© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

UNIT i

levels of Organization © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

CHApTER 1

introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology

OuTline 10. Compare positive and negative feedback Anatomy and physiology Overview mechanisms. Organization Levels of the Body Essentials for Life Key Terms Homeostasis Anatomists: Experts or students in the study of anatomy. positive and Negative Feedback Anatomy: The study of body parts, forms, and structures. Organization of the Body Appendicular: Relating to the upper and lower limbs (the Body Cavities and Membranes arms and legs). Organ Systems Atoms: The smallest particles of an element that have the Anatomic planes element’s properties. Directional Terms Axial: Relating to the head, neck, and trunk. Abdominal Regions Cell: The functional and structural unit of life. Body Regions Homeostasis: The maintenance of a relatively constant Summary internal environment in the body. Learning Goals Homeostatic mechanisms: Effectors, receptors, and Critical Thinking Questions the body’s set point, which act together to maintain Websites homeostasis. Review Questions mediastinum: The organs and tissues of the thoracic cavity that form a septum between the lungs. OBjeCTives metabolism: The cellular chemical reactions that break After studying this chapter, readers should be able to: down and build up substances. 1. Defi ne anatomy and physiology. molecules: particles made up of two or more joined 2. Name the components that make up the atoms. organization levels of the body. Organ systems: Groups of organs coordinated to carry 3. Describe the major essentials of life. out specialized functions. 4. Defi ne homeostasis and describe its importance Organelles: Structures within cells that have specialized to survival. functions. 5. Describe the major body cavities. Organism: An individual living thing. 6. List the systems of the body and give the organs Organs: Structures consisting of groups of tissues with in each system. specialized functions. 7. Describe directions and planes of the body. Parietal: Relating to the wall of a cavity. 8. Discuss the membranes near the heart, lungs, Peritoneal membranes: Smooth, transparent membranes and abdominal cavity. that line the abdominal cavity and contain the internal 9. List the nine abdominal regions. organs of the abdomen. 3 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 4 CHApTER 1 introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology

Key Terms COnTinueD in diff erent ways. It is not easy to separate the topics Physiology: The study of body functions. of anatomy and physiology because the structures of Tissues: Groups of similar cells that perform body parts are so closely associated with their func- specialized functions. tions. Each part has its own unique substructures viscera: Organs in the body cavities, especially in that allow it to perform its needed functions. the abdomen. e human body has been studied for hundreds visceral: Relating to the membranous covering of of years. Even though its inner workings are well an organ. understood, new discoveries are still being made even today. As recently as 2003, the human genome e study of anatomy and physiology is vital for (instructions that allow the body to operate) was all health professionals. It involves many diff erent deciphered for the fi rst time. ere are more than areas of science to understand how the human body 20,000 genes in the human body, so this substantial works as well as how it is structured. e study of discovery took many years to complete. Researchers anatomy and physiology provides answers to many frequently discover new information about physi- questions about the functions of the body in both ology, particularly at the molecular level, but health and disease. As a result of this understand- basic human anatomy changes very slowly as time ing, it is possible to see what happens to the body progresses. when it is injured, stressed, or contracts a disease or infection. It is important that all allied health stu- dents become familiar with the terminology used Organization levels of the Body in anatomy and physiology. In this chapter, the Every body structure is made up of smaller struc- focus is on a complete introduction to anatomy and tures, which are, likewise, made up of even smaller physiology. components. Chemicals compose every material found in the human body. ey contain micro- Anatomy and Physiology Overview scopic atoms combined into structures known as e structures and functions of the human body are molecules. Many molecules may be combined closely related. Anatomy is the study of the struc- into macromolecules. ese macromolecules, in ture of body parts and how they are organized. turn, form organelles, which help to complete the Physiology is the study of how body parts work. intended functions of a cell, the basic unit of both Every body part functions to assist the human body structure and function in the human body.

Tissue Organelle Cell

Organ

Macromolecule

Organism Molecule Organ System

Atom

FiGure 1–1 Organization levels of the body Source: Adapted from Shier, D. N., Butler, J. L., and Lewis, R. Hole's Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology, Tenth edition. McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2009. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Essentials for Life 5

Cells are actually microscopic structures that may Stimulus be quite diff erent in size, shape and function. Cells (from external environment) are grouped together to form tissues, which in turn, are grouped together to form organs. Groups of similarly functioning organs form organ systems, organism which then combine to form a living (see Receptors Figure 1–1). Body parts are organized into diff er- ent levels of complexity, including the atomic level, molecular level, and cellular level. Atoms are the most simple in structure, with complexity increas- Control center ing in molecules, organelles, tissues, and organs. (set point) ✓ CHeCK yOur KnOWleDGe 1. What is an organism? Effectors 2. Explain the organization levels of (muscles or glands) the body. essentials for life Response (change is corrected) Humans and other animals share many similar traits. We require specifi c nutrients in order to remain healthy, and to grow and develop normally. Energy FiGure 1–2 Homeostatic mechanism is gained from the breakdown, digestion, absorp- tion, and assimilation of food. Absorbed nutrients move throughout the body’s circulation. Respiration the patient’s condition include refl exes, the pupils of brings in oxygen that works with nutrients to grow the eyes, and brain waves. and repair body parts. e unusable parts of these processes are then excreted as waste. e body’s Homeostasis metabolism controls all of these processes. Human beings need several substances for sur- e internal environment of the human body must vival: food, water, oxygen, pressure, and heat in stay relatively stable in order for the person to sur- specifi c quantities and with specifi c qualities. Food vive. Homeostasis is a term that describes a stable provides nutrients for energy, growth, and regula- internal body environment. It requires concentra- tion of the chemical reactions in the body. Some of tions of nutrients, oxygen, and water to be normal these chemicals are used as energy sources or sup- and balanced, and for heat and pressure to be regu- ply the raw materials needed for building new living lated at tolerable levels. Homeostatic mechanisms matter. Others help to regulate vital chemical reac- regulate the body, and include: tions. Water is required for metabolic processes and ■ Eff ectors (which cause responses that alter makes up most of the body’s actual structure, trans- conditions) porting substances and regulating temperature. ■ Receptors (which provide information about Oxygen is a gas that drives metabolic processes internal stimuli) by releasing energy from food that is consumed ■ Set point (which gives particular values for and bringing nutrients to cells throughout the specifi c functions [see Figure 1–2]). e set body. Pressure, specifi cally atmospheric pressure, is point for body temperature, for example, is essential for breathing. Blood pressure is a form of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 degrees Celsius). hydrostatic pressure that forces the blood through Another set point is the one for normal adult the veins and arteries. Heat is produced as energy blood pressure, which is ideally below 120 from metabolic reactions, infl uencing their speed. (systolic) over 80 (diastolic). Body heat is measured as temperature. Vital signs are observable measurements taken to ✓ CHeCK yOur KnOWleDGe determine the condition of a patient. ey include temperature, blood pressure, pulse rate, and respira- 1. Why is homeostasis essential to survival? tion rate. Other measurements that are taken to verify 2. Describe two homeostatic mechanisms. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 6 CHApTER 1 introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology

positive and Negative Feedback portion. e axial portion of the human body appen- e body utilizes positive and negative feedback sys- includes the head, neck, and trunk. e dicular tems to regulate various activities. A positive feed- portion of the human body includes the back mechanism is one that makes conditions move upper and lower limbs. e axial portion includes away from the normal state to stimulate further the brain (housed inside the cranial cavity), spinal changes. ey are usually short-lived and extremely cord (housed within the vertebrae, inside the ver- specifi c actions. A negative feedback mechanism tebral canal), thoracic cavity (inside the chest), and is one that prevents the correction of deviations abdominopelvic cavity (inside the abdomen and from doing too much (which could possibly harm pelvic areas). the body). Most of the feedback mechanisms of the e head contains the oral cavity (housing the teeth human body use negative feedback. Examples of and tongue), nasal cavity (inside the nose, divided positive feedback include: the onset of contractions into right and left portions), sinuses, orbital cavities prior to childbirth, the process of blood clotting, lac- (housing the eyes and related structures), and middle tation, the secretion of estrogen during the follicular ear cavities (housing the middle ear bones). viscera phase of menstruation, and the generation of nerve e are the internal organs within the signals. Examples of negative feedback include: thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. ese cavities blood pressure regulation, erythropoiesis (the pro- are separated by the diaphragm, a muscle essential mediastinum duction of red blood cells), body temperature regu- for breathing. Above them, the sepa- lation, and control of blood glucose levels. rates the thoracic cavity into right and left halves, and contains the heart, trachea, esophagus, and thy- Organization of the Body mus gland. e lungs lie outside the mediastinum. e viscera of the abdominal cavity include the e human body is composed of distinct body parts, liver, stomach, gallbladder, spleen, kidneys, and the cavities, membranes, and organ systems. ese majority of the small and large intestines. e pelvic include various body systems, which will be dis- cavity is bordered by the hipbones, and contains the cussed in greater detail in the following sections. lower part of the large intestine, the urinary bladder, Body Cavities and Membranes and internal reproductive organs. e major cavities of the body are shown in Figures 1–3A and 1–3B. e human body contains several cavities, and can be e inner thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities divided into the axial portion and the appendicular are lined with connective membranes. For example,

Cranial cavity Cranial Dorsal cavity body cavity Vertebral canal Brain Mediastinum

Pleural cavity Thoracic cavity Pericardial cavity Vertebral Ventral column body cavity

Thoracic Diaphragm Abdominal cavity Spinal cavity Abdominopelvic Pelvic cavity cord cavity

Diaphragm Coelom

Parietal portion Abdominal of membrane cavity

Pelvic cavity Visceral portion of membrane

FiGure 1–3A Lateral view of the body cavities FiGure 1–3B Anterior view of the body cavities © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Organization of the Body 7

Transverse plane

Transverse plane

FiGure 1–4 Transverse section through the thorax of the serous FiGure 1–5 Transverse section through the abdomen membranes associated with the lungs and heart (superior view) (superior view) the heart is surrounded by pericardial membranes, Integumentary System including a thin visceral pericardium over the e integumentary system includes the skin, hair, heart’s surface. is is separated by a small amount nails, sebaceous (oil) glands, and sweat glands. It of watery, serous pericardial fl uid from the parietal functions to protect the underlying tissues of the pericardium, which has a lubricating function. All body, assist in the regulation of body temperature, of these structures are housed in the pericardial contain various sensory receptors, and manufacture parietal cavity. e lungs are lined with the pleura, certain substances. and actually covered by the visceral pleura. ere is no actual space between these pleural Skeletal System membranes, but the region between them is still e skeletal system supports and protects the soft referred to as the pleural cavity. e abdominopelvic tissues of the body, and helps the body move. It peritoneal membranes cavity is lined with , including consists of bones, which are bound together by lig- the parietal peritoneum lining the walls and the vis- aments and cartilages. e skeletal system shields ceral peritoneum covering each organ. Between these soft tissues and attaches to the muscles. e bones membranes, the potential space is called the perito- also help in blood formation and provide storage of neal cavity (see Figures 1–4 and 1–5). mineral salts.

✓ CHeCK yOur KnOWleDGe Muscular System 1. List the cavities of the head. e muscular system works with the skeletal system 2. Which body cavity will be opened if an inci- in helping the body to move. Body parts are moved sion is made just inferior to the diaphragm? by muscle contraction. Posture and body heat are maintained by the muscular system. e muscular system also includes the tendons. Organ Systems Nervous System In each organ system of the human body, organs work together to maintain homeostasis. ese organ e nervous and endocrine systems control and systems include the integumentary, skeletal, muscu- coordinate various organ functions, helping to lar, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, maintain homeostasis. e nervous system consists digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive sys- of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory organs. tems (see Figure 1–6). Nerve impulses are electrochemical signals used by © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 8 2 oducts and CO 2 O + Energy 2 Body systems maintain homeostasis Homeostasis is essential for survival of cells Cells make up body systems to generate the + H 2 2 CO 2 and ongoing elimination of 2 olume and pressure emperature • Concentration of nutrient molecules • Concentration of O • Concentration of waste pr • pH • Concentration of salt and other ions • T • V A dynamic steady state of the constituents in the internal fluid and that surrounds environment exchanges materials with the cells Factors homeostatically maintained are: acid-forming CO Need homeostasis for their own survival and for performing specialized functions essential for survival of the whole body Need a continual supply of nutrients and O energy needed to power life-sustain- ing cellular activities as follows: HOMEOSTASIS CELLS Food + O External environment Protects against Protects invaders foreign Keeps internal fluids in Keeps foreign material out Enables body to interact with external environment gulation gulation; calcium Secretes hormones into the blood, which Secretes metabolic activities, water and control that ionic balance, and other processes duration rather than speed require invaders and cancer Defends against foreign cells; paves way for tissue repair barrier between external Serves as protective of body; sweat and remainder environment glands and adjustments in skin blood flow re important in temperature Support and protect body parts and allow Support and protect movement; heat-generating muscle contractions re important in temperature in bone stored Endocrine system Immune system Integumentary system Muscular and skeletal system Control , wastes, ions, and hormones throughout body , wastes, ions, and hormones throughout 2 , CO 2 ransports nutrients, O Made up of cells organized by specialization to maintain homeostasis T BODY SYSTEMS Circulatory system Circulatory to 2 from and eliminates CO from 2 2 Removes wastes and excess water, salt, and Removes wastes and excess water, the plasma and eliminates other ions from the them in the urine; important regulating volume, ionic compostition, and pH of the internal environment the and ions from Obtains nutrients, water, external and transfers them into environment the plasma; eliminates undigested food to external residues environment Not essential for homeostasis, but for perpetuation of species external environment; helps regulate pH by external helps regulate environment; of acid-forming adjusting the rate of removal CO Acts through electrical signals to control rapid electrical signals to control Acts through for of the body; also responsible responses higher functions—consciousness, memor y, and creativity Obtains O Urinary system Digestive system system Reproductive Nervous system Respiratory system 2 2 O CO External environment Information external from environment through relayed nervous system Urine containing wastes and excess water and ions Nutrients, water, ions Feces containing undigested food residues Sperm enter female Sperm leave male FiGure 1–6 Systems of the body © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Organization of the Body 9 nerve cells to communicate with each other and esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, with the glands and muscles of the body. Certain small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. nerve cells (called sensory receptors) detect internal e pharynx is part of both the digestive and respi- and external changes that aff ect the body. Other ratory systems. nerve cells interpret and respond to these stimuli. Additional nerve cells carry impulses from the brain Respiratory System or spinal cord to the glands and muscles. ese e respiratory system takes in and expels air, nerves are able to stimulate the muscles to contract exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide via the lungs and cause the glands to secrete their products. and bloodstream. e structures of the respiratory system include the nose, nasal cavity, larynx, tra- Endocrine System chea, bronchi, and lungs. Again, the pharynx is part e endocrine system consists of hormone- of both the respiratory and digestive systems. secreting glands. Hormones aff ect specifi c target cells, altering their metabolism. Hormones have a Urinary System relatively long duration of action compared to nerve e urinary system functions to remove liquid impulses. e organs of the endocrine system include wastes from the body. It consists of the kidneys, ure- the hypothalamus (in the brain), pituitary gland, ters, urinary bladder, and urethra – it is through the pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adre- urethra that urine is expelled. In females, the ure- nal glands, pancreas, and thymus. Other organs with thra is located just above the vagina, and in males, endocrine function include the ovaries and testes, it runs through the penis. e kidneys fi lter wastes which also are part of the reproductive system. from the blood and maintain electrolyte concentra- tions. e urinary bladder stores urine and the ure- Cardiovascular System thra carries it outside of the body. e cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood, arteries, veins, and capillaries. e heart Reproductive System muscle pumps blood through the arteries, trans- e reproductive system in females consists of the porting gases, hormones, nutrients, and wastes. ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, and Blood returns to the heart via the veins. Oxygen is vulva. e female sex cells are called oocytes or carried from the lungs to the body, and nutrients are eggs. ey are fertilized by male sex cells (sperm or carried from the digestive system. e blood also spermatozoa). When a female is impregnated, the transports biochemicals required for metabolism. embryo normally develops within the uterus. Wastes are carried in the blood from body cells to e male reproductive system includes the scro- the excretory organs. tum, testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, semi- nal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, Lymphatic System penis, and urethra. e lymphatic system is composed of the lymphatic Reproduction is the process of producing off - vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and lymph spring. As embryonic cells divide, they grow and fl uid. It works with the cardiovascular system, trans- produce new cells, which continue the process. porting tissue fl uid back into the bloodstream. It also carries specifi c fats from digestive organs into the CHeCK yOur KnOWleDGe bloodstream. Lymphatic cells (lymphocytes) defend ✓ the body against infection. 1. Describe the general functions of the diges- tive system. Digestive System 2. List the organs of the respiratory system. e digestive system takes in food from outside the body, breaking down and absorbing nutrients. Anatomic planes It then excretes wastes from its various processes. e digestive system also produces certain hor- e body can be visually divided into specifi c areas, mones and works in conjunction with the endo- called planes. ey “divide” the body at particular crine system. e structures of the digestive system angles, in particular directions (see Figure 1–7 and include the mouth, teeth, salivary glands, tongue, Table 1–1). © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 10 CHApTER 1 introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology

Frontal plane Sagittal plane

Transverse plane

FiGure 1–7 Anatomic planes

Directional Terms Abdominal Regions Directional terms used in the study of anatomy Anatomists have divided the abdomen and pelvis include words that describe relative positions of body into nine imaginary regions. ese regions are help- parts as well as imaginary anatomical divisions. e ful in identifying the location of particular abdomi- term anatomical position describes the body stand- nal organs. ey are also useful for describing the ing erect, facing forward, with the arms held to the location of abdominal pain. Figure 1–8A shows the sides of the body, palms of the hands facing forward. nine abdominal regions, identifi ed from the left to When the terms right and left are used, they refer to the right, and moving from top to bottom one row those specifi c sides of the body when it is in the ana- at a time. e abdomen may also be divided into tomical position. Important directional terms used four quadrants, as shown in Figure 1–8B. Table 1–3 in anatomy are listed in Table 1–2. explains each abdominal region in greater detail.

■ Table 1–1 Anatomic Planes Anatomic Plane meaning

Coronal (frontal) A plane dividing the body into anterior and posterior portions.

Sagittal A plane dividing the body lengthwise into right and left portions. A median (midsagittal) plane passes along the midline, dividing the body into equal parts. A parasagittal plane divides the body similarly, but is lateral to the midline.

Transverse (horizontal) A plane that divides the body into superior and inferior portions. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Organization of the Body 11

■ Table 1–2 Directional Terms Directional Term meaning example

Inferior A body part is below another body The neck is inferior to the head. part, or is located toward the feet

Superior A body part is above another body The thoracic cavity is superior to the abdominopelvic cavity. part, or is located toward the head

Anterior (ventral) Toward the front The eyes are anterior to the brain.

posterior (dorsal) Toward the back The pharynx is posterior to the mouth.

Lateral Toward the side as related to the The ears are lateral to the eyes. midline of the body

Bilateral Refers to paired structures, with one The lungs are bilateral. on each side of the body

Contralateral Refers to structures on the opposite If the right leg is injured, the patient may have to put most of his or side her weight on the contralateral leg instead of using both equally.

Ipsilateral Refers to structures on the same side The right kidney and right lung are ipsilateral.

Medial Refers to an imaginary midline that The nose is medial (closer to the body’s midline) to the eyes. divides the body into left and right halves

Distal A body part is farther from the point of The fi ngers are distal to the wrist. attachment to the trunk than another part

proximal A body part is closer to the point of The elbow is proximal to the wrist. attachment to the trunk than another part

Deep A body part is more internal than The dermis is the deep layer of the skin. another part

Superfi cial A body part is more external than The epidermis is the superfi cial layer of the skin. another part

Costal arch

Right Left hypochondriac Epigastric hypochondriac region region region Right Left upper upper Right Left quadrant quadrant lumbar Umbilical lumbar Umbilicus region region region Iliac crest Right Left Anterior lower lower superior Right Left quadrant quadrant iliac spine iliac Hypogastric iliac region region region Inguinal Pubic ligament symphysis

FiGure 1–8A Abdominal regions Source: Adapted from Shier, D. N., Butler, J. L., and Lewis, R. Hole's Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology, Tenth edition. McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2009. FiGure 1–8B Four quadrants © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 12 CHApTER 1 introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology

■ Table 1–3 Abdominopelvic regions region meaning

Left hypochondriac The upper left abdominal region, under the angle of the ribs and diaphragm; this region contains a small portion of the stomach, a portion of the large intestine, and the spleen.

Epigastric The upper middle abdominal region, between the left and right hypochondriac regions and under the cartilage of the lower ribs; this region contains parts of the liver and most of the stomach.

Right hypochondriac The upper right abdominal region, under the angle of the ribs and diaphragm; this region contains the right lobe of the liver and the gallbladder.

Left lumbar The middle left abdominal region, beneath the left hypochondriac region; this region contains part of the small intestine and part of the colon.

Umbilical The middle center portion of the abdomen, where the naval is located; it lies between the left and right lumbar regions and contains part of the transverse colon, small intestine, and pancreas.

Right lumbar The middle right abdominal region, beneath the right hypochondriac region; this region contains parts of the small and large intestines.

Left iliac (inguinal) The lower left abdominal region, beneath the left lumbar region; this region contains parts of the colon, small intestine, and left ovary (in women).

Hypogastric The lower middle abdominal region, between the left and right iliac regions; this region contains the urinary bladder, parts of the small intestine, and uterus (in women).

Right iliac (inguinal) The lower right abdominal region, beneath the right lumbar region; this region contains parts of the small intestine, cecum, appendix, and right ovary (in women).

Body Regions sections: the dorsal and ventral cavities. e dorsal e remainder of the body is classifi ed into various cavity is subdivided into the cranial cavity (which regions that clinically describe them. For example, contains the brain) and the vertebral canal (which carpal tunnel syndrome refers to the carpal area— contains the spinal cord). e meninges are protec- the wrist—where acute pain can occur from the tive tissues that line the dorsal body cavity. development of this syndrome. e most common e ventral body cavity is subdivided by the dia- body regions are listed in Table 1–4. phragm into a superior thoracic cavity and an infe- rior abdominopelvic cavity. e viscera are organs ✓ CHeCK yOur KnOWleDGe within the ventral cavity. A serous membrane lines the wall of the cavity and adheres to the viscera. 1. Name the nine abdominopelvic regions. e thoracic cavity is subdivided into three smaller 2. Describe the anatomic planes of the body. cavities, the pericardial cavity, the mediastinum, and the pleural cavity. e body’s organ systems work summary together to maintain homeostasis. ese systems Anatomy is the science of body structures and the include the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, ner- relationships among these structures. Physiology vous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, diges- is the science of body functions. e human body tive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems. consists of six levels of structural organization, the leArninG GOAls chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, and organ- ism levels. Certain processes that distinguish life e following learning goals correspond to the processes from nonliving things include metabo- objectives at the beginning of this chapter: lism, responsiveness, movement, growth, diff eren- 1. Anatomy is defi ned as the study of body tiation, and reproduction. parts, forms, and structures. Physiology is e abdomen and pelvis are divided into nine defi ned as the study of body functions. abdominopelvic regions as follows: left hypochon- 2. e organization levels of the body include the driac, epigastric, right hypochondriac, left lumbar, atoms, molecules, macromolecules, organ- umbilical, right lumbar, left iliac, hypogastric, and elles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and right iliac. Body cavities are mainly divided into two the living organism. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Learning Goals 13

Table 1–4 Body regions ■ Lumbar The loin (lower back, between ribs region meaning and pelvis)

Mammary The breast Abdominal Between the thorax and pelvis

Mental The chin Acromial The point of the shoulder

Nasal The nose Antebrachial The forearm

Occipital The lower posterior region of the head Antecubital The space in front of the elbow

Oral The mouth Axillary The armpit

Orbital The eye cavity Brachial The arm

Otic The ear Buccal The cheek

palmar The palm of the hand Carpal The wrist

patellar The front of the knee (kneecap) Celiac The abdomen

pectoral The chest Cephalic The head

pedal The foot Cervical The neck

pelvic The pelvis Costal The ribs

perineal The perineum; between the anus and Coxal The hip external reproductive organs

Crural The leg plantar The sole of the foot

Cubital The elbow popliteal The area behind the knee

Digital The fi nger or toe Sacral The posterior region between the hipbones

Dorsal The back Sternal The anterior middle of the thorax

Femoral The thigh Sural The calf of the leg

Frontal The forehead Tarsal The instep of the foot

Genital The reproductive organs Umbilical The naval

Gluteal The buttocks Vertebral The spinal column

Inguinal The groin (depressions of abdominal wall near thighs) 5. e major body cavities are the cranial cavity (housing the brain), thoracic cavity (inside 3. Essentials for life include specifi c nutrients the chest), and abdominopelvic cavity (inside such as food, water, and oxygen, as well as the abdomen and pelvic areas). pressure and heat. 6. e systems of the body and their organs are 4. Homeostasis is defi ned as a stable internal as follows: body environment. It requires concentrations Integumentary: Skin, hair, nails, seba- of nutrients, oxygen, and water, as well as heat ceous (oil) glands, sweat glands and pressure. Homeostatic mechanisms regu- Skeletal: Bones, ligaments, cartilages late the body. Muscular: Muscles, tendons © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 14 CHApTER 1 introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology

Nervous: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sen- iliac (inguinal), hypogastric, and right iliac sory organs (inguinal) regions. Endocrine: Hypothalamus, pituitary, thy- 10. A positive feedback mechanism is one that roid, parathyroid glands, pancreas, makes conditions move away from the nor- pineal gland, adrenal glands, thymus mal state, stimulating further changes. ey Cardiovascular: Heart, blood, arteries, are usually short-lived and extremely specifi c veins, capillaries actions. A negative feedback mechanism is one Lymphatic: Lymphatic vessels, lymph that prevents the correction of deviations from nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph fl uid doing too much, which could potentially harm Digestive: Mouth, teeth, salivary glands, the body. Most of the feedback mechanisms of tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stom- the human body use negative feedback. ach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus CriTiCAl THinKinG QuesTiOns Respiratory: Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, 1. An 8-year-old boy fell off of some play- larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs ground equipment and later complained Urinary: Kidneys, ureters, urinary blad- of pain in his upper left abdomen, below der, urethra, penis the ribs. Which organs are located in this Reproductive: Female: ovaries, uterine region? tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, vulva; 2. A pregnant woman sitting in her physician’s male: scrotum, testes, epididymides, waiting room is experiencing extreme sweat- ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, ing. She feels very warm, as if she has a fever. prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, Which body response system will work to penis, urethra reduce her symptoms? 7. Inferior, below another body part; superior, above another body part; anterior (ventral), WeBsiTes toward the front; posterior (dorsal), toward the http://home.comcast.net/~wnor/terminologyanat back; lateral, toward the side; bilateral, refers planes.htm to paired structures; contralateral, refers to structures on opposite sides; ipsilateral, refers http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/%7Eacarpi/NSC/ to structures on the same side; medial, refers 14-anatomy.htm to an imaginary body midline; distal, farther http://www.biology-online.org/4/1_physiological_ from the point of attachment to the trunk; homeostasis.htm proximal, closer to the point of attachment to the trunk; deep, more internal; superfi cial, http://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html more external. Body planes include coronal http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec01/ch001/ (frontal), dividing the body into anterior and ch001d.html posterior portions; sagittal, dividing the body lengthwise into right and left portions; and http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp? transverse (horizontal), dividing the body objID=AP15505 into superior and inferior portions. revieW QuesTiOns 8. e heart is surrounded by pericardial mem- branes including the visceral pericardium over 1. e maintenance of a relatively constant the heart’s surface. e lungs are lined with a internal environment in the human body is membrane called the parietal pleura, and cov- termed: ered by a membrane called the visceral pleura. A. positive feedback e abdominopelvic cavity is lined with peri- B. negative feedback toneal membranes. e parietal peritoneum C. homeostasis lines its walls, and the visceral peritoneum D. eff ector control covers each organ. 2. e lungs are to the respiratory system as the 9. e nine abdominal regions are the left spleen is to the: hypochondriac, epigastric, right hypochon- A. lymphatic system driac, left lumbar, umbilical, right lumbar, left B. cardiovascular system © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Review Questions 15

C. digestive system 10. e state in which an organism maintains a D. urinary system constant internal environment is called: 3. e pituitary and thyroid glands are compo- growthA. nents of the: B. reproduction A. respiratory system C. homeostasis B. endocrine system D. responsiveness C. lymphatic system 11. A cut passing through the midline of the D. cardiovascular system body that divides it into equal left and right 4. Support, protection of soft tissue, mineral halves is referred to as which of the following storage, and blood formation are functions planes? of which system? coronalA. nervousA. nervousA. B. midsagittal B. muscular C. transverse skeletalC. skeletalC. frontalD. D. integumentary 12. Skin, hair, and nails are associated with the: 5. e chemical or molecular level of organi- A. digestive system zation begins with ______and forms B. endocrine system ______? C. lymphatic system A. cells; tissues D. integumentary system B. molecules; atoms 13. Which of the following is lateral to the C. organs; systems nose? D. atoms; molecules A. forehead 6. Which sectional plane divides the body so chinB. that the face remains intact? eyesC. A. midsagittal plane chestD. B. coronal plane 14. e chest is ______to the mouth. C. sagittal plane inferiorA. D. transverse plane B. posterior 7. Which of the following portions of the body superiorC. contains the arms and legs? anteriorD. ventralA. ventralA. 15. e thoracic cavity contains the: B. appendicular craniumA. thoracicC. thoracicC. B. pelvic cavity axialD. axialD. C. abdominal cavity 8. Which of the following terms indicates the D. pericardial cavity front of the body? ventralA. ventralA. dorsalB. dorsalB. C. posterior D. proximal 9. Which of the following portions of the body contains the head, neck, and trunk? thoracicA. thoracicA. axialB. axialB. ventralC. ventralC. D. appendicular © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Chapter 2

Chemical Basics of Life

Outline Key Terms Atoms, Molecules, and Chemical Bonds Acids: Electrolytes that release hydrogen ions in water. Atomic Structure Activation energy: The amount of energy required to start a Molecules reaction. Chemical Bonds Anions: Ions with a negative charge. Types of Chemical Reactions Atomic number: A whole number representing the number Enzymes of positively charged protons in the nucleus of an atom. Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale Atomic weight: The total number of protons and neutrons in Chemical Constituents of Cells the nucleus of an atom. Inorganic Substances Atoms: The smallest complete units of an element, varying in Organic Substances size, weight, and interaction with other atoms. Summary Bases: Electrolytes that release ions that bond with Learning Goals hydrogen ions. Critical Thinking Questions Carbohydrates: Substances (including sugars) that provide Websites much of the energy required by the body’s cells, as well as Review Questions helping to build cell structures. Catalysts: Atoms or molecules that can change the rate of a Objectives reaction without being consumed during the process. After studying this chapter, readers should be able to: Cations: Ions with a positive charge. 1. Describe the relationships between atoms and Chemistry: The study of the composition of matter and molecules. changes in its composition. 2. Explain chemical bonds. Compounds: Molecules made up of different bonded atoms. 3. Describe how an atomic number is determined. Decomposition: A reaction that occurs when bonds with a 4. List the major groups of inorganic chemicals reactant molecule break, forming simpler atoms, molecules, common in cells. or ions. 5. Explain acids, bases, and buffers. Electrolytes: Substances that release ions in water. 6. Define the characteristics of lipids and proteins. Electrons: Single, negatively charged particles that revolve around the nucleus of an atom. 7. Define pH. 8. Describe the functions of various types of Elements: Fundamental substances that compose matter, organic chemicals in cells. such as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 9. List four examples of steroid molecules. 10. Explain nucleic acids.