Front Matter

Cambridge University Press 0521652073 - The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy Edited by Daniel H. Frank and Oliver Leaman Frontmatter More information

the cambridge companion to MEDIEVAL JEWISH PHILOSOPHY

From the ninth to the fifteenth centuries Jewish thinkers livingin Islamic and Christian lands philosophized about Judaism. Influenced first by Islamic theological speculation and the great philosophers of classical antiquity, and then in the late medieval period by Christian Scholasticism, Jewish philosophers and scientists reflected on the nature of language about God, the scope and limits of human understanding, the eternity or createdness of the world, prophecy and divine providence, the possibility of human freedom, and the relationship between divine and human law. Though many viewed philosophy as a dangerous threat, others incorporated it into their understandingof what it is to be a Jew. This Companion presents all the major Jewish thinkers of the period, the philosophical and non-philosophical contexts of their thought, and the interactions between Jewish and non- Jewish philosophers. It is a comprehensive introduction to a vital period of Jewish intellectual history.

Daniel H. Frank is Professor of Philosophy and Director of the Judaic Studies Program at the University of Kentucky. Amongrecent publications are History of Jewish Philosophy (edited with Oliver Leaman, 1997), The Jewish Philosophy Reader (edited with Oliver Leaman and Charles Manekin, 2000), and revised editions of two Jewish philosophical classics, Maimonides’ Guide of the Perplexed (1995) and Saadya Gaon’s Book of Doctrines and Beliefs (2002).

Oliver Leaman is Professor of Philosophy and Zantker Profes- sor of Judaic Studies at the University of Kentucky. He is the author of An Introduction to Classical Islamic Philosophy (2002), Evil and Suffering in Jewish Philosophy (1995), and is editor of Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (2001) and Com- panion Encyclopedia of Middle Eastern and North African Film (2001). He is co-editor, with Glennys Howarth, of En- cyclopedia of Death and Dying (2001).

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521652073 - The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy Edited by Daniel H. Frank and Oliver Leaman Frontmatter More information

volumes in the series of cambridge companions AQUINAS Edited by norman kretzmann and eleonore stump HANNAH ARENDT Edited by dana villa ARISTOTLE Edited by jonathan barnes AUGUSTINE Edited by eleonore stump and norman kretzmann BACON Edited by markku peltonen SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR Edited by claudia card DARWIN Edited by jonathan hodge and gregory radick DESCARTES Edited by john cottingham DUNS SCOTUS Edited by thomas williams EARLY GREEK PHILOSOPHY Edited by a. a. long FEMINISM IN PHILOSOPHY Edited by miranda fricker and jennifer hornsby FOUCAULT Edited by gary gutting FREUD Edited by jerome neu GADAMER Edited by robert j. dostal GALILEO Edited by peter machamer GERMAN IDEALISM Edited by karl ameriks HABERMAS Edited by stephen k. white HEGEL Edited by frederickbeiser HEIDEGGER Edited by charles guignon HOBBES Edited by tom sorell HUME Edited by david fate norton HUSSERL Edited by barry smith and david woodruff smith WILLIAM JAMES Edited by ruth anna putnam KANT Edited by paul guyer KIERKEGAARD Edited by alastair hannay and gordon marino

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The Cambridge Companion to MEDIEVAL JEWISH PHILOSOPHY

Edited by Daniel H. Frank and Oliver Leaman University of Kentucky

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

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This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2003

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data The Cambridge companion to medieval Jewish philosophy / edited by Daniel H. Frank and Oliver Leaman. p. cm. – (Cambridge companions to philosophy) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0 521 65207 3 – ISBN 0 521 65574 9 (paperback) 1. Philosophy, Jewish. 2. Philosophy, Medieval. 3. Judaism–History–Medieval and early modern period, 425–1789. I. Frank, Daniel H., 1950– II. Leaman, Oliver, 1950– III. Series. B755.C36 2003 181´.06 – dc21 2003041200

ISBN-13 978-0-521-65207-0 hardback ISBN-10 0-521-65207-3 hardback

ISBN-13 978-0-521-65574-3 paperback ISBN-10 0-521-65574-9 paperback

Transferred to digital printing 2005

contents

List of contributors page x Preface xv Chronology xvii Note on transliteration xxi Glossary xxii

PART I BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT 1 Introduction to the study of medieval Jewish philosophy 3 oliver leaman 2 The biblical and rabbinic background to medieval Jewish philosophy 16 david shatz 3 The Islamic context of medieval Jewish philosophy 38 joel l. kraemer

PART II IDEAS, WORKS, AND WRITERS 4 Saadya and Jewish kalam 71 sarah stroumsa 5 Jewish Neoplatonism: Beingabove Beingand divine emanation in Solomon ibn Gabirol and Isaac Israeli 91 sarah pessin

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viii Contents

6 Judah Halevi and his use of philosophy in the Kuzari 111 barry s. kogan 7 Maimonides and medieval Jewish Aristotelianism 136 daniel h. frank 8 Maimonides and the sciences 157 tzvi langermann 9 Medieval Jewish political thought 176 menachem lorberbaum 10 Judaism and Sufism 201 paul b. fenton 11 Philosophy and kabbalah: 1200–1600 218 hava tirosh-samuelson 12 Arabic into Hebrew: The Hebrew translation movement and the influence of Averroes upon medieval Jewish thought 258 steven harvey 13 Philosophy in southern France: Controversy over philosophic study and the influence of Averroes upon Jewish thought 281 gregg stern 14 Conservative tendencies in Gersonides’ religious philosophy 304 charles h. manekin

PART III THE LATER YEARS 15 The impact of Scholasticism upon Jewish philosophy in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries 345 t. m. rudavsky 16 Jewish philosophy and the Jewish–Christian philosophical dialogue in fifteenth-century Spain 371 ari ackerman

Contents ix

17 Hasdai Crescas and anti-Aristotelianism 391 james t. robinson 18 The end and aftereffects of medieval Jewish philosophy 414 seymour feldman Guide to further reading in English 446 Index 464

contributors

ari ackerman is Lecturer in Jewish Thought and Philosophy of Education at the Schechter Institute in Jerusalem. In addition to his doctoral dissertation, “The Philosophic Sermons of Zerahia ben Isaac Halevi Saladin: Jewish Philosophic and Sermonic Activity in Late 14th and Early 15th Century Aragon” (Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2000), he has published articles on other aspects of late medieval Jewish philosophy, including“The Composition of the Section on Divine Providence in [Crescas’] Or Hashem,” Da‘at 32–3 (1994), 37–45.

seymour feldman is Professor of Philosophy Emeritus at Rutgers University. Amonghis publications are a complete translation of and commentary on Gersonides’ Wars of the Lord (3 vols. 1984–99), articles on several medieval Jewish philosophers and on Spinoza, and Philosophy in a Time of Crisis: Don Isaac Abravanel, Defender of the Faith (2003).

paul b. fenton is Professor of Hebrew Language and Literature at the Sorbonne. He has published extensively on Jewish civilization in the Islamic world, especially on the mystical tradition. Among recent publications is Philosophie et exeg´ ese` dans le jardin de la metaphore´ (1997), dealingwith the Golden Agein Spain.

daniel h. frank is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Kentucky. Amongrecent publications are History of Jewish Phi- losophy (edited with Oliver Leaman, 1997), The Jewish Philoso- phy Reader (edited with Oliver Leaman and Charles H. Manekin, 2000), and revised editions of two Jewish philosophical classics,

Contributors xi

Maimonides’ Guide of the Perplexed (1995) and Saadya Gaon’s Book of Doctrines and Beliefs (2002).

steven harvey is Professor of Philosophy at Bar-Ilan University. He has published extensively on the medieval Jewish and Islamic philosophers, with special focus on Averroes’ commentaries on Aristotle and on the influence of the Islamic philosophers on Jewish thought. He is the author of Falaquera’s “Epistle of the Debate”: An Introduction to Jewish Philosophy (1987) and editor of The Medieval Hebrew Encyclopedias of Science and Philosophy (2000).

barry s. kogan is Clarence and Robert Efroymson Professor of Philosophy and Jewish Religious Thought at Hebrew Union College–Jewish Institute of Religion, Cincinnati. The author of Aver- roes and the Metaphysics of Causation (1985) and of articles on medieval Jewish and Islamic philosophy, he is currently preparingfor the Yale Judaica Series a new English translation of Judah Halevi’s Kuzari.

joel l. kraemer is John Henry Barrows Professor in the Divin- ity School and the Committee on Social Thought at the University of Chicago. He has written on the transmission of the intellectual heritage of Greek antiquity to Islamic civilization. Among his major publications are Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: The Cul- tural Revival during the Buyid Age (2nd rev. ed. 1992) and Philosophy in the Renaissance of Islam: Al-Sijistani and his Circle (1986). His more recent interests concern the interplay of cultural and religious themes within Islam and Judaism.

tzvi langermann is Associate Professor of Arabic at Bar-Ilan University. His recent books include Yemenite Midrash: Philosophi- cal Commentaries on the Torah (1997) and The Jews and the Sciences in the Middle Ages (1999).

oliver leaman is Professor of Philosophy and Zantker Professor of Judaic Studies at the University of Kentucky. He has published extensively on Islamic and Jewish philosophy. He is the author of An Introduction to Classical Islamic Philosophy (2002) and Evil and Suffering in Jewish Philosophy (1995), and editor of Encyclopedia of

xii Contributors

Asian Philosophy (2001) and Companion Encyclopedia of Middle Eastern and North African Film (2001).

menachem lorberbaum is Senior Lecturer in Jewish Philoso- phy at Tel Aviv University and a research associate at the Shalom Hartman Institute, Jerusalem. He is the author of Politics and the Limits of Law: Secularizing the Political in Medieval Jewish Thought (2001) and co-editor, with Michael Walzer and Noam Zohar, of the multi-volume The Jewish Political Tradition (2000–).

charles h. manekin is Associate Professor of Philosophy at the University of Maryland at College Park. He is the author of On Mai- monides (2003), and a co-editor of The Jewish Philosophy Reader (2000) and Freedom and Responsibility: General and Jewish Perspec- tives (1997).

sarah pessin is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at California State University, Fresno. Her research interests focus on medieval Jewish and Islamic Neoplatonism, and she is currently completing a book on Solomon ibn Gabirol. Amongher recent publications are “Hebdomads: Boethius Meets the Pythagoreans,” Journal of the His- tory of Philosophy 37 (1999) and “Matter, Metaphor, and Private Pointing: Maimonides on the Complexity of Human Being,” Amer- ican Catholic Philosophical Quarterly, special Maimonides issue, ed. D. H. Frank (2002).

james t. robinson is Assistant Professor of the History of Judaism in the Divinity School at the University of Chicago. He is the author of Philosophy and Exegesis in Samuel ibn Tibbon’s Commentary on Ecclesiastes (forthcoming). Recent articles include “The First References in Hebrew to al-Bitruji’s On the Principles of Astronomy,” Aleph 3 (2003).

t. m. rudavsky is Professor of Philosophy at Ohio State Univer- sity. She is the author of Time Matters: Time, Creation, and Cos- mology in Medieval Jewish Philosophy (2000), and editor of Gender and Judaism: Tradition and Transformation (1995) and Divine Omniscience and Omnipotence in Medieval Philosophy (1985).

Contributors xiii

david shatz is Professor of Philosophy at Yeshiva University. He has published extensively on both Jewish and general philosophy. His work in general philosophy focuses on epistemology, free will, and philosophy of religion, while his work in Jewish philosophy focuses on Maimonides and on twentieth-century figures. He has recently edited Philosophy and Faith: A Philosophy of Religion Reader (2002) and co-edited, with Steven M. Cahn, Questions about God: Today’s Philosophers Ponder the Divine (2002).

gregg stern is Lecturer in the Study of Religions at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, and Sam and Vivienne Cohen Fellow at the London School of Jewish Studies. Amonghis recent publications is “Philosophic Allegory in Jewish Culture: The Crisis in Languedoc (1304–6),” in Interpretation and Allegory: Antiquity to the Modern Period, ed. J. Whitman (2000).

sarah stroumsa is Professor of Arabic Language and Literature and Jewish Thought at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Her recent publications include The Beginnings of the Maimonidean Controversy in the East: Yosef ibn Shim‘on’s Silencing Epistle con- cerning the Resurrection of the Dead (1999) and Freethinkers of Medieval Islam: Ibn al-Rawandi, Abu Bakr al-Razi, and their Impact on Islamic Thought (1999).

hava tirosh-samuelson is Associate Professor of History at Arizona State University. The author of Between Worlds: The Life and Thought of Rabbi David ben Judah Messer Leon (1991) and Happiness in Premodern Judaism: Virtue, Knowledge, and Well- being (2003), she has edited Judaism and Ecology: Created World and Revealed Word (2002). Amongrecent articles are “Nature in the Sources of Judaism,” Daedelus 130 (2001) and “Theology of Nature in Sixteenth-Century Italian Jewish Philosophy,” Science in Context 10 (1997).

preface

From the ninth through the fifteenth centuries, some six hundred years, Jewish philosophers livingin both Islamic and Christian lands philosophized about Judaism, hopingthereby to put their religionon a sound intellectual footing. Influenced first by Islamic theological speculation and by the great Greek philosophers and their Islamic successors, and then in the late medieval period by Christian Scholas- ticism, Jewish philosophers reflected on the nature of language about God, the scope and limits of human understanding, the eternity or createdness of the world, prophecy and divine providence, the possibility of human freedom, and the relationship between divine and human law. Duringthe medieval period philosophy was often viewed as dangerous, but for those intent on such speculation the opportu- nity presented itself to prove that Judaism and human wisdom are compatible with one another. The essays in this volume present all the major Jewish thinkers of the medieval period, the philosophical and non-philosophical contexts of their thought, and the interactions between Jewish and non-Jewish philosophy. This companion to medieval Jewish philosophy is a bit of an anomaly in the Cambridge series of companions to the major philosophers. First, while volumes in the series are in the main devoted to single authors, ours is devoted to a host of thinkers from the Jewish middle ages. Second, and in our view most important, this Compan- ion extends to non-European locales (Baghdad and Cairo) and Semitic tongues (Arabic and Hebrew). We commend the Press for seeing the need to include within the ambit of a series devoted to “Western” philosophy, the philosophers of medieval Jewry. Before the thirteenth century the best work was done in Arabic and in Arabic lands, including of course Muslim Spain. But, as is increasingly recognized,

xvi Preface

the work of such philosophically minded Jews, indeed Jewish and Islamic philosophy generally, is part and parcel of “Western” philosophy, the tradition that commenced with the ancient Greeks. Jews and Arabs saw in Plato, Aristotle, Alexander of Aphrodisias, Themistius, Galen, John Philoponus, and Plotinus much that was of value for better understandingand interpretingtheir own monotheistic traditions. And in so usingand revivifyingthe ancients for their own purposes they bequeathed to future generations of philosophers in medieval Christendom a rich supply of arguments and, as impor- tantly, a non-parochial outlook, an openness, which saw Aquinas look respectfully to Averroes as the Commentator (on Aristotle) and to Maimonides as Rabbi Moyses. One runs the risk of lookingat the Jewish philosophers and their use of the past for present concerns as quite unoriginal, as merely middlemen in the transport of ideas from ancient Greece to medieval Christendom. Such a view bears its Christian triumphalism clearly, and should be stoutly resisted. Judaism did not end with Jesus, and one should likewise realize that Jewish philosophy con- tinued unabated longafter Aquinas, often seeminglyuninfluenced by Christian philosophical trends. It would be very wrongin fact to read medieval Jewish philosophy in isolation from the host cultures in which it invariably found itself, but it would be equally misguided to lose sight of it as a rich source of philosophical argumentation just because it looked to extra-Jewish sources as a means by which to ex- plicate its own monotheistic traditions. It is our hope that the reader will come away with an appreciation of a diverse set of thinkers, often at odds with each other, whose originality consists precisely in its creative use and constant adaptation of traditional texts and norms. Production of this volume has been a pleasingly international project, bringing together scholars from America, Europe, and Israel. We have been aided in our editorial task by the timeliness of our contributors and by the helpful team at Cambridge University Press (UK), especially Kevin Taylor. Our thanks to all.

daniel h. frank oliver leaman 7 July 2003 7 Tammuz 5763

chronology of persons and events

The followingchronologyattempts to take into account influences within certain time spans, even if a strict chronology is occasion- ally forsaken. All dates are ce; acronyms and important texts are in parentheses. c. 500 Babylonian Talmud complete 622 The Hijra: Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina 632 Death of Muhammad 711–715 Muslim conquest of Spain 762–767 Karaite movement (see Glossary) begins 813–833 Reign of caliph al-Mamun in Baghdad and vigorous translation movement of Greek philosophical and scientific texts into Arabic d. c. 866 Al-Kindi 820–890 Daud al-Muqammis 850–c. 932 Isaac Israeli c. 870–950 Al-Farabi 882–942 Saadya Gaon (Book of Doctrines and Beliefs) 980–1037 Ibn Sina (Avicenna) 1021–c. 1058 Solomon ibn Gabirol (Fons Vitae) fl. 1080 Bahya ibn Paquda (Duties of the Heart) 1040–1105 Rashi (preeminent medieval biblical commentator) 1058–1111 Al-Ghazali 1085 Capture of Toledo in Muslim Spain by Christians 1095 First Crusade c. 1075–1141 Judah Halevi (The Kuzari)

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xviii Chronology

d. c. 1136 Abraham bar Hiyya 1089–1164 Abraham ibn Ezra d. 1138 Ibn Bajja (Avempace) 1147–1149 Second Crusade 1148 Almohads conquer Cordova 1110–1180 Abraham ibn Daud (The Exalted Faith) d. 1185 Ibn Tufayl c. 1120–1190 Judah ibn Tibbon (translator of Saadya’s Book of Doctrines and Beliefs, Bahya’s Duties of the Heart, and Halevi’s Kuzari from Arabic into Hebrew) 1126–1198 Ibn Rushd (Averroes) 1135/8–1204 Maimonides (Rambam) (The Guide of the Perplexed) 1189–1192 Third Crusade 1186–1237 Abraham ibn Maimonides (son of Rambam) c. 1160–1230 Samuel ibn Tibbon (translator of Maimonides’ Guide from Judeo-Arabic into Hebrew in 1204) c. 1160–1235 David Kimhi (Radak) 1194–1270 Nahmanides (Ramban) 1232 Maimonides’ Guide and Book of Knowledge from his Mishneh Torah (see Glossary) are condemned by the rabbis of Northern France and burned by the Dominicans 1240 Disputation of Paris 1242 Talmud burned by Church authorities in Paris fl. 1230 Jacob Anatoli fl. 1250 Moses ibn Tibbon 1263 Disputation of Barcelona 1221–1274 Bonaventure c. 1214–1292 Roger Bacon 1224/5–1274 Thomas Aquinas c. 1240–1284 Siger of Brabant 1277 Condemnation of 219 philosophical propositions by Bishop Stephen Tempier in Paris c. 1225–1295 Shem Tov ibn Falaquera fl. 1250 Isaac Albalag 1240–c. 1291 Abraham Abulafia

Chronology xix

c. 1240–1305 Moses de Leon (Zohar [see Glossary]) 1235–1310 Solomon ibn Adret (Rashba) fl. 1300 Abba Mari of Montpellier 1249–1316 Menahem Meiri 1305 Greco-Arabic works of physics and metaphysics condemned by Rashba in Barcelona 1265–1308 Duns Scotus 1265–1321 Dante Alighieri fl. 1275 Hillel of Verona c. 1280–1325 Judah Romano c. 1270–1340 Yedayah Bedersi ha-Penini c. 1275–1342 Marsilius of Padua c. 1280–1349 William of Ockham c. 1270–1340 Abner of Burgos fl. 1300 Isaac Pollegar 1279–1340 Joseph ibn Kaspi 1288–1344 Gersonides (Ralbag) (The Wars of the Lord) d. c. 1362 Moses Narboni 1332–1406 Ibn Khaldun c. 1310–1375 Nissim Gerondi (Ran) c. 1320–1382 Nicholas Oresme 1391 Anti-Jewish riots and massacres in Castile and Aragon c. 1340–1410/11 Hasdai Crescas (Light of the Lord) 1413–1414 Disputation of Tortosa 1361–1444 Simeon ben Zemah Duran d. 1444 Joseph Albo (Book of Principles) 1401–1464 Nicholas of Cusa 1400–1460 Joseph ben Shem Tov ibn Shem Tov d. c. 1489 Abraham Bibago (The Way of Belief) c. 1420–1494 Isaac Arama d. 1492 Abraham Shalom 1437–1509 Isaac Abravanel (Principles of Faith) 1492 Expulsion of the Jews from Spain 1497 Expulsion of Jews from Portugal 1433–1499 Marsilio Ficino 1434–1504 Yohanan Alemanno c. 1460–1493 Elijah del Medigo (The Examination of Religion) 1462–1525 Pietro Pomponazzi

xx Chronology

1463–1494 Pico della Mirandola 1469–1527 Machiavelli c. 1460–1530 David ben Judah Messer Leon c. 1460–1523 Judah Abravanel (Leone Ebreo) (Dialogues of Love) 1466–1536 Erasmus 1483–1546 Martin Luther 1488–1575 Joseph Karo (Shulhan Arukh [see Glossary]) 1522–1570 Moses Cordovero 1534–1572 Isaac Luria c. 1530–1593 Judah Moscato 1548–1600 Giordano Bruno 1561–1626 Francis Bacon 1564–1642 Galileo 1591–1655 Joseph del Medigo (Yashar) 1588–1679 Hobbes 1596–1650 Descartes 1626–1676 Shabbetai Zevi 1632–1677 Spinoza (Tractatus Theologico-Politicus)

note on transliteration

We have not sought to impose a common system of transliteration on the whole text, but have used those versions of terms and names which are most generally recognizable. We have omitted all macrons and diacritics. In general, for Arabic we have distinguished between ayn () and hamza (). Likewise for Hebrew, we have distinguished between ayin () and aleph ().

xxi

glossary of some significant terms and texts in jewish culture

Aggadah Rabbinic collection of narratives stemming from the Second Temple period to c. 500 ce, not legally binding but still significant in issues of interpretation. Aqedah The bindingof Isaac, preparatory to his sacrifice. Ashariyya Islamic theological school, emphasizing the overwhelmingpower of God and the subjectivity of ethics. Devequt Cleavingto God, particularly discussed in the kabbalistic tradition, and resultingfrom prayer and meditation. Dhikr Sufi concept of remembrance, often instilled via mystical practices and exercises. Falsafa/falasifa Peripatetic philosophy in the Islamic world. Gaon (pl. geonim) Head of the Babylonian academies, which prevailed between the sixth and eleventh centuries ce in Iraq, and who were the most significant religious authorities in the exile community. Halakhah Rabbinic law, as distinct from Aggadah, coveringall aspects of Jewish life, religious and civil, public and personal. Judeo-Arabic Arabic written in Hebrew characters, the method of writingof many Jews in the Islamic world.

xxii

Glossary xxiii

Kabbalah Series of mystical texts and the school associated with it. Typically the approach is to seek the esoteric meaningof biblical texts. Kalam Literally “speech” in Arabic, became synonymous with theology. Karaites School of interpretation startingin the eighth century ce and arguing in favor of the written as opposed to the oral law. Midrash Interpretation of biblical and legal texts, often with an emphasis on ethical ideas. Mishnah Compilation of oral law stemmingfrom second century ce and attributed to Judah ha-Nasi. Mishneh Torah Maimonides’ codification of Jewish law. Mutakallimun, Theologians. see kalam Mutazila Islamic school of theology, emphasizing the objectivity of ethics and the ubiquity of justice. Rabbanites Those who accept the authority of the oral law, in opposition to the Karaites. Sefer ha-Bahir Kabbalistic work describingthe organization of the sefirot (celestial spheres), probably written in the late twelfth century ce. Sefer Yetzirah Book of Creation, an important and very early mystical text, commented on by Saadya, amongst others. Shekhinah God’s presence in the world. Shulhan Arukh Authoritative Jewish legal code, compiled by Joseph Karo and first printed in Venice in 1565. Sifra (pl. sifrei) Aramaic midrash on parts of the Five Books of Moses (Torah). Sufism Islamic form of mysticism, emphasizingthe significance of religious experience. Talmud Extensive discussion of the Mishnah, and a prime source of ideas and concepts in

xxiv Glossary

Judaism. There is a smaller Palestinian and a larger Babylonian version. Targum Translation of the Bible into Aramaic. (pl. Targumim) Zohar Kabbalistic work, literally “Splendor,” commentingon the Bible esoterically, probably composed in the 1280s by Moses de Leon of Castile.