Journal of the Rubber Research Institute of , (2007) 88, 59-76 Some issues related to sustainability in the smallholder rubber sector: a case study of three major rubber growing districts

Wasana Wijesuriya*, DMAP Dissanayake*, Kcminda Herath*, Jagath Edirisinghe** and Vidura Abeywardcne*

Received 13 March 2007; Accepted 25 May 2007

Abstract

This study was done in the smallholder rubber sector in Sri Lanka to identify socio­ economic,, technological and environmental issues and their relationships on the sustainability of the smallholder rubber sector. The study was confined to the 3 major rubber growing , namely; , Kalutara and Ratnapura districts. The methodologies involved in this study were Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and questionnaire surveys. Substandard growth in immature lands, low productivity in mature lands, low quality in produced rubber, low societal involvement and improper marketing were identified as major issues at local and regional level while depletion of the rubber extent was of national concern. Appropriate institutional responses to combat adverse impacts of these issues are also discussed to improve the well being of rubber smallholders and the country as a whole.

Key words: Participatory Rural Appraisal, rubber, smallholder

Introduction estates, medium estates and smallholder Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) is units based on the extent of land. Large the second most important plantation estates have more than 20 ha and rubber crop in Sri, Lanka, in terms of export lands between four and 20 ha are termed earnings and employment generation. In as medium estates. The smallholder 2006, export earnings from the rubber units have extents less than four ha. industry were 56427 million Sri Lankan Together with medium estates, the Rupees (USS million 513) from rubber- smallholder units occupy nearly 63% of based products (83%) and as an the total extent and distributed among agricultural commodity (17%) (Central nearly 200000 small-scale farmers. The Bank, 2006). The total land area under smallholder sector provides a share of rubber is 115,992 ha which accounts for about 33% to the national rubber about 8% of the total cultivated extent production. However, the productivity (Ministry of Plantation Industries, 2005). of this sector is below the levels of the Rubber lands are classified into large estate sector and far behind the other

* Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka, Dartonfield, Agalawatta, Sri Lanka ** Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Gonawila (NWP), Sri Lanka 59 Issues related to sustainability in rubber smallholdings countries like India and Thailand where improving the smoke house conditions. the yields are averaging around 1540 and Further, the subsidy for smallholder 1362 kg ha"1 year"', respectively fanners has been increased by a (Viswanathan & Rajasekharan, 2001). substantial amount. With all these The comparative low yields in initiatives and interventions, there is still smallholdings under Sri Lankan an uncertainty in the rubber industry conditions are mainly due to poor among rubber fanners. This leaves a adoption of recommended agronomic question about the sustainability of the practices owing to low and unstable smallholder rubber sector and therefore it income levels and unsatisfactory is a basic necessity to find out the issues extension services rendered to related to the sustainability of this eco­ smallholder farmers. The low Natural system and to study the interactions of Rubber (NR) prices that prevailed for a the environmental, societal and lengthy period posed severe constraints technological factors associated with the on the viability and sustainability of the identified issues. rubber cultivation as well as on the The project Interactions between adoption of cultural operations by the Environment, Society and smallholders. Technology (INTEREST) in the The smallholder rubber sector smallholder rubber sector of Sri Lanka comprises of different stakeholders who aimed to achieve the specific objectives; are involved in the marketing process of viz. understanding and analyzing local the smallholders' produce to the farmer and community ecosystem international market. Smallholders have practices, linking this local knowledge to direct links with the smoke house available scientific knowledge to analyse owners, village dealers and town dealers. and describe changes in the pressures They also have direct links with rubber between environmental policy, social societies, raw latex collectors and scrap challenges and technological innovation millers. However, the links with other using a range of dissemination tools, stakeholders such as; brokers, latex crepe delivering this new and improved factories and products manufacturers are knowledge to all levels of society thus non-existing and need to be strengthened strengthening the social and through societal arrangements. environmental knowledge base. This will Recently, the Government of Sri provide a greater understanding of Lanka has made several attempts to environmental challenges at all social improve the smallholder rubber sector in levels and lead to improved ecosystem various ways through government management strategies to maintain institutions. This is by forming societies production without compromising the mainly to cater to the smallholders in resource base. Findings and activities of marketing, improving technical know- the INTEREST project would certainly how, providing necessary materials for help to understand properly the issues processing at concessionary rates and related and the community's dependence

60 Wasana Wijesuriya et al. on the ecosystem and perceptions of the Each district has several divisions farmers on the technology and associated according to the Rubber Development traditional knowledge. This paper Department, and each division is called a presents the information gathered during Rubber Development Officer (RDO) the study through, participatory range. The highest extent of rubber approaches, rapid sample surveys and lands is found in the Kegalle district, case studies focusing on specific followed by the districts Kalutara and objectives of the INTEREST project. Ratnapura. The number of smallholders in the district also follows the same Methodology sequence. The study focused on these Description of the study area three districts. For the study, three Rubber is found in 14 villages representing 3 RDO regions for administrative districts of Sri Lanka. each district were selected (Figure 1).

PetnVgammana

Fig.l. The study area

61 Issues related to sustainability in rubber smallholdings

All nine villages belong to the sampling plan for the detailed household wet zone of Sri Lanka. The rainfall survey. This was done during the initial experience in the study area is bimodal stages of the study, i.e. during February with rainfall peaks coinciding with April- and March 2002. May and October-November period. The average rainfall values in the study areas Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) range from 2000 to 3000 mm (Wijesuriya Participatory studies were et al., 2002). The temperature conditions designed to identify the ecosystem observed in the study areas range from a behaviour addressing; socio-economic, minimum of 20°C to a maximum of 39°C environmental and technological aspects. (Wijesuriya, 2002). Sri Lanka, being a Out of the nine villages involved in the small island and also due to its position in Rapid Sample Survey, three villages were the Indian Ocean, exhibits uniform selected for PRA, representing one for temperatures throughout the year in the each district. The selected villages from rubber growing areas. The values of Kegalle, Kalutara and Ratnapura districts sunshine hours range from 4.1 to 7.8 hr were Welihelatenna, Batugampola and day"1 within a year in the selected rubber Pohorabawa, respectively (Fig. 1). growing districts (Council for Different PRA tools; focus group Agricultural Research Policy, 1992). interviews, voting, ranking methods and Soils in the Kegalle district mobility mapping were employed to belong to the Great Soil Group of study different aspects of the ecosystem. Reddish Brown Latasols while Red These studies were done during Yellow Podzolic soils are predominant in September 2002 to February 2005. Kalutara and Ratnapura districts. These soils have moderately good physical Detailed household survey properties with moderate infiltration rates The information gathered during and water holding capacities. Red the rapid sample survey was employed in Yellow Podzolic soils found in the deriving the sampling plan for the Kalutara and Ratnapura regions are household survey. The total sample size strongly acid in reaction. A wide variety was restricted to 300. The detailed of tree crops can be grown in these soils sampling plan is given in Table 1. Two (Samarappuli etaL, 1998). separate sets of questionnaires were prepared for immature and mature Rapid sample survey holdings to collect household details and A rapid sample survey was done information on immature and mature in nine selected villages covering 653 rubber holdings. Household surveys smallholder farmers. The main objective were done in the first (2002) and second was to identify the sources of variation of (2003) years of the project. the smallholder sector to be utilized effectively in deriving an appropriate

62 Wasana Wijesuriya et al. Table 1. The sampling schedule for the detailed sample survey

District Village No. of holdings Total Mature Immature Kegalle Welihelatenna 42 11 53 Kurunegoda 25 11 36 Pethigammana 25 11 36 125 Kalutara Batugampola 16 20 36 Kitulgoda 13 20 33 Morapitiya 10 21 31 100 Ratnapura Pohorabawa 12 23 35 Dodampe 9 16 25 Malangama 5 10 15 75

Analysis of data proportion under 40 years was 17% The information gathered from mainly due to the younger generation's the participatory studies was used to preference for other occupations than develop conceptual frameworks. The growing rubber due to socio-economic methods involved in data analysis are reasons. mainly exploratory in nature. The educational levels of the smallholders were categorized into (1) Results and Discussion Primary (Grades 1 to 5), (2) Grades 6- Socio-economic characteristics of 10, (3) Ordinary Level (OL) qualified, rubber smallholders (4) Advanced Level (AL) qualified and Demographic characteristics and (5) Diploma/Graduate level. The educational status majority of the farmers belonged to The household size of the categories (2) and (3); 57%, 52% and sample studied ranged from one to nine 62% respectively, in Kegalle, Kalutara with an average household size of five. and Ratnapura districts. The percentage The age distribution of the smallholders with primary education in Kegalle, was very similar in the samples of the Kalutara and Ratnapura districts were three districts studied. The majority 23%, 38% and 18%, respectively. There (49%) of the smallholders were found in weren't any farmers who did not attend the range 40 to 60 years. The schools in the sample.

63 Issues related to sustainability in rubber smallholdings

Dependency on rubber 50% of the sample had incomes between Most of the rubber growers do the range Rs.4000 to Rs.7000. The not solely depend on rubber as their main income sources of rubber smallholders arc income source. Those who solely depend mainly through; employment, rubber on mbber are 5%, 15% and 15% in cultivation, cultivation of other crops, and Kegalle, Kalutara and Ratnapura districts, government subsidies. respectively. Smallholder rubber farmers The villagers used a number of grow certain other plantation crops, indicators to explain the wealth and well export crops and cereals as other sources being of different social groups. Some of of income. They are mainly tea, coconut, the common criteria identified in wealth cinnamon and paddy as presented in ranking studies by the smallholders to Table 2. define the wealth status are as follows. Seventy five percent of the 1. Land ownership sample is employed while 14% and 11%, 2. Ownership of vehicles respectively are retired and unemployed. 3. Type of employment Among those who are employed, the 4. Condition of the house majority have stated their occupation as 5. Household appliances held farming (21%). Businessmen (merchants 6. Availability of telecommunication and contractors) and tappers followed facilities next, with percentages of 14, and 12, 7. Ownership of private businesses respectively. Eleven percent of the 8. Government subsidies received sample is involved in government jobs. There were several drivers, carpenters, Distribution of land masons and estate workers. Several The distribution of unit land sizes smallholders in the are of smallholdings is presented in Fig. 2. involved in gem mining as well. The three districts followed the same pattern in distribution. The majority of Income status the smallholdings were found in the range The income distribution of of 0.5 to 1 acre, with 45%, 53% and 40%, smallholders in these three districts for Kegalle, Kalutara and Ratnapura ranged from Rs.2000 to Rs.20000. The districts, respectively. average income was Rs.6500, but nearly

Table 2. Percentage of farmers who own other crops in different districts

Crop % rubber smallholders growing tea/coconut/cinnamon/paddy in each district Kegalle Kalutara Ratnapura Tea 30 42 41 Coconut 22 13 7 Cinnamon 0 9 2 Paddy 39 24 35

64 Wasana Wijesuriya et al.

60 El Kegalle 50 • Kalutara to 40 CD • Ratnapura JS 30 Iu °- 20 1 10 I %4 I SI 5 vn IT) CO in A CM d CM 4 d d v CM d Extent (ac.)

Fig. 2. Distribution of land units among smallholder farmers

Land ownership and operation districts, respectively, while joint Sole ownership was operation was highest in Ratnapura predominant in the three districts with district (11%) followed by Kegalle (8%) 92%, 66% and 93% and the percentage and Kalutara (4%) districts. under joint ownership was 8%, 2% and 7% in Kegalle, Kalutara and Ratnapura Pattern of labour use districts, respectively. There is a The activities that involve labour substantial portion (16%) under Land in rubber cultivation are; field Development Ordinance (LDO) in the establishment (fencing, lining, holing . Most of these holdings and planting), maintenance of the are registered in the Rubber holding (weeding and cover crop Development Department (RDD), but establishment), fertilizer application and nearly 8% of the holdings in Kegalle and tapping. The type of labour may be Kalutara districts were not registered in either family, hired or both. Some RDD. deviations were observed in the pattern The percentage under self- of labour use in the three districts (Table farming operation was highest in the 3). Family labour involvement is highest Kalutara district (88%), followed by for fertilizer application while it was Kegalle (82%) and Ratnapura (72%) lowest for tapping in all the districts. districts. Caretakers look after the Family labour involvement is more for holdings in 17%, 10% and 4% in all activities in the Kalutara district when Ratnapura, Kegalle and Kalutara

65 Issues related to sustainability in rubber smallholdings compared to the other 2 districts. This Marketing of smallholders 'produce may be due to several reasons. One may Data generated from the socio­ be that 15% of the farmers in the sample economic survey and PRA were used to solely depend on rubber for their income. develop the smallholder market channel Another reason is that the percentage laid out in Fig. 3. The output of the under primary education is highest in small rubber farmers is of 3 main types; Kalutara district, compared to the other 2 viz. Ribbed Smoked Sheets (RSS), Unsmoked Sheets (USS) and latex. In districts. Further, it was noted that the addition, farmers sell the scrap collected. percentage fields managed by caretakers Though rubber is sold as latex as well, it was lowest in the Kalutara district. is predominantly sold as sheet rubber (as RSS or USS). Societal involvements It is evident that in all three Percentage participation in the major rubber growing districts, smallholders' rubber societies in the production of sheet rubber is 93% of the three districts was 40% in Kegalle and total output of small farmers. The %o 53 in Ratnapura areas. The majority of the farmers sell their produce participation in the Kalutara district was as RSS (78%) while 15% of the farmers low, and societies were found only in 2 sell as USS. Only 7% of the sample sells villages selected for the study. The latex. The reason for this low percentage participation was 20% when only these is not that it is not profitable, but the lack two villages were considered. In the of latex collectors in every district, sample studied, only 14% of female though recently some private companies smallholders were members of the have started latex collection in some rubber society, while it was 43 % in the areas. Another reason is that sheet rubber case of male smallholders. Further, the can be stored for sometime with the participation was more with the farmers producers if they wish to do so. who own large extents of land. The Therefore, the major pathway the regional level representatives of the smallholder production reaches the smallholders' societies further confirmed ultimate buyer is the marketing channel this during discussions with them. for sheet rubber.

Table 3. Labour use for different operations in different districts

Operation % under different types of labour use in each district Kegalle Kalutara Ratnapura Family Hired Both Family Hired Both Family Hired Both Field 38 46 16 81 15 4 59 37 4 establishment Maintenance 45 39 16 83 15 2 60 34 6 Fertilizing •52 40 8 86 13 1 64 34 2 Tapping 38 35 7 60 35 5 52 45 3

66 Wasana Wijesuriya et al.

Latex Latex/RSS Latex Latex/USS Smallholders

Latex collectors j Latex Rubber Scrao/RA $ societies Scrap Latex Village dealers mss /Scrpp' Scrap/RSS Crepe Scrap/RlS factories S Crepe R. Town dealers Smoke house Latex T Scrdp owners Scrap RSS RSS millers Brokers -4 Crepe RSS

WCrepe RSS Products manufacturers Auction

•RSS Value added items Buyers

Fig. 3. Market channels for smallholder rubber

Adoption of technologies in the Nearly 60% of the mature smallholder rubber sector holdings were still under PB 86. This Type of clone clone was very popular in Kegalle In immature holdings, new district in mature plantations. Kegalle improved clones occupied 82%, 71%, district had 20% of its holdings planted and 91%> in the samples of Kegalle, with RRIC 100, which was a low figure Kalutara and Ratnapura districts (Table compared to other 3 districts. In 4). The proportion occupied by PB 86 Kalutara and Ratnapura districts, the in immature holdings was fairly high in farmers have shown some interest on Kalutara district. Among the new RRIC 100. Further, several farmers had improved clones, RRIC 100 was still the RRIC 121 in their mature holdings most popular clone among the (Table 5). smallholders.

67 Issues related to sustainability in rubber smallholdings

Table 4. Clone composition in immature holdings of different districts

Clone % immature holdings in different districts Kegalle Kalutara Ratnapura RRIC 100A 80 54 78 RRIC 102A 2 2 5 RRIC 121A - 15 8 PB 86 16 25 8 Seedlings - 2 - Mixed - 2 1 Not known 2 - - % genetically improved 82 71 91 clones

A improved clones

Table 5. Clone composition in mature holdings of different districts

Clone % mature holdings in different districts Kegalle Kalutara Ratnapura RRIC 100A 20 41 42 RRIC 102A <1 1 1 RRIC 121A - 3 4 RRIC 101A <1 - - PB 86 77 52 49 Seedlings <1 1 3 Mixed <1 2 1 % genetically 22 45 47 improved clones

A New improved clones

These findings indicate that the material available for planting. They majority of the farmers who planted are (a) bare root budded stumps and (b) their holdings recently (immature poly bagged plants. Bare root budded holdings) had new improved clones. stumps are less costly but poly bagged Yet, several farmers still grow PB 86, plants are easy to establish in the field. which is low yielding and succumbs to Smallholders have three options; they most of the rubber diseases. are to purchase them from the Rubber Development Department (RDD) or Type of planting material from a commercial nursery or prepare There are two types of planting them by themselves.

68 Wasana Wijesuriya et al.

In the three districts surveyed, fertilizer around the tree in a circle and majority of the farmers used budded 1% in a half circle. stumps (69% in Kegalle, 84% in Only 48%) of the sample applied Kalutara and 88% in Ratnapura). The magnesium fertilizer separately. The main source of purchase in Kegalle and majority was unaware of the importance Ratnapura districts was from of applying Dolomite separately with commercial nurseries, while in Kalutara NPK. This malpractice results in loss of district it was the RDD. nutrients of the applied NPK fertilizer. In mature fields fertilization Fertilizer application helps to increase the yield and The recent policy of the encourage the regeneration of the used Government is to supply the required bark. In general, the adoption of the fertilizer quantity to all the immature fertilizer application is low during the fields registered in the RDD under the mature stage when compared to the subsidy scheme. The recommended immature stage. Nearly 20% of the fertilizer quantity is distributed to all sample believed fertilizer application is rubber smallholders under the rubber very important, while nearly 25% thinks replanting subsidy scheme implemented it is not important. Hence, by the government up to six years of approximately, half the sample stated planting. fertilizer application is important. The fanners employed several Kegalle district recorded the different application methods, although lowest adoption rate (18%) while the recommendation is "forking a few Kalutara and Ratnapura districts had points (three or four) and mixing the 49% and 44%, respectively (Table 6). fertilizer with soil". The farmers use However, only a very few farmers have mamoty or crow-bar as per their applied the recommended dose convenience. However, 6% of the regularly. These low adoption rates sample was found to broadcast the may be due to several reasons. The fertilizers, which is not advisable in the most important reason for low adoption case of urea as a Nitrogen source. The rates according to the farmers was the correct recommendation was practiced low rubber prices. by 73% of the farmers while 6% applied

Table 6. Adoption of recommended fertilizer applications in mature holdings

Practices % reported Kegalle Kalutara Ratnapura Fertilizer to mature rubber at any stage 18 49 44 Irregular/Not the recommended dose 12 34 36 Irregular/Recommended dose 2 2 0 Regular/Not the recommended dose 2 8 4 Regular/Recommended dose 2 5 4

69 Issues related to sustainability in rubber smallholdings

Cover crop management majority of the farmers weed once in Cover crops were not established several months. In Kegalle, the majority in 11 % of the farms due to many reasons. of the farmers weed only once a year. The reasons mentioned by the farmers were lack of awareness of benefits and Disease control methods lack of funds. .Although it is generally In immature holdings, only nine recommended to establish the cover crops farmers reported Oidium disease while 29 before planting, only 15% practiced it. farmers reported about white root disease. Among those who establish their cover Only four farmers have taken preventive crop after planting, 35% was able to measures against white root disease. st establish them during the 1 month after The proportion of farmers who planting. Thirty eight percent of the experienced diseases in their mature sample took more than three months after holdings was; 30%, 49% and 36% in planting. Drought conditions, lack of Kegalle, Kalutara and Ratnapura districts. awareness and lack of planting material Among the majority were incidences of were the reasons for the late root diseases caused by improper land establishment. clearing before planting; 78% in Kegalle The overall adoption rate for district, 68% in Kalutara district and 60% cover crop management was only 24% in Ratnapura district. Incidence of stem (good-10% and moderate-14%). In 21% diseases in Ratnapura district was 33%, of the fields there was no cover compared to 20% in both Kegalle and underneath rubber, and in 55% of the Kalutara districts. Further, there were a fields the cover crop was in 'bad' few incidences of tapping panel diseases condition. experienced by the farmers in their mature holdings. However, control measures Weed control were taken up only in a few holdings, Except for two farmers, all others 20% in Kegalle district, 10% in Kalutara practiced weed control before fertilizer district and 7% in Ratnapura district. application in the immature stage. Manual methods were employed by 81%, 4% Intercropping used chemicals and the remaining 15% Intercropping is a practice used both methods. The method of recommended by the Rubber Research weeding was mainly circular with 65%) of Institute to increase the productivity of the farmers, while 35% practiced strip rubber lands. The adoption rate is low weeding. due to various reasons. The major During the mature stage, the reasons were the problem of protecting farmers normally practice weeding, yet a the crop from thieves and lack of interest. few of them do not weed their holdings. There were some minor reasons such as, The proportion, which does not practice the distance from the residence, non- weeding, was less than 5% in all districts. suitability of the land and low investment In Ratnapura and Kalutara districts, the ability. The adoption rate in immature

70 Wasana Wijesuriya et al. holdings was 20 % while it was 9 % in major factor, which determines the mature holdings. Banana was the most attainment of tappable girth (50cm at 120 popular crop in immature plantations cm height in 60% of the trees) early. while cinnamon and tea were popular in However, very little proportion of mature holdings. holdings has reached the tappable girth at the age of five. In the Ratnapura district Stand per unit land area majority of the holdings had commenced This is an important indicator tapping at the age of six or seven, which is affecting the productivity of the also acceptable in the smallholder sector. smallholder sector. The correct stand per In the Kalutara district it was only 50% unit land recommended by the Rubber and in Kegalle it was 44%. Eighteen Research Institute is 500 trees per ha. percent of the holdings in the Kegalle However, it was found that the ratio; district had reached the tappable girth observed stand to the required stand vary after 10 years of age. The situation in the from 0.28 to 1.67 in the selected villages Ratnapura district is quite satisfactory (Table 7). (Table 8). Early commencement reduces The situation of stand per ha. was the immature period of rubber where comparatively satisfactory in Kegalle and farmers do not get any income from Ratnapura districts compared to the rubber and ensures early returns from Kalutara district. However, ratios above investment. Therefore, farmers should be 1.2 are also not acceptable, since there educated on the importance of proper may be competition for soil nutrients upkeep to bring the holding into tapping unless properly managed. as early as possible. Majority of the farmers stated that they could not Recommended practices related to commence tapping due to poor girth in tapping the holdings. Several have stated that Proper maintenance of the 'tapping is not profitable' or 'could not holding during the irnmature stage is a find a tapper'.

Table 1.Percentage of holdings under each category of the ratio: observed stand to the required stand

Ratio : (observed stand/ % holdings under each district Required stand) Kegalle Kalutara Ratnapura <0.30 1 2 0 0.31 to 0.50 5 5 5 0.51 to 0.80 21 45 20 0.81 to 1.00 61 41 73 >1.00 12 7 2 Minimum 0.28 0.30 0.45 Maximum 1.67 1.10 1.06

71 Issues related to sustainability in rubber smallholdings

Table 8. Percentages of holdings reached the tappable girth at different ages in different districts

Age at commencement of % of holdings under each district tapping Kegalle Kalutara Ratnapura 4-5 6 0 0 6-7 44 50 74 8-9 32 48 24 10-11 12 2 2 12-13 6 0 0

Mainly due to the interference was found that even if a stencil plate is of rains, majority of smallholders (73%) used for marking the tapping panel, it of the sample practiced daily tapping was not held at the correct height while instead of the alternate day tapping. marking. The correct direction is The correct angle of tapping cut, which practiced in the majority of the holdings promotes maximum latex removal, is in Kalutara and Ratnapura districts. 30° from the horizontal plane. RRI However, in Kegalle district correct recommends that this angle should be direction is practiced in 53% of the marked with a stencil plate at the correct holdings. Correct length of tapping cut height, which guides the tapper on the ensures a higher yield. A satisfactory angle as well as the thickness of the adoption rate was observed in 93% of shaving. As indicated in Table 9, use of the holdings in Kalutara districts. The a stencil plate in marking the tapping adoption rate in Ratnapura district is panel is very rarely practiced in the also acceptable (Table 9). However, in Kegalle district. As a result, only 37% Kegalle district the correct length of of the holdings have the correct angle of tapping cut was observed only in 23% the tapping cut. In Kalutara and of the holdings. It is evident that proper Ratnapura districts a stencil plate is advice was not given to the sample of used for marking nearly in two thirds of farmers in Kegalle district at the the holdings. This resulted in a fairly commencement of tapping. This may high proportion of the holdings with the resulted poor adoption rates in Kegalle correct tapping angle. district when compared to other 2 The correct height of the districts. The time of commencement tapping panel is 120 cm from the base of tapping varies from 05.30 to 08.00 of the tree. In Kegalle district, the hours in all three districts, which is the holdings with the correct height were recommended time of commencement very low compared to the other two for best latex extraction. districts. According to the results, it

72 Wasana Wijesuriya et al.

Table 9. Adoption of recommendations related to tapping

Practices % adoption of correct practices Kegalle Kalutara Ratnapura Marking of the tapping panel using the stencil 17 61 67 Angle of tapping 37 72 64 Height of tapping 3 49 60 Direction of the tapping cut 53 93 80 Length of tapping cut 23 92 76

Recommended practices during impact on the sustainability of the eco­ processing system, are; The main steps of producing i) substandard growth in immature RSS involve latex straining, rubber lands, coagulation, milling and drying. The ii) low productivity in mature lands, PRA carried out on adoption of iii) low quality in produced rubber, different activities related to rubber iv) low involvement in societies, processing highlighted that the adoption v) improper marketing system, and rate was satisfactory for latex straining; vi) depletion of the smallholder rubber with adoption rates of 100, 96 and 84 extent. percents respectively, in villages, Welihelatenna, Batugampola and Substandard growth in immature Pohorabawa. However, the adoption rubber lands rate of the correct method of Substandard growth in rubber rolling/rinsing with water was very poor holdings is due to several pressures. The in Welihelatenna (21%). The adoption quality of planting material plays an rates observed for Batugampola and important role in subsequent growth. Pohorabawa were 52% and 41%, which The present situation is that the farmers were also not satisfactory. This is receive their planting material from the mainly due to poor awareness on RDD and due to recent increased making a quality sheet as evident from demand generally no selection is being PRA studies. A satisfactory adoption done before releasing the planting rate was observed in Welihelatenna for material. Further, according to the the correct weight of the sheet (85%), present policy, only the new improved while it was moderate in Batugampola clones are released to the smallholders. (64%) and Pohorabawa (70%). The performances of these high yielding clones are associated with other Major issues of concern in relation to improved management practices sustainability recommended by the Rubber Research The main issues, which have an Institute (RRI). Therefore, negligence

73 Issues related to sustainability in rubber smallholdings becomes a pressure for poor growth well being of the society as well. conditions. Poor growth is also a result Hence, the institutional responses when rubber is grown in unsuitable should be to improve awareness on lands, and this condition is further correct agronomic and tapping related provoked in the absence of proper activities to improve adoption, which in cultural practices. turn improves the productivity of the Substandard growth increases smallholder sector. Introducing rain­ the immature period of rubber where the guards is the only available solution to farmers do not get any income from avoid rain interferences on tapping. their fields. Therefore, approaches to Although rain-guards are being used increase adoption such as; subsidies and extensively in the estate sector, the awareness programs on soil moisture awareness is very poor among conservation would be ideal. Quality smallholders. Effective awareness control in nurseries would be the answer programs and demonstration plots are of to poor quality planting material. immense importance in improving the adoption of fixing rain guards. Low productivity in mature lands There is a great scope of Low quality in produced rubber increasing the productivity in the The smallholders are not very smallholder sector, since some of the keen on producing RSS1, which is the farmers are already receiving a best grade of RSS. In general the reasonable income through rubber smallholders' produce goes to the farming. This study reported an average market as RSS3 or RSS4. The dealers yield of 1050 kg ha"1 year"1, but the buy sheets from them as a bulk and no values ranged from 214 to 1927 kg ha"1 proper grading system is adopted during year"1 (Wijesuriya et al., 2005). the deal. This has been identified as a The pressures upon low significant reason for the low quality in productivity are mainly related to smallholders' produce. Non-awareness tapping. Labour migration and social of correct practices of processing that problems are responsible for the non­ result in low adoption rates and lack of availability of skilled tappers, as rubber facilities are also among the pressures tapping is not considered as a reputable of the system when processing is occupation in Sri Lanka. Among the concerned. natural causes, rain interference is the Low income at local level is the main factor that affects the productivity impact of this issue. Although the of rubber. Land suitability also affects smallholders produce RSS1, in most productivity when the farmers do not cases they do not get any benefit since properly manage unsuitable lands. Low the dealers buy rubber as bulk. productivity creates low-income levels Improving the status of smoke houses at local level and affects the health and and machinery through extension

74 Wasana Wijesuriya et al. programs and encouraging the farmers production. In addition, there are to. .sell-..their produce through the repercussions like increased soil erosion societies would be the appropriate and decreased soil moisture retention institutional responses. This can and increased atmospheric CO2. which increase the bargaining power of affects the equilibrium of the eco­ smallholders in selling their produce. system. As this issue is of a higher This issue is related to improper market scale, national programs to plant more systems, which are also a major issue in rubber and to address the value of the smallholder rubber sector. rubber plantations as a forest cover are of immense importance. Government •Lowjnvolvement in societies interventions such as subsidies, market This study has highlighted that facilities and societal arrangements the involvement in societies related to should also be given highest priority. rubber is not satisfactory. No proper institutional structure to centralize the Conclusions activities of local level societies and This study has identified several non-awareness of farmers on the issues; viz. substandard growth in benefits that could be achieved through immature rubber lands, low productivity societies are the main pressures on this in mature lands, low quality in produced issue. These have created political rubber, low involvement in societies, conflicts and difficulties in organizing improper marketing systems, and markets and other facilities through depletion of the smallholder rubber societies. Organizing programs to extent, which have an impact on the develop leadership skills, provision of sustainability of the ecosystem. technical, social and economic know- Low adoption rates of how through the societies should be the recommended technologies were responsibilities of the institutions observed for immature and mature involved in the smallholder rubber phases of rubber cultivation and also sector. during the manufacturing process and were responsible for marketing Depletion of the smallholder rubber inefficiencies. The proposed societal extent arrangements in this regard were not Moving into other crops or uses functioning properly. These have led to is an indication of the sustainability of low income levels of the rubber the system. The pressure is exerted by growing community and as a result the human interventions of changing the there is a tendency to convert rubber land use of rubber plantations into other lands into other uses or crops for better crops or uses. Therefore, the long-term income. impact is the depletion of the rubber Awareness programs to improve extent and subsequent reduction in adoption of technologies at all stages

75 Issues related to sustainability in rubber smallholdings

from planting to processing and Samarappuli, L and Yogaratnam, N (1995). Government interventions such as Rubber plantations, as self-sustaining increased subsidies, market facilities agro-forestry systems, The Sri Lanka Forester, Vol. XXII (Parts 1&2), 13-24. and societal arrangements should be Samarappuli, Lalani, Wijewardcna, J D 11 given priority to make the smallholder and Dissanayake, S T (1998). sector more productive. Management of wet zone soils. In: Hand book of characterization, classification Acknowledgements and mapping of wet zone soils of Sri This paper is produced with the Lanka. Eds. Mapa, R B, Somasiri, S and information collected from the project Nagarajah, S, Soil Science Society of Sri "Interactions between the Environment, Lanka, 133-142. Society and Technology" funded by the Viswanathan, P K and Rajasekharan, P European Commission under INCO-DC (2001). Decline in NR and adoption of Contract No. ICA4-CT2001-10046. agro-management practices in smallholdings in India: Some Authors greatly acknowledge the observations. The Planter, 77 (899), 65- financial support given by the European 76. Commission. The support given by the Wijesuriya, W (2002). Effects of climate Extension Officers; Ms Susith change on rubber plantations in Sri Ratnayake, K V Nandana Kumara, D R Lanka, Report submitted to the National A M G Abeydissanayake, D M Science Foundation (NSF), Colombo, Mahindapala, J A J Perera, M Sri Lanka. Dharmadasa and S B S Silva of the Wijesuriya, W, Herath, K, Abeywardene, V, Advisory Services Department in and Vidyawardene, T (2002). Rainfall conducting the questionnaire survey is behavior in rubber growing areas of Sri greatly appreciated. The support given Lanka. Bulletin of the Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka: 44,49-55. by the smallholder farmers of the study Wijesuriya Wasana, Dissanayake, D M A P, sites is also greatly appreciated. Herath, K, Edirisinghe, J, Wijeratne, M and Abeywardene, V (2005). Possible References causes of low rubber yields in Council for Agricultural Research Policy. Smallholder Units in Sri Lanka: (1992). Status review report of Rubber Farmers' Perspectives and Research Research Institute of Sri Lanka: Outlook. Proceedings International Colombo, Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka Council Natural Rubber Conference, Cochin, for Agricultural Research Policy. India. Central Bank (2006). Annual Report: Colombo, Sri Lanka: Central Bank of Address for correspondence: Dr (Mrs) Sri Lanka. Wasana Wijesuriya, Biometrician, Rubber Ministry of Plantation Industries (2005). Research Institute of Sri Lanka, Dartonfield, Plantation Sector Statistical Pocket Agalawatta, Sri Lanka. Book. Ministry of Plantation Industries, E-mail: [email protected]. Colombo, Sn Lanka.

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