has its roots in Persian language, sandal.
39 5.4. Celtic, Dutch and other origins The last chapter involves 10 words whose origins are rather unique compared to the rest of the chapter since their numbers are not higher than 5 and some of them did not conduced more than with a single expression.
Potential Celtic influence on the chosen fashion vocabulary is represented by the number 3 (1.8%): beret, garter and mantle. This origin is, however, difficult to prove and it is therefore “probable” or “possible”.
The same number, 3 words (1.8%), applies to entries with Dutch origin as follows: layette, mannequin and etiquette. Both layette and mannequin were influenced directly by the Dutch language while the third word etiquette and its etymology is not united as the online etymology dictionary proposes Frankish influence of Proto-Germanic origin.
The last section contains languages that participated in the formation of one single expression from the list of fashion vocabulary as follows: Spanish (camisole), Old Norse (crochet), Irish (cloak) and Balto-Slavonic (sable). Camisole, however, has two possible origins that might have brought this word into French, either Spanish, or Italian.
5.5. Solely French influence The previous research establishes that even French, as a donor of numerous words to English, was in certain periods in need of other sources to expand its own lexicon. Despite this fact, there is a special category of words whose origin is determined as exclusively French which means that they have no proven connection with other world languages as examples examined in the previous chapter. This statement, however, might be found somewhat ambiguous since some words may be classified into this group only because of the fact that their origin is not clear and certain. Nevertheless, there exists a possibility that these words have their foreign ancestors that have not been discovered so far. The thesis therefore bases the list of words on the information provided only by CODEE (1993) and it is crucial to take into consideration that CODEE (1993) does not always claim that a given word is an exclusively French expression but it states that the origin is unknown or CODEE (1993) do not indicate any further information.
The list consists of 28 following entries (16.9% of the whole list): attire, beige, bijou, bikini, blouse, chiffon, cretonne, denim, embellish, epaulette, fichu, frock, frou-frou, grisette, gusset, jabot, jacket, jumper, leotard, lorgnette, maillot, polonaise, pompom, sabot, suede,
40 tarlatan, trousseau. There is another word that might be considered as solely French since the whole compound is a French expression, however, the parts the words consists of are of foreign origins. For this reason, it is not classified into this sample.
5.6. French dialects Within the examined list of fashion words, it is possible to observe certain examples that were on their way to English influenced by different French dialects. These dialects vary in individual regions of France. The list contains 11 entries that (might have) originated from French dialects. The most frequent dialect that appears in the etymology of the chosen vocabulary is Provençal, a dialect from the region called Provence situated in the south- eastern part of France. The vocabulary of this origin (in some cases only possible origin that is not documented with certainty) consists of following words (7): attire, beret, boutique, camisole, cape, chaperon and frock. The rest of the categories do not comprise such a high number but it is definitely important to mention for example the Picard dialect, which settles in regions Picardie and Nord-Pas-de-Calais located in the north of France. This dialect had probably influenced 3 fashion words cloak, galoshes and sabot. However, in the case of galoshes, Bloch (2008, p. 286) proposes the theory that the word is either of Picard or of Norman origin so it is necessary to take it into consideration. The last dialect called Breton occupies a western peninsula called Bretagne that gave the same name to the region and its contribution resides in the expression bijou. Apart from this, the word respects more that only French pronunciation as its plural form imitates the French version with an –x at the end and forms bijoux.
5.7. Proper name based vocabulary Frequently, fashion vocabulary finds inspiration in a proper name of a place (a city or a whole country) where the object originated from, from where it was imported to the rest of the world or in certain cases, the piece of garment was worn by people from the place. The following table displays examples of chosen fashion vocabulary and the place of their origin that influenced their name. Detailed etymology is provided in the table of fashion vocabulary in appendices.
English expression Place of origin in English bikini Bikini (an atoll of the Marshall Islands) cravat Croatia
41 cretonne Creton (a city in Normandy, France) delaine Mosul (a city in Iraq) denim Nîmes (a city in France) ermine Armenia jean Genoa (a city in Italy) polonaise Poland satin Zaitun (a city in China) tarlatan Ternate (an island in Indonesia) turquoise Turkey Table 1. Fashion words influenced by geographical names. Another process of creating words from a proper name is composed of proper names of persons. Usually, these persons are those who designed the piece of clothing or someone very famous for wearing it. The first expression affiliated to this process is jacket whose etymology is not unequivocal. However, it does not bear a name of a concrete person but, as Bloch (2008) states, there exists a possibility that it originated from the name ‘Jaques’ which was frequent in the 14th century, the period the word appeared in French. The other case of this procedure is leotard, which is actually a family name of Jules Léotard, a French trapeze artist who wore this tight garment during his performances.
6. Multiple meanings of fashion vocabulary
This chapter deals with changes in meanings of certain vocabulary as some of the provided words may be used for different features without changing their form. Firstly, the chapter centres on changes of provided fashion vocabulary that occurred in English in the course of time and often involved deriving a new expression from the previous one based on extrinsic or intrinsic resemblances. Secondly, another chapter is dedicated to evident contrasts between French and English language. These words refer to distinct objects or actions even though their form is either identical or slightly dissimilar because of diacritics in the case of French.
6.1. Shifts in meanings The majority of words existing in all languages, almost every word may be used in multiple situations with different forms. These changes consist of the changes of word classes (a word may function as a noun and as a verb at the same time) or they acquire completely
42 different meaning. Either they changed as the fashion object changed in time or they had a meaning that was not related to fashion at all. Some of these meanings do not exist anymore in modern English but it is a compelling feature to study. This chapter provides concrete English examples of words the meaning of which evolved and examines some of them in more detail. From the list of fashion vocabulary, it is possible to mention the following examples: chaperon, costume, culottes, fabric, frock, grisette, maillot, ornament, palette, peignoir, pelisse, powder, scarlet, sequin, suède or synthetic.
• chaperon – This expression is described at the level of fashion as ‘a hood or a cap’. However, it may also refer to ‘a woman who accompanies unmarried young women as a protector’. The original meaning originated from the 14th century while the shifted meaning appeared in the 18th century.
• fabric – With the meaning of ‘a building’, fabric appeared during the 15th century. The word adopted a second meaning two hundred years later and it also means ‘a construction of a building’. Finally and more importantly for objective of the thesis, the fashion related meaning from the 18th century is ‘textile stuff’.
• peignoir – Referring to ‘a woman’s morning loose gown’ in 19the century, the word came into English as it was misapplied from French ‘garment worn while combing the hair’ used in France already in the 16th century.
Examined expression Fashion meaning Other meanings manners proper to a time and a place (18 c.); costume set of outer garment (19 c.) mode of personal attire (19 c.) divided skirt (20 c.); culottes culotte – knee-breeches (19 c.) long ecclesiastical open- sleeved habit (16 c.); frock long coat or tunic (16 c.); skirted outer garment (16 c.) garb of women of the poorer French working-class grisette classes; woman (18 c.) inferior grey fabric one-piece swimsuit (20 c.); maillot tights (18 c.)
ornament embellishment (13 c.); adjunct (13 c.);
43 to embellish (18 c.) accessory equipment (13 c.) range of colours used by flat wooden instrument to palette particular artist (19 c.) lay colours (16 c.) fur or furred garment; pelisse long women’s mantle (18 c.) solid matter in minute powder powdered cosmetic (16 c.) particles (13 c.); gunpowder (14 c.) rich cloth of various colours (13 c.); scarlet bright-red (13 c.); bright vivid red colour (15 c.) small plate of shinning metal sequin Italian gold coin (17 c.) to ornament clothes (19 c.) Suède gloves = gloves of suède Sweden (19 c.); leather with a napped surface made artificially by chemical synthetic synthesis, i.e. synthetic deductive (17 c.) fabrics (19 c.) Table 2. Shifts in meaning of chosen fashion vocabulary. 6.2. Different meanings between French and English The previous chapter deals with dissimilar meanings between particular words in English that were adopted from French. Subsequently, it is important to include a chapter concerning differences of modern meanings between English and French. Walter (2001, pp. 121-134) provides a long list of so-called faux-amis, words that share the same form but have distinct meanings as for example the word car which in English means ‘a vehicle’ while in modern French it refers rather to ‘a bus, a coach’ or functions as a conjunction ‘because’. From the list of fashion vocabulary analysed in the thesis, there are some entries that work this way as well. The first three expressions are explained in detail and the rest is organized in Table 2.
• attire – The first word from the list that has this double meaning means in English ‘to dress’ but in French it occurs in a form of attire meaning ‘attracted’ or as attire, from infinitive attire which stands for ‘to attract’.
• jean – The difference between English and French is not that noticeable but while in English it refers to ‘a kind of a fabric’, French uses this expression to refer to the ‘trousers made of this fabric’. To refer to the trousers in English, it is necessary to use the form jeans.
44 • maillot – In English, maillot may refer either to ‘tights for gymnasts’ or to ‘a one-piece bathing suit’. In French, there is also this connection to a bathing suit but in this case, it is used as maillot de bain where, however, the two last attached words may be omitted when speaking. Nevertheless, when French people say maillot they can also refer to ‘a jersey, a shirt’.
English English meaning Modern French meaning expression an undergarment for woman’s brassière – a life jacket; child’s brassiere breasts chemise; shoulder strap a light piece of women’s camisole c. (de force) – straight jacket clothing without sleeves a piece of cloth worn around cravat cravate – a tie men’s neck crepe a transparent dress material crêpe - a pancake chenille a type of a fabric a type of a fabric; a larva a shred; chiffon a sheer fabric of silk a piece of cloth normally for cleaning a bell; cloche a women’s hat colloquial expression for ‘a stupid person’ an arrangement of flowers corsage a bodice worn as an accessory a garment having a divided culottes knickers skirt doublet a jacket a pair a scarf; fichu a triangular scarf stupid a piece of clothing attached to jabot a bird’s crop the neckband a slow dance; polonaise a female dress; a slow dance a Polish woman rivière a necklace of precious stones a river red; rouge red powder used as a cosmetic red wine; a lipstick a heraldic colour; sable sand a kind of a mammal or its fur a bride’s garment; trousseau a bride’s garment a bunch vest a waistcoat; a singlet veste - a jacket, a coat Table 3. Differences in English and French meanings of the chosen vocabulary.
45 These vocabulary resemblances prove that even though the contact between English and French languages was (and still is) very close, occasionally, English tends to utilise the expressions of French origin in diverse or even contrasting situations.
Summary of the practical part
The previous practical study of French fashion vocabulary in English confirms the importance of historical influence of French as it intervened into all parts of the language. First of all, the study analyzes numbers of adopted words by individual centuries which may provide a brief idea of fashion trends of each period. This historical assortment takes into consideration the word classes to prove that the major intention why English borrowed words from French was to name either new fashion objects that appeared during that time or expressions referring to already existing items. Consequently, the research of foreign language influences gives the evidence that even though some of the expressions were adopted from French, their roots reach more distant and ancient language families. The fashion words are therefore classified by these foreign influences in order to demonstrate the extension of significance of fashion in the whole world. In comparison with the number of 166 entries, it is possible to assign the characteristic of solely French expressions only to a small number of words. Nonetheless, even though they are not numerous, their existence is eminent as well as the presence of French dialects and influence of French proper names that participated in the process. The last chapter justifies the presumption that despite the fact that English borrowed many expressions from other languages, their meaning may be different from the original concept.
46 7. Conclusion
The aim of the thesis was to systematically organise theoretical information, especially about historical influence of French language on English fashion vocabulary. This is why the thesis provides a theoretical foundation consisting of historical description of the contact between England and France and notably their languages. From the theoretical part, it is more than obvious that English and French, even though they both belong to different language families with distinct origin, their geographical proximity and historical coexistence provoked such a mutual influence that it was impossible to pass it without a permanent impact that persists till now. As a country of great importance when speaking about the fashion, France was able to spread its fashion vocabulary into many world languages. English, as a modern language with an extensive international significance, found in French language a relevant source of vocabulary that may be classified into many categories according to their meaning, including fashion.
The theoretical part provides general information about the language itself and proceeds to the analysis of English language. This inquiry is necessary to understand clearly the substance of the provided study and language studies in general. The introduction to a language is crucial to delimit the extent of the inspected element and to give an idea of what a language represents. The chapter also defines particular functions of language, which may interpret the need of a language to expand its lexicon. Since time immemorial, people attempt to fulfil various demands closely connected to the language skills and the need of communication with other people is only one of them. The rest of these functions illustrates why English and other languages as well search for expressions that are not embodied in their lexicon in the moment. Development is a matter of course in everyday life and it constantly renders the society plenty of discoveries and activities that need to be referred to.
The theoretical part explores the cultural circumstances of England and France and the historical relations between their languages. France is a country with an unquestionable importance in fashion and is considered as one of the most contributing countries at all. This is the reason why other languages (and English especially) profit from its fashionable and linguistic wealth. Many fashion objects originated in France or were discovered and imported from other countries by French people who named them with regard to their physical appearance, similarity to other objects, materials the objects were made of or simply after the
47 place where they found them. These expressions became internationally accepted and in many cases borrowed in the original version.
However, some of the borrowings had to undergo certain adjustments to cohere better with the accepting language. Languages developed multiple strategies that allow the creation and adjusting new words in order to integrate them in their lexicon. These methods are depicted in a separate chapter in an effort to exemplify other possible practices than borrowing, which is, naturally, contained as well. Even though the name of the thesis concentrates mainly on the fashion vocabulary, another chapter of the theoretical part is devoted to particular parts of the English language that experienced the impact of French. These parts include the English spelling, pronunciation, syntax and vocabulary with concrete examples of changes that ensued from the contact with the French-speaking nation. As the presence of French nobility and upper class on the English territory lasted for centuries, the consequences connected to changes simplifying the adoption of a new word were inevitable.
The practical part primarily proceeds from a list of English fashion vocabulary that penetrated into English owing to French. The list contains 166 entries of fashion vocabulary and takes into account the following features of given expressions. Firstly, it observes word classes of the vocabulary in order to be able to conclude whether English requires rather names for objects, activities or their characteristics. The pronunciation is important in order to avoid troubles that may be caused by French spelling which in certain cases stayed unchanged. Each entry is then supplemented with definitions found in dictionaries that are stated in the list of references. The definitions are important especially when the vocabulary no longer belongs to the active layer or represents an object no longer present in modern period’s fashion equipment.
One of the most relevant aspects is the etymological analysis based on etymological dictionaries stated in the list of references as well. This aspect furnishes the thesis with a valuable insight into several possible types of evolution that took place when adopting fashion vocabulary. It also demonstrates the influence of other languages such as Latin, Greek, Italian etc. Another aspect studied in the list is the century, when the word first appeared in English according to accessible literature which. Nevertheless, the thesis also provides multiple rarities included in the list like words with solely French origin or those inspired by a proper name. Finally, a separate chapter is left to shifts in meaning that may appear when a language borrows foreign expressions.
48 Hopefully, the thesis is logically organized and provides expert information in a simplified and comprehensible way. The study might be executed in more details if there were no limits for the thesis. Therefore, it may serve as a source of information for further studies and it proposes as an example the subject of French fashion vocabulary that appeared in English during the 20th century.
49 Reference List
Literature
Ballard, K. (2007). The Frameworks of English: introducing language structures (2nd ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Baugh, A. C., & Cable, T. (2013). A history of the English language (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson. Bloch, O. (2008). Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue française (3rd ed.) (W. V. Wartburg, Ed.). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge encyclopedia of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Durkin, P. (2015). Borrowed words: a history of loanwords in English. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Graddol, D., Leith, D., & Swann, J. (1996). English: history, diversity, and change. New York: Routledge. Hoad, T. F. (Ed.). (1993). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. Hollister, C. W. (1976). The making of England, 55 B.C. to 1399 (4th ed.). Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath. Jakobson, R. (1990). On language (L. R. Waugh & M. Monville-Burston, Eds.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Jenkins, J. (2014). English as a lingua franca in the international university: the politics of academic English language policy. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Laver, J. (2003). Histoire de la mode et du costume (M. Hechter, Trans.). Paris: Thames & Hudson. Little, W., Fowler, H. W., & Coulson, J. (1973). The Shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles (3rd ed.) (C. T. Onions, Ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pearsall, J. (2002). Concise Oxford English dictionary (10th ed., rev.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Serjeantson, M. S. (1935). A history of foreign words in English. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Svartvik, J., & Leech, G. N. (2006). English: one tongue, many voices. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
50 Taillé, M. (1995). Histoire de la langue anglaise. Paris: A. Colin. Walter, H. (2001). Honni Soit Qui Mal Y Pense: l'Incroyable histoire d'amour entre le Francais et l'Anglais. Paris: Librairie Générale française.
Online sources
Acronyms | Oxford Dictionaries. (2016, September 21). Retrieved November 5, 2016, from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/grammar/acronyms Benwell, T. (2015, March 8). List of Eponyms. Retrieved November 16, 2016, from https://www.englishclub.com/ref/List_of_Eponyms/ Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales. (2012). Retrieved March 19, 2017, from http://www.cnrtl.fr/ Cook, V. (2012, May 19). Reduplicative Words in English. Retrieved November 16, 2016, from http://www.viviancook.uk/Words/reduplicatives.htm Durkin, P. (2014, March 10). The Many Origins of the English Language. Retrieved November, 2016, from http://www.slate.com/blogs/lexicon_valley/2014/03/10/etymology_languages_that_ha ve_contributed_to_english_vocabulary_over_time.html Harper, D. (2001). Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved November, 2016, from http://www.etymonline.com/ Kemmer, S. (2004, September 22). Borrowed Words. Retrieved September 7, 2016, from http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words04/structure/borrowed.html Kosur, H. M. (2012, January 17). Understand Forming New Words: Derivation and Back- Formation in English. Retrieved November 16, 2016, from http://www.brighthubeducation.com/esl-lesson-plans/59338-word-back-formation-list/ Kosur, H. M. (2013, December 10). Word Formation: Conversion. Retrieved November 16, 2016, from http://www.brighthubeducation.com/esl-lesson-plans/59339-teaching- word-formation-conversion/ Kosur, H. M. (2014, October 17). Forming New Words: Compounds, Clipped Words and Blends in English. Retrieved November 16, 2016, from http://www.brighthubeducation.com/esl-lesson-plans/59679-forming-new-words- compounds-clipping-and-blends/ Merriam Webster. (n.d.). Retrieved November, 2016, from https://www.merriam- webster.com/
51 List of figures
Figure 1. Percentage of word classes in provided fashion vocabulary...... 28 Figure 2. Percentage of fashion entries per century...... 29 Figure 3. Numbers of fashion entries per century...... 29 Figure 4. Numbers of fashion entries influenced by individual languages...... 37
List of tables
Table 1. Fashion words influenced by geographical names...... 42 Table 2. Shifts in meaning of chosen fashion vocabulary...... 44 Table 3. Differences in English and French meanings of the chosen vocabulary...... 45 Table 4. Chosen examples of common English prefixes...... 53 Table 5. List and explanations of chosen English eponyms...... 54 Table 6. Examples of changing English spelling under French influence...... 55 Table 7. Etymological list of chosen fashion vocabulary influenced by French...... 71
52 Appendices
Prefix Approximate meaning Examples anti- against antiseptic, anti-social de- reverse devaluation, destabilise dis- reverse disconnect, dismount dis- negative and opposite disapprove, disloyal in/im/il/ir- opposite (and negative) impatient, illogical inter- between international, interplanetary intra- within, inside intranet, intravenous mega- very large megalith, megastore mini- small minicab, minibar mis- incorrect, wrong misinformation, mismatch mono- one monosyllabic, monotone neo- new neologism, neo-classical non- not non-standard, non-entity poly- many polygon, polymath post- after postcolonial, postnatal pre- before precaution, preparation pro- in favour of pro-Europe, pro-life pro- forward progress, proceed re- again reconsider, revision trans- Gross transfer, translate un- reverse undo, unpick un- remove uncover, unsaddle
Table 4. Chosen examples of common English prefixes.
53 Eponym Explanation Origin atlas a set of maps Atlas – the god of astronomy and navigation in ancient Greece bobby a policeman (BrE) Sir Robert Peel – the prime minister of Great Britain who reformed criminal law boycott a form of protest, refusal to Charles C. Boycott – a land support something agent for whom people refused to provide labour Celsius a scale of temperature Anders Celsius – a founder of the scale based on two points (freezing and boiling) chauvinist an excessively patriotic Nicolas Chauvin – probably person a fictitious French soldier highly devoted to his country diesel a type of engine Rudolf Diesel – the German inventor of the engine hoover a vacuum cleaner William H. Hoover – an American businessman, founder of The Hoover Company selling vacuum cleaners Morse code a special message system Samuel Morse – an using dots and dashes American inventor interested in long-distance communication nicotine a liquid found in the tobacco Jean Nicot – a French plant ambassador who introduced tobacco to France panic a moment of unexpected fear Pan – a Greek god causing and chaos sudden fear paparazzi independent photographers Paparazzo – an annoying following celebrities photographer from the film La Dolce Vita sandwich a kind of food John Montague, the 4th Earl of Sandwich (England) – gambler keeping his food between two slices when gambling saxophone a brass musical instrument Adolph Sax – a Belgian instrument maker who invented it scrooge a mean person not sharing Scrooge – a character from A his/her money Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens watt a unit of power James Watt – a Scottish engineer Table 5. List and explanations of chosen English eponyms.
54 Old English Modern English hus house hu how pund pound dufe dove wulf wolf ure our sumer summer brun brown ule owl
Table 6. Examples of changing English spelling under French influence.
n° English word Word Pronunci- Definitions, Etymology Cen- class ation synonyms tury 1. adorn v. [əˈdɔːn] to add something OF. adorner 14 c. beautiful, make < OF. ao(u)rner more attractive < L. adornāre ‘ad’ + ‘ornare’ (furnish) 2. apparel n. [əˈpærəl] clothing of a OF. apareiller 14 c. certain kind, < Rom. personal outfit appariculāre ‘ap’ + Rom. pariculum < L. pār (equal)
3. apron n. [ˈeɪprən] a piece of OF. naperon 15 c. clothing used to < OF. nappe protect clothes (table-cloth) from getting dirty < L. mappa (sheet) 4. atelier n. [ˈætəlˌjeɪ] a workshop F. atelier < OF 19 c. astelier (workshop)< astele (piece of wood) prob. from L. hastella (a thin stick) < L. hasta (spear) 5. attire v. [əˈtaɪə] to put garments OF. atir(i)er 14 c.
55 on, to dress in (arrange) finery < OF. a tire (in order) < Prov. a tieira (in order) of unkn. orig. 6. bandeau n. [ˈbændəʊ] a head band, a F. bandeau 18 c. hair band < F. bande (strip) prob. of Gmc. orig. 7. beige adj. [beɪʒ] a light colour F. beige 19 c. between yellow (yellowish-gray) and brown; a fine of unkn. orig. material 8. beret n. [ˈbereɪ] a round flat hat F. béret (Basque 19 c. originally worn cap) by Basques < Prov. berret (cap) < L. birrus (hooded cape), prob. of Celt. orig. 9. bijou n. [ˈbiːʒuː] an ornamental F. Breton bijou 17 c. piece of (ring) workmanship 10. bikini n. [bɪˈkiːnɪ] two-piece F. bikini 20 c. women’s bathing < Bikini (atoll of suit with a low the Marshall waist Islands), orig. unkn. 11. blouse n. [blaʊz] a formal women’s F. blouse, origin 19 c. shirt unknown 12. blue adj. [bluː] the colour of the (O)F. bleu 14 c. sky < Rom. blāvus < Gmc. blæwaz prob. rel. to L. flāvus (yellow) 13. bonnet n. [ˈbɒnɪt] a headdress OF. bonet 14 c. originally for men from expression chapel de bonet (hat made of a material ‘bonet’ < L. bonetum of unkn. orig. 14. boot n. [buːt] a shoe reaching OF. bote, or ON 14 c. above the ankle bóti; AL bota of unkn. orig. 15. boutique n. [buːˈtiːk] a fashion shop, F. boutique (shop) 18 c. usually luxurious; < Old Prov. small shop of any botica sort < L. apotheca (storehouse) 16. bracelet n. [ˈbreɪslɪt] a piece of OF. bracelet 15 c. jewellery worn on < L. bracchiale
56 the wrist (armlet) < L. bracchium (arm) 17. brassiere n. [ˈbræsɪə] an undergarment F. brassiere 20 c. for woman’s (camisole) breasts < F. bras (arm) < L. braccchia (arms) < Gr. brakhiōn 18. brilliant n. [ˈbrɪljənt] a diamond of F. brilliant 17 c. brilliant cut (shining) < It. brillare of unkn. orig. 19. adj. [ˈbrɪljənt] very bright 17 c. 20. brooch n. a piece of OF. broche (long 13 c. jewellery attached needle) on clothing by a < Rom. brocca pin (spike) < L. brocc(h)us 21. buckle n. [ˈbʌkəl] an ornamental (O)F. boucle 14 c. piece of jewellery (metal ring) used to fasten two < L. buccula parts together, (helmet cheek- usually a belt strap) 22. button n. [ˈbʌtən] a round piece of (O)F. bouton 14 c. plastic/glass/metal < OF. boter of pushed through a Gmc. orign. hole to fasten two parts of clothing together 23. camisole n. [ˈkæmɪˌsəʊl] a light piece of F. camisole 19 c. women’s clothing < F.Prov. without sleeves, camisole or It. usually worn camiciola or Sp. under a blouse camisole < Sp. camicia (shirt) 24. cape n. [keɪp] a hooded outer F. Prov. capa 16 c. garment without < L. cappa sleeves hanging < L. caput (head) over the shoulders, close to the neck 25. casual adj. [ˈkæʒjʊəl] occurring without (O)F. casuel and 14 c. design L. casualis (event) 26. chaperon n. [ˈʃæpəˌrəʊn] a hood, cap; a (O)F. chaperon 14 c. woman who < OF. chape accompanies (cape) unmarried women < Prov. capa as a protector < L. cappa < L. caput (head) 27. chemise n. [ʃəˈmiːz] a woman’s (O)F. chemise 19 c. undergarment < L. camisia
57 (shirt) 28. chenille n. [ʃəˈniːl] kind of velvety F. chenille (hairy 18 c. cord caterpillar) < L. canīcula (small) dog < L. canis (dog) 29. chic adj. [ʃɪk] cleverly stylish, F. chic prob. rel. 19 c. fashionable to G. Schik (skill, tact) or F. chicane (legal) quibbling 30. chiffon n. [ʃɪˈfɒn] a sheer fabric of F. chiffon 18 c. silk < F. chiffe (scrap of paper) of unkn. orig. 31. cloak n. [kləʊk] a piece of (O)F. cloke, 13 c. clothing used as a cloque dial. var. coat, without (Picard) of cloche sleeves, worn (bell, cloak) over the shoulders < L. clocca; perh. of Ir. origin 32. v. [kləʊk] to cover 16 c. someone/somethi ng 33. cloche n. [klɒʃ] a women’s deep F. cloche (bell) 20 c. rounded hat; < L. clocca (bell) originally a type of a bell jar 34. coat n. [kəʊt] a piece of OF. cote 14 c. clothing worn to < Rom. cotta keep warm and < Frank. kotta dry or as a part of < OS. cot a suit (woollen coat) of unkn. orig. 35. v. [kəʊt] to cover 14 c. someone/somethi ng with a layer 36. coif n. [kɔɪf] a kind of cap OF. coife (head- 14 c. worn e.g. by nuns dress) under a veil < L. cofia (helmet) 37. v. [kɔɪf] to cut and arrange 15 c. hair 38. collar n. [ˈkɒlə] a piece of OF. colier 13 c. clothing worn < L. collāre around the neck < L. collum that is folded (neck) down, part of a shirt/sweater 39. colour n. [ˈkʌlə] an aspect of OF. col(o)ur 13 c. objects and light < L. color rel. to sources, enables cēlare (hide) to differentiate otherwise identical objects
58 40. corsage n. [kɔːˈsɑːʒ] an arrangement of (O)F. corsage 19 c. flowers worn as < OF. corse an accessory < L. corpus (body) 41. corset n. [ˈkɔːsɪt] a tight piece of (O)F. dim. of cors 14 c. women’s clothing (body) worn under < L. corpus clothes to make (body) their waists appear smaller 42. costume n. [ˈkɒstjuːm] a characteristic F. costume 18 c. outfit; worn to < It. costume create an (custom, fashion, appearance of a habit) certain period, < L. consuetūdō animal, person (custom) etc. 43. cotton n. [ˈkɒtən] a white soft (O)F. coton, 14 c. material made of Arab. kutn plants, used to (cotton) make cloth 44. cravat n. [krəˈvæt] a short piece of F. cravate, G. 17 c. cloth worn around Krawat dial. var. men’s necks, of Kroat, usually with a suit originally worn by Croatian mercenaries in France 45. crepe n. [kreɪp] transparent dress F. crêpe 19 c. material < OF. crespe (curled) < L. crispus (curled) 46. cretonne n. [kreˈtɒn] a strong cotton F. cretonne 19 c. cloth used mainly < F. Creton (city for curtains in Normandy) 47. crinoline n. [ˈkrɪnəlɪn] fabric of horsehair F. crinoline 19 c. or cotton,; an < L. crīnīs (hair) underskirt made + līnum (thread) of crinoline; a hoop skirt 48. crochet n. [ˈkrəʊʃeɪ] knitting with a F. crochet 19 c. hooked needle < OF. croc < ON. krókr (crook) 49. crystal n. [ˈkrɪstəl] a colourless/light (O)F. cristal, 14 c. hard mineral used L. crystallum, in making Gr. krústallos jewellery (ice) < Gr. krust 50. culottes n. [kjuːˈlɒts] a garment having F. culotte 20 c. a divided skirt (breeches) < F. cul (bottom) < L. cūlus
59 (bottom) 51. décolleté adj. [deɪˈkɒlteɪ] cut low at the F. décolleté 19 c. neck < F. décolleter ‘de’ + ‘collet’ < F. col < L. collum (neck) 52. delaine n. [dəˈlæn] a light fabric of F. mousseline de 19 c. wool and cotton laine (muslin of wool) < It. mussolina < It. Mussolo (Mosul, today’s Iraq) 53. denim n. [ˈdenɪm] a strong blue F. serge de Nîmes 17 c. cotton cloth used (a manufacturing to make jeans town in S. France) 54. design n. [dɪˈzaɪn] a process of F. desseing 16 c. planning how < F. desseigner something will (see design v.) look, happen, be made 55. v. [dɪˈzaɪn] to plan a way of F. désigner, 16 c. creating L. designare (to something mark out) 56. diadem n. [ˈdaɪəˌdem] a crown, a symbol (O)F. diadème 13 c. of royalty < Gr. diádēma < Gr. diadeîn (bind round) 57. diamond n. [ˈdaɪəmənd] a very hard (O)F. diamante 14 c. colourless stone < L. diamas as used in jewellery alt. to adamās (unbreakable) 58. doublet n. [ˈdʌblɪt] a man’s close- OF. doublet dim. 14 c. fitting jacket worn of double especially during (double) the Renaissance < L. duplare 59. dress n. [dres] a particular piece OF. dresser, 16 c. of clothing for a drecier (prepare) woman made of a < VL. directiare top part and a (make straight) skirt < L. directus (straight) 60. v. [dres] to put clothes on, 14 c. to wear clothes 61. elegance n. [ˈelɪgəns] restrained beauty OF. elegance 16 c. of style, richness < L. elegantia of design or (taste) ornamentation, < L. elegantem specific precision 62. elegant adj. [ˈelɪgənt] showing good (O)F. élégant or 16 c. taste, simple and L. élegāns relat. clever, attractive, to ēligere (select) graceful
60 63. embellish v. [ɪmˈbelɪʃ] to decorate by (O)F. embellir 14 c. adding special < ‘em’ + ‘bel’ details, to make (beautiful) something more < OF. brouder attractive 64. embroider v. [ɪmˈbrɔɪdə] to sew a design on AN. enbrouder 15 c. a piece of cloth, ‘em’ + ‘brouder’ to make of Gmc. orig. something sound more interesting 65. embroidery n. [ɪmˈbrɔɪdərɪ] cloth decorated by see embroider 14 c. sewing, the process of sewing design 66. epaulette n. [ˈepəˌlet] an ornamental F. epaulette 18 c. strip swewn < F. épaule across the (shoulder) shoulder of a dress/coat 67. ermine n. [ˈɜːmɪn] the white fur of an OF. ermine 12 c. ermine – a small < L. (mūs) animal with a Armenius long body, (Armenian material used for mouse); possible making royal contact with Gmc. clothes words OHG. harmīn < OHG. harmo (weasel) 68. etiquette n. [ˈetɪˌket or ˌe rules indicating F. etiquette 18 c. tɪˈket] the proper and (prescribed polite way of behaviour) behaviour < OF. estiquier/estiquer (attacher) < Frank. stikkan or Dutch steken 69. fabric n. [ˈfæbrɪk] knitted or woven (O)F. fabrique 15 c. material < L. fabrica < L. faber (worker in metal) 70. fashion n. [ˈfæʃən] a popular way of OF. façon 13 c. dressing during a (pattern, particular period appearance) of time among a < L. factionem particular group (making) of people; the business of creating and selling clothes 71. fichu n. [ˈfiːʃuː] a triangular scarf F. fichu of uncert. 19 c. worn over the orig. shoulders by women 72. finery n. [ˈfaɪnərɪ] clothes, jewellery E. fine 17 c.
61 that are beautiful < (O)F. fin (fine) and expensive < L. finis (end, fine, tax) 73. formal adj. [ˈfɔːməl] according with OF. formal 14 c. established form (constituent) and or rule direct. from L. formalis < L. forma (shape) 74. fragrance n. [ˈfreɪgrəns] a pleasant smell; F. fragrance or 17 c. perfume or direct. from L. cologne fragrantia < L. fragrans (sweet-smelling) 75. fringe n. [frɪndʒ] a kind of OF. fringe 15 c. hairstyle, hair left (thread) on the front, < VL. frimbia usually cut < L. fimbria straight, originally < L. fimbriae ornamental (fibers, threads) bordering 76. frock n. [frɒk] a woman’s dress; OF. froc (a 14 c. a long outer monk’s habit, garment worn by dress) of unkn. Christian monks orig.maybe Frank. hrok < G. hrok < G. Rock (habit); or Prov. floc < L. floccus 77. frou-frou n. [ˈfruːfruː] a rustling of a F. frou-frou - 19 c. skirt, frilly onomatopoeia ornamentation 78. fur n. [fɜː] a hairy coat of an OF. forrer (line) 14 c. animal, soft and < OF. fuerre thick; a piece of (sheath) clothing made of < Frank. fidr or fur; lining of a another Germanic garment source as Pr.-Ger. fodram (source of Old Fris. foder (coat lining), OHG fotar, German Futter, Goth. fodr) 79. galoshes n. [gəˈlɒʃɪz] a shoe with a OF. galoche 14 c. heavy sole, a high < L. gallicula overshoe worn in < L. gallica used snow in ‘Gaulish sandal’; possible influence of Picard or Norman 80. garment n. [ˈgɑːmənt] a piece of (O)F. garnement 14 c.
62 clothing in (equipment) general < (O)F. garnir (garnish) < Gmc. warnjan, prob. related to warnējan (become aware) 81. v. [ˈgɑːmənt] to clothe with a 16 c. garment 82. garter n. [ˈgɑːtə] an elastic band of OF. gartier/ 14 c. material worn jartier around the leg to < OF. garet/jaret hold up a stocking (bend of the knee) prob. of Celt. orig. 83. v. [ˈgɑːtə] to hold up with a 16 c. garter 84. gown n. [gaʊn] a long formal OF. goun 13 c. dress for women < L. gunna (fur worn during a garment) of unkn. special event; a orig. piece of clothing that covers the body; a piece of clothing worn during official events by a judge, a priest, a student etc. 85. grisette n. [ˈgrɪzet] grey dress fabric F. grisette 18 c. (French working- class woman) < F. gris (grey) 86. guipure n. [ɡiːˈpjʊə] a decorative lace (O)F. guipure 19 c. with a large < (O)F. guiper pattern (cover with silk) < Gmc. wīpan (wind round) 87. guise n. [gaɪz] style, fashion (O)F. guise 13 c. < Rom. wīsa < Gmc. wīsōn (wise) 88. gusset n. [ˈgʌsɪt] a piece of cloth in OF. gosser 14 c. the shape of a (armhole, piece of triangle, sewn armour for the into something to armpit) make it < OF. gousse wider/stronger (shell) of unkn. orig. 89. habit n. [ˈhæbɪt] a specific kind of OF. abit 13 c. clothing, < L. habitus characteristic of a < L. habit function < L. habēre (have, hold)
63 90. haute-couture n. [ɒt kuːˈtʊə] companies and F. haute (high) 20 c. people creating + F. couture very expensive (dressmaking) and fashionable < OF. costure clothes and the < VL. consuture clothes they < L. consuere (to create sew together) 91. jabot n. [ˈʒæbəʊ] a piece of cloth F. jabot (bird's 19 c. attached to the crop) front of a neckband 92. jacket n. [ˈdʒækɪt] a garment for the OF. jaquet (short 15 c. upper body, coat with sleeves) usually with a < OF. jaque (a front opening, kind of tunic) of collar, sleeves and unkn. orig., pockets maybe from Jacque (proper name) 93. jean n. [dʒiːn] a durable cotton OF. jean fustian 16 c. cloth (a type of cloth) < OF. Janne < L. Janua (Genoa) 94. jeans n. [dʒiːnz] pants made of 19 c. jean or denim 95. jewel n. [dʒiːnz] a valuable stone, a AF. juel 13 c. piece of jewellery < OF. joule made of valuable (ornament) materials worn to probab. from L. decorate the body jocus (jest) 96. jewellery n. [ˈdʒuːəlrɪ] decorative objects OF. juelerie, see 15 c. worn on people’s jewel bodies 97. jumper n. [ˈdʒʌmpə] a loose blouse or of unkn. orig. 19 c. jacket; a maybe from F. sleeveless one- jupe (skirt) or piece dress worn some notion of usually with a jump blouse; a children’s coverall 98. kerchief n. [ˈkɜːtʃɪf] a square piece of AN. courchef = 13 c. cloth worn around OF. cueuvre-chef the neck or as a < OF. couvrir covering the head (cover) + chief (head) 99. label n. [ˈleɪbəl] a piece of OF. label (ribbon) 13 c. paper/cloth maybe Gmc. attached to related to lap clothes to identify (skirt of a the maker garment) 100. v. [ˈleɪbəl] to put a word or 17 c. name on
64 something to identify the maker 101. lace n. [leɪs] a string used for OF. lacier 13 c. tying or holding (fasten) things together, < OF. laz (noose) usually shoes < Rom. lacium 102. v. [leɪs] to pull a lace 13 c. through the holes of shoes to fasten them 103. layette n. [leɪˈet] clothing for a F. layette 19 c. newborn infant < OF. laie (drawer) < MDu. laege 104. leotard n. [ˈlɪəˌtɑːd] a piece of from a proper 19 c. clothing fitting name, Jules tightly, covering Léotard – French the body except trapeze artist, for the legs and performed in such arms a garment 105. lingerie n. [ˈlænʒərɪ] women’s F. lingerie (linen 19 c. underwear and goods) clothing worn in < OF. linge bed < L. lineus (of linen) < L. linum (linen) 106. lorgnette n. [lɔːˈnjet] type of opera F. lorgnette 19 c. glass with a < F. lorgner handle (squint) 107. luxury n. [ˈlʌkʃərɪ] a condition of OF. luxurie (lust) 14 c. great comfort, < L. luxuria ease and wealth; (delicacy) something < L. luxus expensive and not (magnificence) necessary; rich and pleasant 108. luxurious adj. [lʌgˈzjʊərɪəs] very comfortable see luxury 14 c. and expensive; desiring for expensive things 109. maillot n. [mæˈjoʊ] tights for F. maillot 19 c. gymnasts and (swaddling dancers; a clothes) woman’s one- < OF. mailloel, piece bathing suit; probab. an a jersey alternation of maille (mesh) 110. mannequin n. [ˈmænɪkɪn] a figure shaped F. mannequin 18 c. like a human < Dutch body used for manneken (little making and man) displaying clothes; a person who displays
65 clothes during shows 111. manteau n. [ˈmæntəʊ] a loose cloak, coat F. manteau 17 c. or robe < OF. mantel see mantel
112. mantle n. [ˈmæntəl] a sleeveless cloak OF. mantel 13 c. < L. mantellum (cloak), maybe Celt. orig. 113. manufacture v. [ˌmænjʊˈfæk making products OF. manufacture 16 c. tʃə] (e.g. with < L. manufactura machines) < L. manu (hand) + factura (a working) 114. mitre n. [maɪtə] a high pointed hat (O)F. mitre 14 c. worn by bishops < L. mitra and abbots during (headband) ceremonies < Gr. mitra (headband) 115. mitten n. [ˈmɪtən] a hand covering, (O)F. mitaine 14 c. the four fingers < Rom. together, thumb medietāna separately < L. medietās (half) 116. model n. [ˈmɒdəl] a particular F. modelle 16 c. version of a < It. modello (a product; a person model) who displays < VL. modellus clothes of photos, < L. modulus (a shows, on small measure) television etc. < L. modus (measure) 117. negligee n. [ˈneglɪˌʒeɪ] a woman's long F. négligée 18 c. flowing usually < F. négligier (to sheer dressing neglect) gown < L. neglegere (not trouble oneself about) 118. orange adj. [ˈɒrɪndʒ] a colour between OF. orenge 14 c. red and yellow < Arab. nāranj < Pers. nārang 119. ornament n. [ˈɔːnəmənt] a small object put AN. urnement, 13 c. on something to OF. o(u)rnement make it more < L. ōrnāmentum attractive < L. ōrnāre (adorn) 120. v. [ˈɔːnəˌment] to make 18 c. something more attractive by adding small details 121. palette n. [ˈpælɪt] the range of F. palette 17 c. colours used < OF. palete
66 when creating (blade) something (e.g. < OF. pale clothes, designs); (blade) flat tablet to lay < L. pala (spade) colours 122. parasol n. [ˈpærəˌsɒl] a light umbrella F. parasol 17 c. protecting from < It. parasole the sun (protection from the sun) ‘para’ (defense against) + ‘sole’ (sun) < L. solem 123. pearl n. [pɜːl] a coloured (O)F. perle 14 c. concretion formed probab. from It. inside the shell of perla representing some molluscs, L. perna (leg-of- used as jewels mutton shaped bivalve 124. peignoir n. [peɲwaʁ] a loose woman’s F. peignoir 19 c. negligee or < F. peignouoir dressing gown (kind of garment) < F. peigner (to comb the hair) < L. pectinare < L. pectin (a comb) 125. pelerine n. [peləriːn] a women’s F. pèlerine 18 c. narrow cape made < F. pelerine of fabric with (pilgrim) long ends hanging < L. peregrinus down in front (foreign) 126. pelisse n. [peˈliːs] fur; furred (O)F. pelisse 18 c. garment; long < L. pellicia mantle worn by < L. pellis (skin) women 127. petticoat n. [ˈpetɪˌkəʊt] a skirt worn under “petty” < (O)F. 15 c. a dress or a skirt ‘petit’ (small) < Rom. pittittus < Rom. pit < L. pitinnu, pitulus (small); + ‘coat’ (see coat) 128. pince-nez n. [ˈpænsˌneɪ] eyeglasses F. ‘pincer’ 19 c. clipped to the noe (pinch) from AN., ONF. pinchier < OF. pincier < Rom. pīnctiāre < Rom. punctiāre (punch) + ‘nez’ (nose) 129. piqué n. [ˈpiːkeɪ] cotton fabric with F. piqué 19 c. a raised pattern < F. piquer (pierce) < Rom. piccāre
67 (pick) 130. pleat n. [pliːt] a fold of cloth OF. pleit (fold) 15 c. made by doubling < Rom. plic(i)tum material over on < Rom. plicāre itself (fold) 131. v. [pliːt] to arrange in 14 c. pleats (e.g. pleat a skirt) 132. pocket n. [ˈpɒkɪt] a small bag sewn AN. poket(e) 15 c. into clothing for < AN. poke carrying small (small bag) articles var. of OF. pochette < (O)F. poche (pocket) < Frank. pokka 133. polonaise n. [ˌpɒləˈneɪz] a female dress F. polonaise 18 c. with a fitted (Polish) waist; slow dance of Polish orig. 134. pompom n. [ˈpɒmpɒm] an ornamental F. pompon or 18 c. ball used on unkn. orig. clothing, caps and costumes 135. powder n. [ˈpaʊdə] a very fine, dry (O)F. poudre 13 c. substance that is < L. pulver (dust) put on your body or face especially to make it dry or less shiny 136. prêt a porter adj. [pretaporˈteɪ] ready-to-wear F. prêt-à-porter 20 c. clothes (ready to wear) ‘prêt’ from L. prætus (close) + ‘porter’ from L. portāre (to carry) 137. ribbon n. [ˈrɪbən] a long strip of OF. riban/ruban 14 c. fabric used for < probab. Gmc. decoration or compound of tying band 138. rivière n. [riːˈvjeə] a necklace of F. rivière 19 c. precious stones < Rom. rīpāria < L. rīpārius < L. rīpā (bank) 139. robe n. [rəʊb] a long garment (O)F. robe 14 c. reaching to the < Rom. rauba of ankles, used for Gmc. orig. ceremonial occasions 140. rouge n. [ruːʒ] red powder used (O)F. rouge 18 c. as a cosmetic < L. rubeus (red) 141. sable n. [ˈseɪbəl] a heraldic colour; F. sable in 15 c. a kind of a reference to the mammal and its mammal and its
68 fur fur < L. sabelum of Balt.-Sl. orig. 142.. sabot n. [ˈsabəʊ] a kind of simple F. sabot 17 c. wooden shoes < OF. çabot worn by French < OF. Picard and Breton chabot peasants blend. of çavate + ‘botte’ (see boot) -> sabotage (clatter with shoes) 143. sandal n. [ˈsændəl] a shoe consisting maybe from F. 14 c. of a sole strapped sandale to the foot < L. sandalium < Gr. sandalion < Gr. sandalon (sandal) of unkn. orig., maybe of Asiatic origin, Persian 144. satin n. [ˈsætɪn] a smooth, glossy (O)F. satin 14 c. fabric, usually of < Arab. zaitūnī silk, produced by from Zaitun (a a weave Chinese city) 145. adj. [ˈsætɪn] made of or 15 c. covered with satin 146. scarlet n. [ˈskɑːlɪt] a rich cloth of OF. escarlate 13 c. various colours (scarlet colour) of unkn. orig., maybe from medL. scarlatum < medGr. and Late L. sigillatus (cloths decorated with small symbols) 147. adj. [ˈskɑːlɪt] of a brilliant red 14 c. colour 148. sequin n. [ˈsiːkwɪn] a small plate of F. sequin 17 c. shining metal or < It. zechcino (a plastic used for Venetian coin) ornamentation < It. zecca (a especially on mint) clothing < Arab. sikka (die for coining) 149. suède n. [sweɪd] leather with a F. gants de Suède 19 c. napped surface; (gloves of originally suede Sweden) gloves 150. synthetic adj. [sɪnˈθetɪk] made by chemical F. synthétique and 17 c. synthesis to from L. imitate a natural syntheticus
69 product, also for < Gr. synthetikos textile materials (skilled in putting together < Gr. synthetos (put together) 151. tailor n. [ˈteɪlə] a person who AN. taillour, 13 c. makes outer (O)F. tailleur garments (cutter) < Rom. tāliātor < Rom. tāliāre (cut) < L. tālea (cutting) 152. tarlatan n. [ˈtɑːlətən] a kind of thin a F. tarlatane 18 c. thin muslin < F. tarnatane (island of Ternate, Indonesia) 153. tassel n. [ˈtæsəl] a dangling OF. tas(s)el of 13 c. ornament made unkn. orig., by laying parallel maybe from VL. a bunch of cords tassellus or threads of even < L. taxillus length and (small cube) fastening them at < L. talus one end (knucklebone) 154. textile n. [ˈtekstaɪl] a woven cloth F. textile or L. 17 c. textilis < L. texere (to weave) 155. toupee n. [ˈtuːpeɪ] an artificial lock F. to(u)pet (tuft of 18 c. of hair hair over the forehead) < OF. toup of Gmc. orig. related to top 156. trousseau n. [ˈtruːsəʊ] a bride’s outfit F. trousseau 19 c. < F. trousse < OF. trusse perh. OF trusser of unkn. orig. 157. tunic n. [ˈtjuːnɪk] a simple slip-on F. tunique or L. 17 c. garment made tunica with or without sleeves 158. turquoise adj. [ˈtɜːkwɔɪz] of sky-blue to OF. turqueise 14 c. apple-green (Turkish) colour 159. tutu n. [ˈtuːtuː] a short projecting F. tutu, alt. to 20 c. skirt worn by a cucu, infantile ballerina var. of cul (bottom) < L. culus (bottom) 160. vamp n. [væmp] a part of a boot AN. vaumpé 13 c.
70 covering the front < OF. avatpié of the foot ‘avant’ (before) + ‘pied’ (foot) 161. veil n. [veɪl] a length of cloth AN. veile and veil 14 c. worn by women = OF. voile and as a covering for voil the head and < L. vēla and shoulders, e.g. a vēlum (sail, veil) bridal veil 162. velour n. [veˈlʊə] a type of cloth F. veloursi alt. of 18 c. that resembles OF. velous velvet < L. villōsus (hairy) < L. villus (growth of hair) 163. velvet n. [ˈvelvɪt] a fabric of silk OF. veluotte 14 c. with a dense < OF. velu smooth pile (velvety) < L. villūtus < L. villus (growth of hair) 164. vest n. [vest] a protective F. veste (jacket) 17 c. usually sleeveless < It. vesta/veste garment (as a life (robe, gown) preserver) that < L. vestis extends to the (clothing) waist < L. vestire (to cloth) 165. violet adj. [ˈvaɪəlɪt] a reddish-blue (O)F. violette 16 c. colour < OF. viole < L. viola (violet) 166. vogue n. [vəʊg] a period of F. vogue (fashion, 16 c. popularity, one success) that is in fashion < It. voga at a particular (rowing, fashion) time; fashion < It. vogare (row), prob. of Gmc orig. from MHG wogen (wave, float) Table 7. Etymological list of chosen fashion vocabulary influenced by French.
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