Anatomical Position

IntroductionIntroduction inin humanhuman anatomyanatomy Anatomy • Definition - anatome = up (ana) + cutting (tome) • Disciplines of anatomy – Macroscopic – Microscopic – Developmental – Neuroanatomy • Approach to study of gross anatomy Upper extremity Back Head and neck Thorax Abdomen Pelvis and perineum Lower extremity Basis for Terminology

• Terms informative • Nomina anatomica • Use of eponyms

Use correct terminology on exams; avoid nonspecific, general terms, like “front,” “up,” and “behind.” DisciplinesDisciplines ofof AnatomyAnatomy

•• Gross Gross Anatomy:Anatomy: structuresstructures studiedstudied withwith thethe nakednaked eye.eye. –– Systematic Systematic anatomy:anatomy: organizedorganized byby systems,systems, e.g.,e.g., digestive,digestive, nervous,nervous, endocrine,endocrine, etc.etc. –– Regional Regional anatomy:anatomy: studystudy ofof allall structuresstructures inin anan areaarea ofof thethe body,body, e.g.,e.g., upperupper extremityextremity bones,bones, muscles,muscles, bloodblood vessels,vessels, etc.etc. •• Microscopic Microscopic anatomyanatomy (histology)(histology) •• Cell Cell biologybiology •• Developmental Developmental anatomyanatomy (embryology)(embryology) •• Pathological Pathological anatomyanatomy •• Radiologic Radiologic anatomyanatomy (x-ray,(x-ray, CT,CT, MRI)MRI) •• Other Other areas?areas? (surgery)(surgery) LevelsLevels ofof StructuralStructural OrganizationOrganization •• Biochemical Biochemical (atoms,(atoms, molecules)molecules) •Cellular•Cellular •• Tissue Tissue •Organ•Organ •Organ•Organ systemsystem •Organism•Organism MedicalMedical ImagingImaging TechniquesTechniques •• X-rays X-rays •CT•CT ScanScan •PET•PET •• Ultrasound Ultrasound imagingimaging •MRI•MRI •• Anatomy Anatomy isis important!important! Anatomical Planes

• Median = vertical, front to back in midline • Frontal (coronal) = vertical, perpendicular to median • Horizontal (transverse) = parallel to floor, perpendicular to median, coronal • Sagittal = vertical, parallel to median • Midsagittal (R-L) • Parasagittal (unequal R-L) ReferenceReference positionspositions

•• AnatomicalAnatomical positionposition –– most most widelywidely usedused && accurateaccurate forfor allall aspectsaspects ofof thethe bodybody –– standing standing inin anan uprightupright posture,posture, facingfacing straightstraight ahead,ahead, feetfeet parallelparallel andand close,close, && palmspalms facingfacing forwardforward •• FundamentalFundamental positionposition –– is is essentiallyessentially samesame asas anatomicalanatomical positionposition exceptexcept armsarms areare atat thethe sidessides && palmspalms facingfacing thethe bodybody Anatomical Position

• Body erect • Head, eyes, toes directed forward • Limbs at sides of body • Palms directed forward AnatomicalAnatomical directionaldirectional terminologyterminology

•• Anterior Anterior –– in in frontfront oror inin thethe frontfront partpart •• Anteroinferior Anteroinferior –– in in frontfront && belowbelow •• Anterosuperior Anterosuperior –– in in frontfront && aboveabove •• Posterior Posterior –– behind, behind, inin back,back, oror inin thethe rearrear •• Posteroinferior Posteroinferior –– behind behind && below;below; inin backback && belowbelow •• Posterolateral Posterolateral –– behind behind && toto oneone side,side, specificallyspecifically toto thethe outsideoutside AnatomicalAnatomical directionaldirectional terminologyterminology •• Contralateral Contralateral –– pertaining pertaining oror relatingrelating toto thethe oppositeopposite sideside •• Ipsilateral Ipsilateral –– on on thethe samesame sideside •• Bilateral Bilateral –– relating relating toto thethe rightright andand leftleft sidessides ofof thethe bodybody oror ofof aa bodybody structurestructure suchsuch asas thethe rightright && leftleft extremitiesextremities AnatomicalAnatomical directionaldirectional terminologyterminology •• Inferior Inferior (infra)(infra) –– below below inin relationrelation toto anotheranother structure;structure; caudalcaudal •• Superior Superior (supra)(supra) –– above above inin relationrelation toto anotheranother structure;structure; higher,higher, cephaliccephalic •• Distal Distal –– situated situated awayaway fromfrom thethe centercenter oror midlinemidline ofof thethe body,body, oror awayaway fromfrom thethe pointpoint ofof originorigin •• Proximal Proximal –– nearest nearest thethe trunktrunk oror thethe pointpoint ofof originorigin •• Lateral Lateral –– on on oror toto thethe side;side; outside,outside, farthefartherr fromfrom thethe medianmedian oror midsagittalmidsagittal planeplane •Medial•Medial –– relating relating toto thethe middlemiddle oror center;center; nenearerarer toto thethe medialmedial oror midsagittalmidsagittal planeplane •Median•Median –– Relating Relating toto thethe middlemiddle oror centcenter;er; nearernearer toto thethe medianmedian oror midsagittalmidsagittal plane plane From Van De Graaff KM: Human anatomy, ed 6, New York, 2002, McGraw-Hill AnatomicalAnatomical directionaldirectional terminologyterminology •• Caudal Caudal –– below below inin relationrelation toto anotheranother structure;structure; inferiorinferior •• Cephalic Cephalic –– above above inin relationrelation toto anotheranother structure;structure; higher,higher, superiorsuperior •Deep•Deep –– beneath beneath oror belowbelow thethe surface;surface; usedused toto describedescribe relativerelative depthdepth oror locationlocation ofof musclesmuscles oror tissuetissue •• Superficial Superficial –– near near thethe surface;surface; usedused toto describedescribe relativerelative depthdepth oror locationlocation ofof musclesmuscles oror tissuetissue AnatomicalAnatomical directionaldirectional terminologyterminology

•• Prone Prone –– the the bodybody lyinglying faceface downward;downward; stomachstomach lyinglying •Supine•Supine –– lying lying onon thethe back;back; faceface upwardupward positionposition ofof thethe bodybody •Dorsal•Dorsal –– relating relating toto thethe back;back; beingbeing oror localocatedted near,near, on,on, oror towardtoward thethe back,back, posteriorposterior part,part, oror upperupper surfacesurface ofof •Ventral•Ventral –– relating relating toto thethe bellybelly oror abdomen,abdomen, onon oror towardtoward thethe front,front, anterioranterior partpart ofof •Volar•Volar –– relating relating toto palmpalm ofof thethe handhand oror solesole ofof thethe footfoot •Plantar•Plantar –– relating relating toto thethe solesole oror undersurfaceundersurface ofof thethe footfoot DirectionalDirectional TermsTerms ••TowardToward thethe upperupper partpart •Superior Cephalic ••TowardToward thethe lowerlower partpart •Inferior Caudal

••FrontFront •Ventral Anterior

••BackBack •Dorsal Posterior DirectionalDirectional TermsTerms

••FrontFront DownDown •Prone ••TowardToward MidlineMidline •Medial ••AwayAway fromfrom MidlineMidline •Lateral •Same-Ipsilateral •Opposite-Contralateral ••BetweenBetween •Intermediate ••NearNear •Proximal DirectionalDirectional TermsTerms

••FarFar •Distal ••OnOn thethe SurfaceSurface •Superficial ••OnOn thethe InsideInside •Deep ••OnOn thethe WallWall ofof thethe BodyBody CavityCavity •Parietal ••OnOn anan OrganOrgan •Visceral TheThe SkeletonSkeleton

•• Consists Consists ofof –– Bones, Bones, cartilage,cartilage, joints,joints, andand ligamentsligaments •• Composed Composed ofof 206206 namednamed bonesbones groupedgrouped intointo twotwo divisionsdivisions –– Axial Axial skeletonskeleton (80(80 bones)bones) –– Appendicular Appendicular skeletonskeleton (126(126 bones)bones) TheThe AxialAxial SkeletonSkeleton

•• Formed Formed fromfrom 8080 namednamed bonesbones •• Consists Consists ofof skull,skull, vertebralvertebral column,column, andand bonybony thoraxthorax

Figure 7.1a PlanesPlanes andand SectionsSections

•• A A planeplane isis anan imaginaryimaginary flatflat surfacesurface thatthat passespasses throughthrough thethe body.body. •• A A sectionsection isis oneone ofof thethe 22 surfacessurfaces (pieces)(pieces) thatthat resultsresults whenwhen thethe bodybody isis cutcut byby aa planeplane passingpassing throughthrough it.it. Transverse plane Coronal plane

Coronal plane Median plane Of body Sagittal plane

Of hand

Of foot SagittalSagittal OtherOther PlanesPlanes andand PlanePlane SectionsSections •• Frontal Frontal oror coronalcoronal planeplane •• Sagittal Sagittal planeplane –– dividesdivides thethe bodybody oror anan organorgan intointo – divides the body or – divides the body or frontfront (anterior)(anterior) andand backback anan organorgan intointo leftleft (posterior)(posterior) portionsportions andand rightright sidessides •• Midsagittal Midsagittal planeplane •• Transverse(cross-sectional) Transverse(cross-sectional) oror –– producesproduces equalequal horizontalhorizontal planeplane halveshalves –– dividesdivides thethe bodybody oror anan organorgan intointo •• Parasagittal Parasagittal planeplane upperupper (superior)(superior) oror lowerlower –– producesproduces unequalunequal (inferior)(inferior) portionsportions halveshalves •• Oblique Oblique planeplane –– somesome combinationcombination ofof 22 otherother planesplanes PlanesPlanes andand SectionsSections ofof thethe BrainBrain (3-D(3-D anatomicalanatomical relationshipsrelationships revealed)revealed)

•• Superior Superior •• Dorsal Dorsal oror PosteriorPosterior •• Horizontal Horizontal –– towardstowards thethe headhead –– atat thethe backback ofof thethe Plane bodybody Plane – The eyes are superior to – The eyes are superior to –– TheThe brainbrain isis thethe mouth.mouth. posteriorposterior toto thethe forehead. •Inferior•Inferior forehead. •• Frontal Frontal PlanePlane –– awayaway fromfrom thethe headhead •Ventral•Ventral oror AnteriorAnterior –– TheThe stomachstomach isis inferiorinferior toto –– atat thethe frontfront ofof thethe •• Midsagittal Midsagittal thethe heart.heart. bodybody PlanePlane –– TheThe sternumsternum isis anterioranterior toto thethe heart.heart. •Medial•Medial •• Proximal Proximal –– nearernearer toto thethe midlinemidline ofof –– nearer nearer toto thethe attachmentattachment ofof thethe thethe bodybody limblimb toto thethe trunktrunk –– TheThe heartheart lieslies medialmedial toto –– The The kneeknee isis proximalproximal toto thethe thethe lungs.lungs. ankle.ankle.

•• Lateral Lateral •• Distal Distal –– fartherfarther fromfrom thethe midlinemidline – farther from the attachment of ofof thethe bodybody – farther from the attachment of thethe limblimb toto thethe trunktrunk –– TheThe thumbthumb isis onon thethe laterallateral sideside ofof thethe hand.hand. –– The The wristwrist isis distaldistal toto thethe elbow.elbow. Head-CephalicHead-Cephalic

••SkullSkull CranialCranial •Forehead--Frontal •Roof--- Parietal •Side---Temporal •Back--- Occipital Head-CephalicHead-Cephalic

•• FaceFace FacialFacial • Eye---Ocular, orbital •Nose---Rhino, nasal •Ear---Otic •Mouth---Oral •Cheek----Buccal •Chin---Mental Neck-CervicalNeck-Cervical

AreaArea betweenbetween shouldershoulder andand basebase ofof skull.skull. IncludesIncludes 77 neckneck vertebrae.vertebrae. ““CC”” collarcollar usedused forfor whiplash.whiplash. •• FrontFront VentralVentral AnteriorAnterior TrunkTrunk • Chest---Thoracic, pectoral •Collar Bone---Clavicular •Shoulder---Acromial •Breast bone---Sternal •Belly---Abdominal •Navel---Umbilical •Pelvis---Pelvic •Pubis---Pubic

•• BackBack DorsalDorsal PosteriorPosterior •Backbone---Vertebral •Loin---Lumbar •Tail Bone---Sacral, Coccygeal Arm-UpperArm-Upper ExtremityExtremity

•Armpit--- Axillary •Back of hand---Dorsal •Upper Arm---Brachial •Finger---Digital,Phalangeal •Forearm---Antebrachial •Thumb---Pollex •Wrist---Carpal •Hand---Manual •Palm---Metacarpal,volar •Front of Elbow---Antecubital •Back of Elbow---Cubital Olecranal Leg-LowerLeg-Lower ExtremityExtremity

•Hip---Coxal •Heel---Calcaneal •Buttock---Gluteal •Foot------Pedal, metatarsal •Thigh---Femoral •Top of Foot---Dorsal •Knee cap---Patellar •Sole of Foot---Plantar •Back of Knee---Popliteal •Toe---Digital,Phalangeal •Shin---Crural •Great Toe---Hallux •Calf---Sural •Ankle---Tarsal CardinalCardinal planesplanes ofof motionmotion •• 3 3 basicbasic oror traditionaltraditional –– in in relationrelation toto thethe body,body, nonott inin relationrelation toto thethe earthearth •• Anteroposterior Anteroposterior oror SagittalSagittal PlanePlane •• Lateral Lateral oror FrontalFrontal PlanePlane •• Transverse Transverse oror HorizontalHorizontal PlanePlane BodyBody SectionsSections BodyBody SectionsSections BodyBody RegionsRegions RegionalRegional TermsTerms UsedUsed forfor PlacesPlaces AbdominopelvicAbdominopelvic Regions Regions BodyBody CavitiesCavities

•• Dorsal Dorsal bodybody cavitycavity –– Cranial Cranial && vertebral/spinalvertebral/spinal cavitycavity •• Ventral Ventral bodybody cavitycavity –– Thoracic Thoracic && abdominopelvicabdominopelvic cavity cavity

1.8a •• Near Near dorsaldorsal surfacesurface ofof DorsalDorsal BodyBody bodybody CavityCavity •• 2 2 subdivisionssubdivisions –– cranial cranial cavitycavity •• holds holds thethe brainbrain •• formed formed byby skullskull –– vertebral vertebral oror spinalspinal canalcanal •• contains contains thethe spinalspinal cordcord •• formed formed byby vertebralvertebral columncolumn •• Meninges Meninges lineline dorsaldorsal bodybody cavitycavity •• Near Near ventralventral surfacesurface ofof VentralVentral BodyBody bodybody CavityCavity •• 2 2 subdivisionssubdivisions –– thoracic thoracic cavitycavity aboveabove diaphragmdiaphragm –– abdominopelvic abdominopelvic cavitycavity belowbelow diaphragmdiaphragm •• Diaphragm Diaphragm == large,large, dome-shapeddome-shaped musclemuscle •• Organs Organs calledcalled visceraviscera •• Organs Organs coveredcovered withwith serousserous membranemembrane AbdominopelvicAbdominopelvic CavityCavity

•• Inferior Inferior portionportion ofof ventralventral bodybody cavitycavity belowbelow diaphragmdiaphragm •• Encircled Encircled byby abdominalabdominal wallwall,, bonesbones && musclesmuscles ofof pelvispelvis ThoracicThoracic CavityCavity

•• Encircled Encircled byby ribs,ribs, sternum,sternum, vertebralvertebral columncolumn andand musclemuscle •• Divided Divided intointo 22 pleuralpleural cavitiescavities byby mediastinummediastinum •• Mediastinum Mediastinum containscontains allall thoracicthoracic organsorgans exceptexcept lungslungs MediastinumMediastinum

•• Midline Midline wallwall ofof tissuetissue thatthat containscontains heartheart andand greatgreat vessels,vessels, esophagus,esophagus, tracheatrachea andand thymus.thymus. SerousSerous CavitiesCavities •• Thorax Thorax && AbdomenAbdomen •• Closed Closed toto outsideoutside •• Double Double walledwalled sacsac (serous(serous membrane)membrane) –– Pleural Pleural cavitycavity –– pericardium pericardium –– peritoneum peritoneum •• Parietal Parietal serosaserosa •• Visceral Visceral serosaserosa •• Serous Serous fluid/cavityfluid/cavity SerousSerous CavitiesCavities •• Double Double walledwalled sacsac –– Pleural Pleural cavitycavity –– pericardium pericardium –– peritoneum peritoneum •• Parietal Parietal serosaserosa •• Visceral Visceral serosaserosa •• Serous Serous fluidfluid •• (1.9bcd) (1.9bcd) [name[name viewsviews andand planes]planes] SerousSerous MembranesMembranes

•• Thin Thin slipperyslippery membranemembrane lineslines bodybody cavitiescavities notnot openopen toto thethe outsideoutside –– parietal parietal layerlayer lineslines wallswalls ofof cavitiescavities –– visceral visceral layerlayer coverscovers visceraviscera withinwithin thethe cavitiescavities •• Serous Serous fluidfluid reducesreduces frictionfriction PleuralPleural && PericardialPericardial CavitiesCavities

•• Visceral Visceral pleurapleura clingsclings toto surfacesurface ofof lungslungs ------Parietal Parietal pleurapleura lineslines chestchest wallwall •• Visceral Visceral pericardiumpericardium coverscovers heartheart ------Parietal Parietal pericardiumpericardium lineslines pericardialpericardial sacsac PeritoneumPeritoneum

•• Visceral Visceral peritoneumperitoneum ------serous serous membranemembrane thatthat coverscovers thethe abdominalabdominal visceraviscera •• Parietal Parietal peritoneumperitoneum ------serous serous membranemembrane thatthat lineslines thethe abdominalabdominal wallwall MucousMucous MembranesMembranes

LinesLines bodybody cavitiescavities openopen toto thethe outsideoutside –– Respiratory Respiratory systemsystem –– Digestive Digestive systemsystem –– Urinary Urinary systemsystem –– Reproductive Reproductive systemsystem TheThe BodyBody SystemsSystems

•The Skeletal System •The basic framework of the body is a system of over 200 bones with their joints, collectively known as the skeleton. •Protects and supports body organs. •Provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. •Blood cells are formed within bones. •Stores minerals. TheThe BodyBody SystemsSystems

•The Muscular System ƒBody movements are due to the action of the muscles which are attached to the bones. Other types of muscles are present in the walls of such organs as the intestine and the heart. ƒAllows manipulation of the environment, locomotion and facial expression. ƒMaintains posture. ƒProduces heat. TheThe BodyBody SystemsSystems

••TheThe CirculatoryCirculatory SystemSystem ƒThe heart, blood vessels, lymph vessels and lymph nodes all make up the system whereby blood is pumped to all the body tissues, bringing with it food, oxygen and other substances, and carrying away waste materials. ƒBlood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. ƒThe heart pumps blood. TheThe BodyBody SystemsSystems

••TheThe DigestiveDigestive SystemSystem ƒThis system comprises all organs which have to do with taking in food and converting the useful parts of it into substances that the body cells can use. Examples of these organs are the mouth, the teeth, and the alimentary tract (esophagus, stomach, intestine, and accessory organs such as the liver and the pancreas). ƒBreaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. ƒIndigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. TheThe BodyBody SystemsSystems

••TheThe RespiratoryRespiratory SystemSystem ƒThis includes the lungs and the passages leading to and from them. The purpose of this system is to take in air, and from it extract oxygen which is then dissolved in the blood and conveyed to all the tissues. A waste product of the cells, carbon dioxide, is taken by the blood to the lungs, whence it is expelled to the outside air. ƒKeeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. ƒThe gaseous changes occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs. TheThe BodyBody SystemsSystems

••TheThe IntegumentaryIntegumentary SystemSystem ƒThe word “integument” (in-teg’u-ment) means “skin.” The skin is considered by some authorities to be a separate body system. It includes the hair, nails, sweat and oil glands, and other related structures. ƒForms the external body covering. ƒProtects deeper tissues from injury. ƒSynthesis vitamin D. ƒSite of cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors, and sweat and oil glands. TheThe BodyBody SystemsSystems

•The Urinary System ƒThis is also called the excretory system. Its main components are the kidneys, the ureters, the bladder and the urethra. Its purpose is to filter out and rid the body of certain waste products taken by the blood from the cells. (Note that other waste products are removed via the digestive and respiratory systems). ƒEliminates nitrogenous waste from the body. ƒRegulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood. TheThe BodyBody SystemsSystems

••TheThe NervousNervous SystemSystem ƒThe brain, the spinal cord and the nerves all make up this very complex system by which all parts of the body are controlled and coordinated. The organs of special sense (such as the eyes, ears, taste buds, and organs of smell), sometimes classed as a separate sensory system, together with the sense of tough, receive stimuli from the outside world, which are then converted into impulses that are transmitted to the brain. The brain determines to a great extent the body’s responses to messages from without and within, and in it occur such higher functions as memory and reasoning. ƒFast-acting control system of the body. ƒResponds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands. TheThe BodyBody SystemsSystems

•The Endocrine System •A few scattered organs known as endocrine glands produce special substances called hormones, which regulate such body functions as growth, food utilization within the cells, and reproduction. Examples of endocrine glands are the thyroid and pituitary glands. •Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells. TheThe BodyBody SystemsSystems

•The Reproductive System •This system includes the external sex organs and all related inner structures which are concerned with the production of new individuals. •Overall function is production of offspring. •Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. •Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormone; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of fetus. •Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.