DISTRICT ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE ft

DISTRICT ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE KEGALLE

Submitted to

CENTRAL ENVIRONMENTAL AUTHORITY

By

CEA Library

Gonsu Jt^ag&ment & Development Studies

TEAMS (Pvi) Ltd. P.- 0. Box 262 . Sri Lank-J

December 1991 TEAMS (Pvt) Ltd, P.O. Box 262 Colombo, .

Consultants in Technology, Management 8 Development Studies

CORPORATE OFFICE : 55 Rosmead Place, Colombo 7. Telephone : 692056, 686429 Telex: 22778 TWINSCE Attn. TEAMS. Fax: 686947, 501841 Cables: TEAMS WORK 4th December, 1991

Director General, DISTRICT ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE Central Environmental Authority Maligawatta New Town KEGALLE Colombo 10.

Dear Sir,

District Environmental Profile - Kecralle District

Submitted to In accordance with our proposal and the subsequent contract with you for the above study, herewith we are submitting the Final Report.

We trust that you will find this submission satisfactory. CENTRAL ENVIRONMENTAL AUTHORITY Thanking you

Yours truly,

• -\ ' • ,

Wimal Gunawardena Chairman/Managing Director

December 1991 '.S. I'ml td.RfsKtervd in Sri l.;:n!: fVS) '277

..<

Acknowledgements

This study was conducted by Professor P.C. H. Ranasinghe of Background the Department of Geography, University of Colombo. The Environmental Profile of Kegalle is an outcome of an initiation taken by the Central Environment Authority of Sri Lanka, with NORAD collaboration, to compile a series of Several officials extended their full support and co­ district level environmental profiles, with a view to arrest operation to complete this study. The list is too long to the environmental degradation and to build up a strong mention. However, acknowledgment is specially made to the institutional capacity to achieve district level balance in life support systems. As defined by the Central Environment Government Agent Kegalle, and the staff of the Kegalle Authority, 'environment profile' is a comprehensive Kachcheri and the staff of the Regional Development Division assessment of the existing state of the environment. The of the Ministry of Policy Planning and Implementation, staff highlight with regard to this is the recognition of the spatial or regional approach to environment planning and of the IRDP Office, Kegalle and especially to all the management. Moreover, the relevance and the practical value resource personnel of two workshops: 'Human Settlement Sector in the compilation and .assessment of district level Review-' for UNDP conducted by the Centre for Housing, environment profile cannot be over emphasised in the light of the present system of devolution of powers to the Provinces. Planning and Building (August 1991) and 'National Landuse Planning' conducted by the Ministry of Lands, Irrigation and Mahaweli Development (October 1991). The deliberations Conceptualisation during these 2 workshops immensely helped the consultant to Any development model invariably should be sustainable both environmentally and socially. Environmentally sound enrich the section on suggestions and recommendations. sustainable development has to recognise 2 thresholds: resources threshold and development threshold. The technical staff of the Department of Geography, The process of development uses the natural and man made University of Colombo extended their valuable co-operation resources. It must be remembered that these resources have and support to complete this report in time. their limitations. If resources are used efficiently, with proper technology, the development process would allow the sustained use of the resources below its environmental limit. Essentially environmental considerations should be integrated into economic development. The development should be aimed at not only to meet consumers' demands, but also at what the earth's life support system can afford.

The development process has a triangular interdependence: economic interdependence, environmental interdependence and the ' linkage between economic- and environmental interdependence. Therefore, Development policies need to be based on these interdependencies. The policies and strategies concerning development in Sri Lanka should be formulated in the context of 3 basic goals Objectives of the Environment Profile viz; accelerating economic growth, alleviating poverty and protecting the natural resource base. Maximum mobilisation According to the Terms of Reference -given by the Central and best utilisation of all resources-human, material and Environment Authority, the Environmental financial need to be ensured. In investment planning, Profile is a comprehensive assessment of the present state priority should be given to productive (agriculture, of the environment of the District of Kegalle, and includes: industry) and social (education, health) sectors. In the context of poverty alleviation, employment generation should i. an identification of the natural resources of the be a major guidance principle. Economic planning exercises Kegalle District with a view to understand the should give special consideration to issues relating to potential resource base, both natural and human, depletion of natural resources and environmental degradation, with a view to protecting the natural resource base in order ii. an identification of problems of (a) the resource to sustain development over time. utilisation and development (b) the nature and the level of utilisation of the resources at present, In relation to human resources," effort need to be intensified to reduce population growth mainly through educational and iii. an identification and reviewing of the more significant motivational activities. Human resources should be developed basic environmental problems and examining the through appropriate basic education and vocational existing machinery for their solution, programmes, to produce sufficient managerial, and other skilled workers and to mobilise and harness youth energy to iv. an identification of the importance of promoting the maximum. participatory process in managing the environment and suggesting guidelines for the development of an action People's effective participation in the development process plan for effective environmental management, is essential and should involve democratic institutions not only at national level but also at sub-national levels down v. recommendations for short, medium and long term to the grassroots levels. The participation to be implementation strategies with a view to improve the meaningful, should involve access to resources and also resource utilisation and development, in order to sharing of benefits. strengthen the socio-economic viability of the Kegalle District. Important role of women in the process of sustainable development is. beginning to- establish. Hence, their effective participation need to be ensured. Main Features of the Report

It should be noted that on the one hand, when development The environmental profile of the district of Kegalle efforts are ineffective they disrupt existing social and discusses in detail the natural resources, both living and economic systems without extending compensating benefits; and non-living, and the interaction of these resources as life on the other hand, even when development efforts are supporting systems in the district. The report highlights effective it accelerates the environmental pollution and the environmental hazards that are caused by human destruction. intervention and emphasises that conservation of the natural resource base is essential for the sustainable life support ii system in the district.

iii The consultant is with the view that the conservation of The chapter where . an agenda is submitted to ameliorate the resources within the district is not -given its due environmental issues in the District -has listed under various recognisation and if adequate measures are not taken in time items the steps which could be followed in'order to achieve at the present rate of exploitation, it will rapidly lead to sustainable development within the given resources. These total depletion of these resources. The result would be the steps include long-term and as well as short-term inevitable changes in the environment at large which will recommendations which are practical and could be applied consequently have serious repercussions not only on the within the given administrative framework. socio-economy of the district but also on the Wet Zone as a whole. The administrative machinery is also discussed in order to understand the legal and statutory framework within which The section on Physical Resources discusses in detail the utilisation and conservation of resources are carried out. location, size, land, geology soils, minerals, water, ) Various authorities and the Acts and Ordinances that are vegetation and wildlife as factors of life supporting system related to the environment are also examined in this section. in the district. It also discusses the various environmental situations that have arisen due to the interaction of these The conclusive chapter has summaried the environmental physical factors with each other. This section of the report profile of the Kegalle District and long and short term can be considered as an inventory of the physical resources recommendations are stated. available in the district of Kegalle.

Data and Information A detailed Human Resource profile is given in the section dealing with human resources of the district. In addition to An assessment of the nature and composition of the natural the density, distribution and growth rates, this section and human environmental and an assessment of the available deals with factors such as the level and composition of the resources of the district should ideally be based on a detail labour force, labour force participation, education, and complete inventory of such resources. The extent of unemployment , poverty and the women as agents of utilisation resource utilisation /and the problems and issues connected up and conservation of resources, Tlhe consultant sees the human with the resources utilisation can be identified clearly if a resource in the district as a very valuable factor which proper data base is available. It is true that a lot of should be mobilised appropriately to achieve the total socio­ information could be gathered on various factors and economic development of the District while conserving the parameters necessary for this study from a variety of State environment to attain sustainable development. orgnisations . But the consultant experienced that most of the data collected from different organisations do not tally The section dealing with Resource Utilisation, is a detailed with each other. In several data sources consistency and analysis of the level of utilisation and the issues which are continuity is lacking which make it difficult to compare or involved in the process. The following chapter deals in correlate certain parameters. Although some institutions detail with various measures and steps that can be adopted in maintain useful data, they are not readily accessible. resource conservation, specifically in relation to the environmental impacts resulted in the district due to the The study was mostly based on the data provided by the interaction of human and physical resources with each other. Kegalle Kachcheri. Other sources of information were Survey Deforestation, landslides, floods, soil erosion are some of Department, Meteorology Department, Department of Water the impacts which are analysed in great detail. Resources and Hydrology and Department of Census and Statistics. The Department of Policy Planning was one of the major sources of information to this study. The Resource Profiles of Kegalle AGA Divisions compiled by the Regional iv Development Division of Ministry of Policy Planning and Implementation were, of tremendous help.

v INDEX

It should be emphasised that this report is not an exhaustive compilation of the 'total environment' of the district of PAGE Kegalle. However, within the given temporal and financial

limits, the consultant believes that this report presents a 1. PHYSICAL RESOURCES 01 fairly comprehensive assessment and analysis of 'the state of 1.1 The Location 01 the environment' of the district. The consultant wishes to 1.2 The Size 01 dedicate this report to the people of the Kegalle District 1.3 The Relief and the Drainage 04 and hopes that this report will form a base to formulate an 1.3.1 AGA Division 04 environmental action plan to the district of Kegalle in order 1.3.2 Dehiwoita AGA Division 06 1.3.3 Yatiyantota AGA Division 07 to achieve sustainable development of both human and natural 1.3.4 Ruwanwella AGA Division 08 resources. 1.3.5 Aranayake AGA Division 09 1.3.6 Mawenella AGA Division • 09 1.3.7 . AGA Division 10 However, it has to be mentioned that while recognising gaps 1.3.8 Kegalle AGA Division 11 in the data, there are several aspects of the environment of 1.3.9 Galigamuwa AGA Division 11 the- District which have to be studied in further detail. 1.3.10 Warakapola AGA Division 12 Moreover, this environment profile should be periodically 1.4 The Overall Physical Landscape 13 assessed and updated to achieve a higher level of usefulness. of the District 1.5 The Physiographic Divisions 23 1.6 Water Resources 2 6 1.6.1 Surface Water 26 1.6.2 Ground Water 41 1.7 Geology 1.7.1 Geological Structure 46 1.7.2 Soils 49 1.7.2.1 The Main Soil Groups 49 in £he .Kegalle District

1.7.3 Mineral Resources 53 1.8 Climatic Variables of the Kegalle District 62 1.8.1 Climatic Conditions 62 vi 1.8.2 Pressure and surface winds — 62 1.8.3 Temperature . 65 1.8.4 Relative Humidity 67 1.8.5 Rainfall 69 1.9 Agro Ecological Regions 86 1.9.1 West Zone Low Country (WL) 86 4. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND CONSERVATION 165 1.9.2 Wet Zone Mid Country (WM) 88 1.9.3 Wet Zone Up Country ,' .,(.WU), 9 0 1.10 Forest Resources 90 4.1 Depletion of Forests '' ' 165 1.10.1 Naturnal Vegetation Types 91 4.1.1 Effects of Deforestation 166 of the District 4.1.2 The Benefits of Forest 167 1.10.2 Distribution of forests 94 Conservation in the District 4.1.3 Watershed Management 167 1.11 Wild Life 97 4.1.4' Froestry and the Soils 169 4.1.5 Forests and Soil Conservation 171 2. HUMAN RESOURCES 98 4.1.6 Forest Cover and Rainfall/Runoff 172 4.1.7 Forests and Floods 172 2.1 The Historical Significance 98 4.1.8 Energy Prospects of the 173 2.1.1 Population 98 2.1.2 Labour force 107 Forest Resources 2.1.3 Literacy Rate 111 4.1.9 Forests and the Air Quality 173 2.1.4 Labour force participation 116 4.1.10 Forests Plantations and Ecological 174 in Economic Activities Considerations

2.1.5 Women in Development and t 121 •4.1.11 Forestry and Community 175 Conservation of Resources 2.1..6 Poverty in the District 124 Participation 2.6.1.1 Measures to alleviate 126 4.1.12 National Strategies for 176 poverty Forest Conservation 4.1.13 Immediate steps to be taken to 178 conserve forest resources 3. RESOURCE UTILIZATION 128 4.2 Earthslips or Landslides 178 3.1 Land Resources 128 4.2.1 Causes of Earthslips or landslides 178 3.1.1 Arable Land not Cultivated 131 4.2.2 Some high risk areas in the 180 3.1.2 Steep Land 131 District .3.1.3 Agricultural- Landuse 131 3.1.4 Plantation Crops 134' 4.2.3 Causes of landslides in the 188 3.1.5 Other Agricultural Activities 141 District of Kegalle 3.1.6 Livestock 141 4.2.4 Suitability of the resettlement 189 3.1.7 Agricultural Institutions 143 lands selected in the District 3.1.8 Agricultural Inputs 143 4.2.5 Other Environmental Issues 199 3.1.9 The problem of encroachment on 144 State lands 3.1.10 Rural Industries 149 3.1.11 Rural Credit 151 3.1.12 Marketing and Trade 152 3.1.13 Rural Infrastructure 152 3.1.14 Social Infrastructure 160 6.3 Planning and Local Level Participation 244 AN AGENDA FOR AMELIORATION OF THE 6.4 Departmental Structure 246 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN THE DISTRICT-OF KEGALLE 2 04 6.5 Decentralization in practice ," _ . , 246 6.6 Legislation on Environmental Protection and 247 5.1 Water Resources 2 04 Management ^ 5.2 Forest Resources 2 04- 6.7 Some Existing liows 247 5.3 Wild life 206 6.8 Peoples Participation and Environment 252 5.4 Agriculture 2 06 5.5 Plantation Agriculture 207 Management 5.6 Horticulture 207 5.7 Animal Husbandry 2 08 7. CONCLUSION 255 5.8 Fruit Growing 2 08 5.9 Industries, Trade & Commerce. 2 09 7.1 Recommendations & Suggestions 255 5.10 Tourism 210 7.1.1 Short Term Suggestions 257 5.11 Energy 210 7.1.2 Medium Term Suggestions ' 257 5.12 Archaeological Sites 211 7.1.3 Long Term Suggestions 258 5.13 Population 211 5.14 Land use 211 LIST OF REFERENCES 5.15 Steps that could be followed to 212 formulate an efficient landuse plan. 5.16 Settlements 213 ANNEXES 5.17 Kegalle Town 213 5.18 Housing 214 5.19 Drinking Water 214 5.20 Sanitation 215 5.21 Education, Health and Social Welfare 215 5.22 Infrastructure Facilities 216 5.23 Government Policies 216 5.24 Kegalle Rural Development Project 218 5 J 25 Rural poverty and Environment 22 0 5.25.1 Income Generation Potentialities 221 5.25.2 Employment Generation 228 Potentialities 5.25.3 Regional Boundaries 234

THE ADMINISTRATION MACHINERY 2 37 AND THE ENVIRONMENT (CHAPTER 6)

6.1 Devolution of Power at the District level 237 6.2 Institutional Machinery in Relation to 243 Environment List of Maps PAGE

1 - Kegalle District - River Basins,Physical Location 02 List of Figures

2(1) - Relief features and areas subjected to landslides 05 1 - Block diagram showing the general Physiography <

2(2) - Physiographic divisions in the district ' 24 a sample area of the district of Kegalle.

3 - Map indicating the lines along cross sections are 14 2 - Cross - sections of the district, East -West drawn 3 - Cross - section of the district North-South 4 - Map of a sample area in district of Kegalle from 1st 16 street) - block diagram (fig. 1) is constructed based 4 - Profile of Kelani Ganga and Tributaries on this.

5 - Location of Rainfall stations and River Discharge 29 5 (1) to 5(8) - Differential Mass curves of Kelani stations Ganga (hunting survey) 6 (1) to 6 (7) - Design flood Hydrograph for Kelani 6 - District of Kegalle - Geological structure 45

Ganga (hunting survey) 7 - District of Kegalle - Distribution of Rocks 47

8 - District of Kegalle Pedological Base 50 7 - Kelani Ganga Basin flow profile

9 - Distribution of Major Soil Groups 52 8 - Maha Oya Basin - Flow Profile 9 - Common Types of Graphite Veins in Sri Lanka 10- The Mean Annual Rainfall for the district of Kegalle 81 for a thirty year period of 1960 - 1990. 10- Modes of occurrence of Graphite

11(1 ) to 11 (4) - Rainfall regime of the district 82-85 11- Generalized section showing the origin and mode •12- Agro Ecological Region 87 occurence of gem deposits

13- Landuse-1981 • 95 12- Pressure - Katugastota

14 ( ) - Distribution of population 103 13 - Temperature -

14(2) - Major Road Network and Urban Centres 104 14(^) & 14(2) - Relative Humidity Katugastota &

15- Agricultural Landuse Private Ownership in Acres 138 Kuruanagala

16- Kegalle District-Electricity Supply 161 15- The regimes of the S.W. and N.E monsoons over Sri Lanka and the role of Central Highlands as 17- Transportation Network and some services 156 an orographic barrier

18- Landslide and floods victims and numbers of 183 Encroachments

19- Grama Niladari Divisions (GND) in the district of 238 Kegalle.

Cartography by Mr. Milton Liyanage - Dept. of Geography, University of Colombo. List of Tables PAGE 16- West to East cross-section of the average annual 70 rainfall totals m(irun) through Sri Lanka 1 - The size of the district of Kegalle 03

17- Mean Annual Rainfall - 74-78 2 - The Electorates in the District of Kegalle 03

17A- Provincial Administration functional structure 239 3 - Summary of the main physical features of the 17 district 18- West to east cross-section of S.W. irtonsonnal 79 rainfall(in mm) through Sri Lanka 4 - General succession of geological formations and 54 principal mineral deposits in Sri Lanka. 18B- Provincial Administration Organisational structure 240 5 - The distribution of mineral resources in the 56 19- Provincial Council Secretariat Organisational 241 Kegalle District By G.N. Divisions Structure 6 - Mean monthly temperature for selected station 66 20- Divisional level organisation 242 7 - Humidity in selected stations 66

8 - Planetary location, Elevation and Mean Annual 72 Rainfall for rain gauging stations in the district of Kegalle

9 - Mean monthly rainfall for 30 year period 73 (1960-1990)

10- Forest Resources of the District of Kegalle 93

11- Detailed Landuse in the district based on AGA divisions

12 - Population - Kegalle district 1990 and 1981 by 99 AGA Divisions, Age structure and sex.

13 - Population Density, Labour force, unemployment 101 and number of landless families in the Kegalle District.

14 - Comparison of area and population as 102 percentages of the total in the Kegalle district

15- People residing in 1981 outside the district of 106 Kegalle who are born in the district

16- Kegalle District - Urban Population 1990, 108 1981 and 1970 35- Land ownership based on number of families 140 17- Urban Population in Kegalle district by AGA 108 Divisions and Age structure 36- Animal Husbandry in the district 142

18 - labour force, Employed and Unemployed 109 3 7- Reported Number of Encroachments iji the 14 6 Population by sex in the district district

19 - Literacy rates of persons 10 years of age and 112 38- Rural Industries in the District of Kegalle 150

over by sex 1971 and 1981. 39- Roads maintained by RDA under Chief Engineer 153 (1986) in the District of Kegalle. 20 - Unemployed Labour Force - Educational Level 112 40- Roads under Local Authorities in the District of 153 21 - Number of people seeking employment abroad and 115 Kegalle number of people employed abroad 41- Road network Length in Kegalle in the District 153 22 - Labour Force participation in Economic 117 Activities based on AGA Divisions, sectors, types and sex. 42- Numbers and Types of vehicles in the district 157

43- Amenities in the-district of Kegalle 159 23- Percentage of sectorwise Labour Force 119 44- Distribution of Schools in Kegalle district. 162 participation in Economic Activities. 44A- No. of School children and Teachers in the 162 District of Kegalle 24- Female Population and family size 122 44B Percantge of persons 5-19 years attending 163 schools by Age and Sex 25 - Female Labour force 123 44C Educational attainment of persons 30 years 164 26 - Poverty and food stamp holders 125 and over- 1981

27 - Comparative Agricultural Landuse data for 129 45- Landslides in the District of Kegalle 1930-1989 179 Sri Lanka and the District of Kegalle 28- Arable land not cultivated in Kegalle District 132 46- Landslide Victims June 1989 185

29- The areal extent of steep land in the district 132 47- Resettling of Landslide Victims 186 of Kegalle in hectares 48- Impact of floods and Landslides in the District 187 30- Suited crops and specific Management 133 of Kegalle Requirements of the soil groups of the District of Kegalle. 49- Average farm Income in the district 221

31- Crop cultivation in Kegalle District • 135 50- Availability of Mud Ponds in the district 223

32- Size of Agricultural Land Holdings in Kegalle 136 51- Malnutrition Percentage by Age 223 District 52- Exports of fruits and vegetable in 1988 from 230 33- Agricultural landuse Private ownership in Acres 136 Sri Lanka 53- Legislation on Environmental Protection and 248-250 34- Agricultural Landuse state ownership in Acres 137 Management relating to Kegalle District List of Annexes

I - Monthly Rainfall data for the Kegalle District 1960-1990 - 10 gauging stations - '

II- List of wet zone - Tree Species

III- List of Wild Life Speciecs in Kurulu Kele

IV - List of Grama Niladari divisions and population (1990)

in the district of Kegalle

V - Some common Archaeological site Indicators

VI - 13th Amendment to the Sri Lanka Constitution VII - Voluntary societies whose chairpersons are eligible to be members of Gramodaya Mandalas

VIII- Survey map of 'Kurulu kele' wild life sanctuary and the list of encroachers. - 3 -

Table 1: The size of the District of Table 2: The Electorates in THE PHYSICAL RESOURCES Kegal le the District of Kegalle

1 The Location Government Area Number of Number of Agent Division Total % Grama vi I lages Electorates in Kegalle Dist. 2 Ni ladhari No. Name The is composed of two Km D i v i s i ons Administrative Districts, namely Kegalle and Ratnapura. The District of Kegalle is bounded by the Districts of the on the north, the on the east, the 1. Aranayake 64 2 3.9 61 61 1 Dedigama Nuwera Eliya on the south-east,! the Ratnapura on the 2. Dehiowita 230 6 13.9 39 82 2 Galigamuwa south, the' Colombo on the south-west and by the District

of on the west. The District capital is the 3. Deraniyagala 217 6 •13.1 26 106 3 Kegalle Kegalle town, administered by an Virban Council and is 4. Galiganuwa H7 6 8.9 58 192 4 Rambukkana situated in a north-central location at a distance of 77 Km. from the national capital, the\ City of Colombo 5. Kegalle 104 6 6.3 61 145 5 (Map 1). \ 6. Mawanella 170 4 10.2 71 176 6 Aranayake

2 The Size \ 7. Rambukkana 116 5 7.0 89 194 7 Yatiyantota-

139 8 RuwanweUa 2 8. RuwanweUa 170 9 10.3 38 The District of Kegalle has a land area of 1,663 Km

(448,000 acres/645 ml2/164,110 ha) which\ is 2.6% of the Deraniyagala 9. Warakapola 196 8 11.8 78 198 9 total land area of Sri Lanka (Sri Lanka 65,650 Km2). 52 121 Total = 9 The district comprises 9 electorates,! 10 Assistant 10-Yatiyantota 243 6 14.6 Government Agent Divisions (AGA), 573 Gfiama Niladhari Total 1662 8 100 573 1414 Divisions (GN) , and around 1400 villages. ((Table 1 & 2). • MEGALLE DISTRICT

- 4 - fcjFF FEATURES AND ARRAS SUBJFCTFp TO LANDS! IDF.q

3 The Relief and the Drainage

Situated in between the Low Country and the Hill Country of Sri Lanka, the District of Kegalle can be identified in terms of elevation as a region belonging to the mid-country. As indicated by the Kelani Ganga, the Attanagalu Oya and the Maha Oya the region generally slopes from the east to the west (Map 1> •

3 .1 Deraniyacrala (AGA) Division

Bounded by the Nuwera Eliya District from the east, the from the South, the Dehiowita AGA Division from the West and the Yatiyantota AGA Division from the North, the Deraniyagala Division is the 3rd largest in the District. :

The Deraniyagala (AGA) Division represents the highest mountainous area within the whole of Kegalle District, with a varying elevation of' l000'-5500'. The highest land . area within the Division is located in the eastern section, with extremely steep upper slopes and highly dissected lower slopes, comprising the ' Grama Niladhari Division of Dickellakanda. The catchment area of the upper reaches of the Kelani Ganga is located in the Adams Peak range which borders the south-eastern edge of the Deraniyagala Division. The Adams Peak has a- summit level of over 5500' with peak wilderness and is located in the region which receives the highest rainfall in the island. The two branches of the Seetawaka Oya, namely, Magal. Oya- and Anhettigama Oya originate from the Adams Peak. Flowing in a east/west direction through the Deraniyagala Division, they join the Seetawaka Oya which in turn becomes the 'main, branch of the Ambanpitiya Oya which drains the adjoining Dehiowita (AGA) Division P-Map 2(1)].

The other branches of the Seetawaka Oya are' the Mieyanawita Oya, the Kehelwala Oya, the Deraniyagala . Oya and the Kumburegama Oya. In addition to these Oyas, there are numerous streamlets and water courses especially in Maliboda, Nakkawita, Poddenikanda, Deraniyagala and Egodagama GN Divisions. The area represents the wettest region in terms of rainfall. Th ' s river system which has intruded into the every nook and corner of the Deraniyagala Division, in turn, forms the main branch of the Kelani Ganga (Map 2 W] - 6 -

In addition to this main river system, the division is drained by several streams, some of which are Ritigaha Oya, Getahetta Ela and Doolgaha Oya. The water table in this area is relatively high and ground-water can be found between 10'- The northern boundary of the division is skirted by the 30' in depth. Kelani ganga. The northern section of the division has a

mountain block known as Balahela with an elevation oft1000'- 3000'. Another set of branches of the Kelani gangd which The hilly areas of Yakahatuwa, Maniyagama and the areas along originates from this region flows in a south/north direction the western bank of Ambanpitiya Oya had experienced severe and joins the Kelani ganga draining the villages of Ballehela landslides during the recent past [Map 2(1)]. and Behanella. .3 Yatiyantota (AGA) Division

Areas such as Maliboda, Poddenikanda and Humpita (in Kirihena GN Division) have experienced severe landslides during the Bounded by the Districts of Kandy and Nuwera Eliya from the recent.past mainly due to the steepness of the slopes and the east, the AGA Divisions of Aranayake, Kegalle, Galigamuwa and heavy rainfall [Map 2(1)]. Warakapola from the north and by the AGA Divisions of Ruwanwella, Dehiowita and Deraniyagala from the • west, the south-west and the south respectively, areawise Yatiyantota The landscape of the division is decorated with several is the biggest Division in the District. The elevation waterfalls'. There are 2 seasonal waterfalls at Polgaswatta varies between 500'-3500'. The mountainous area rising from and Nakkawita which activate only during the rainy season. an elevation of 2000' to 3500' is found in the eastern half There are also 3 perennial waterfalls, namely Puwakmal Ella, of the Division. The slope of the Division is from east to Elapita Ella and Dotholu Ella located in the villages of west. Maliboda, and Dikella. In addition to their natural beauty, these waterfalls can be made use of to install mini-hydro electricity plants. The Kelani ganga, Me Oya and Ritigala oya are the main rivers in the Division. All these three rivers flow from east to 1.3.2 Dehiowita (AGA) Division west almost parallel to each other forming transverse valleys thereby dividing the Division broadly into three main Surrounded by the AGA Divisions of Deraniyagala, Yatiyantota relief areas: (1) north-east hilly region bounded by the Ritigaha Oya in the north and Me Oya in the south. Elevation and Ruwanwella from the east, north-east and north-west in this area varies from 500'-2500', (2) south-west respectively, and by the Districts of Colombo and Ratnapura mountainous region demarcated by the Me Oya in the north and from the west and south/south-west, the average elevation of the Kelani Ganga in the south, where the elevation is 1000'- the Dehiowita Division is relatively lower than the rest of 2500' and (3) the dissected area where most of the land is . the District. The elevation varies between 100' to 500'. below 500',occupying the rest of the Division. The terrain can be described as rolling and undulating.

The Ambanpitiya Oya which originates in the southern section of the Division takes a south-east/north-west direction and flows across the centre of the Division. The Seetawaka Oya which has its origin in the Deraniyagala Division flows east/west to join the Ambanpitiya oya. These two Oyas together form the Kuda Oya which still takes a northern direction to be enriched by the waters of the Maha Oya and following a east/west direction joins the Kelani Ganga as its main branch. Gurugoda oya which enters the Division from the north-east joins the Kelani ganga near Ruwanwella. Among the other streams which join the Kelani Ganga as west bank branches are Ritigaha Oya and Labupitiya Oya originating in the hilly region of Yatiyantota Division, and th6 upper reaches of Kelani Ganga proper. Several other streams also join the In addition to these three rivers there are several minor Kelani Ganga as west bank branches, out of which Imbulana Oya streams such as the Gurugoda Oya, the Kendal Oya, the Hakgala and Ratnagala Oya, Goraka Ela are prominent. oya, Rangal Oya and the Narangahamada Ela. These minor streams are further enriched by innumerable water courses In addition, there are a few streams which originate in the which are originating from the hilly and mountainous regions Division and flow west. The Waharaka Oya, the Basnagoda Ela in the east. These water courses which come down rapidly and the Mapitigama Ela are examples. from steep slopes have resulted in forming many water falls. Some of these waterfalls are the Menikhawadi Ella in the 5 Aranavaka (AGA) Division Narangahamada village, the Dombawela Ella and the Hakgall Ella in the Amanawela village and Rangalla Ella in the Bounded in a clockwise direction by the District of Kandy and Angalla village. During dry months the quantity of water is the Divisions of Mawanella, Kegalle and Yatiyantota, the reduced thereby resulting these waterfalls to recede in size. elevation of the Aranayaka Division varies from 600' to 3500' However, these waterfalls can form the bases for mini-hydro and 50% of the land is below 1000'. The eastern half of the electricity projects. In addition to these waterfalls, there Division is less hilly than the western half where the high are natural springs specially in the Batahenkanda hilly area mountain ranges form the main relief. These mountains act as in the Kitulgala village. a barrier to the south west monsoon winds which has resulted this Division to be in the rain shadow.

There are several marshy areas in the lower dissected region specially along the river valleys where gem mining is carried out. The Bible Rock and the Devanagala Rock stand as rounded hills which have withstood the erosional- forces. The Yatiyantota Division had been subjected to several landslides during the last 5 years which have resulted in Maha Oya drains the whole division which is enriched by many streams. severe damage to the area.

1.3.4 Ruwanwella (AGA) Division The Ahupiniella waterfall and the Dotholu Oya wind gap are two attractive physical features in the division. Demarcated by the Divisions of Yatiyantota and Warakapola in 6 Mawanella (AGA) Division the east and north and by the Districts of Gampaha and Colombo in•the west and south-west and by the Division of Dehiowita from the south-east, in terms of relief Ruwanwella Surrounded by the District of Kandy from south-east and the (AGA) division can be described as a dissected plateau. The east and by the Divisions of Ram-bukkana, Kegalle and elevation varies between 500'-700'. Although there are no Aranayake from the rest of the directions, the division of mountain peaks, the area with the highest elevation is found Mawanella is located in the north-east edge of the Kegalle at the centre of the division. district. The eastern boundary is bordered by the range. The general elevation of the Division The Kelani ganga is the main river. Several branches join varies between 500'and 2500'. The highest area is located almost at the centre of the division with several rock out­ the main river from the north-east and north-west directions. crops. This highland area extends towards the south-eastern The Kelani Ganga enters the Division near Karawanella and section of the Division. The north-western section is less taking a south-west direction, it flows along a wide valley hilly where large extent of area is below 500'. The western through Ruwanwella, .Morawatta, Moraliya, Gonagala, boundary is the highlands of Uthuwankanda and in the south Mapitigama, Wahadeniya and leaves the division from Medagoda. stands a part of the Ambulugalakanda. - 11 -

- 10 -

,8 Kegalle (AGA) Division

Bounded from all directions by the Divisions of Aranayake, Mawanella, Rambukkana, Galigamuwa and Yatiyantota, the The main rivers draining the division are the Ma Oya and the Division of Kegalle is situated in a north-central location Kuda Oya. Both these Oyas have numerous branches which within the District of Kegalle. Except for the south-eastern originate from the mountainous area in the south-east. These section, the major portion of the division has an elevation rivulets flow down steep escarpments in the area to join the below 500'. This division has, relatively, a lower elevation Kuda oya and the Ma Oya, which flow in a wide valley with an in the whole of the Kegalle District. However, except for elevation below 500'. The Hingul oya and the Thalgolla oya the north-central area the rest of the division is studded are two such branches [Map 2(1)] with small mountain remnants. The south-eastern region has an escarpment sloping towards the north-west. This 1.3.7 Rambukkana (AGA) Division escarpment is the continuation of the mountains of the Aranayaka Division. Bordered on the north-east, north and north-west by the Districts of kandy and Kurunegala and by the Divisions of The general slope of • the Division is south-east to north­ Galigamuwa, Kegalle and Mawanella from the rest of the west. Hence, the branches of Ma Oya namely, the Marapona Oya directions the general elevation of the Rabukkana Division is and Alapalawela Oya flow in a south-east / north-v/est above 500'. However, this division can be described as a direction. Randeni Oya which flows towards the north and the dissected plateau studded with several hills with an Gurugoda Oya which has its origin in the south-eastern elevation, between 500'-1000'. highland area are the other streams in the Division. [Map 2(1)] Three of these hills are located in the western half of the division, namely, Nattabura, Marukwatura (A 996'), and 9 Galigamuwa (AGA) Division Kabaragala ( A 919') . In the eastern half there are two hills, namely, Unagala (A 1906') and Kempinikanda (A 1123') In between the Divisions of Kegalle and Warakapola and which are higher in elevation than the hills in the western bounded by the District of Kurunegala in the north and the half. In the south-eastern edge there is a steep escarpment Division of Yatiyantota in the south, the general elevation with rock outcrops- where the elevation rises above 2000'. of the Galigamuwa Division is less than 1000'. The southern This escarpment is a continuation of the Kadugannawa range. half of the Division is hilly, while the northern half is The general alignment of the landscape is from north-east to relatively flat. south-west.

The drainage system is composed of the Gurugoda Oya and the The whole of Rambukkana Division is drained by the Ma oya and Kegalu Oya which are the branches of the Kelani GangaTnis area its branches. The drainage system in the division in total, is also drained by the Alwatura Oya which is a branch of Maha forms into a trellis pattern' where smal.l streams flowing down Oya. Ma Oya forms the northern boundary of the division. hills join the Ma Oya which has a south-east/north-west direction. The Monara Oya and the Rambukkana oya are two The Ma oya, the Kegalu oya and the Gurugoda Oya flow almost main branches which flow north-east to south-west. Thohora in a east-west direction while the numerous branches flow Oya is another such stream which has a similar direction. north to south and as well as south to north, illustrating, The upper reaches of the Ma Oya find their origin in the the parallel ridges which extend from east to west, direction. escarpment located in the south-eastern edge of the Division. There are three main parallel ridges, namely in Getiyamulla,' Asideniya and Edurapota Grama Niladhari Divisions (Map 20^ - 13 -

4 rphe overall Physical Landscape of the District

- 12 - The Table 3 gives a summary of the main physical setting of

the district.

The elevation of the District of Kegalle varies from 100'- 5500'. The average elevation is 500'-1000'. The highest 1.3.10 Warakapola (AGA) Division elevation is towards the south-east of the District. The landform features vary from plateaus to steep escarpments Bounded by the Districts of Kurunegala and Gampaha in the with medium to high elevations; and from broad valleys to north, north-east and the west and by the Divisions of steep gullies. There are several prominent monadnocks or Ruwanwella., Yatiyantota and Galigamuwa from the rest of the isolated hills. The general slope of the District is from directions the general elevation of the Warakapola Division east/south-east to west/north-west. The District represents the transitional landscape between the low country and the is less than 1000'. The Division illustrates a dissected hill country. terrain as a representation of the beginning of the hill country. Southern half is hilly while the northern half is Three main rivers of the island have their catchment areas rather flat indicating that this division is a transitional within the District. Attanagalu Oya originates in the north­ western half of the District, while the Maha Oya finds its area between the hill country and the low country. origin in the east-central part. The major catchment area of the Kelani Ganga (the 4th largest riverain the island with The drainage system of the Division consists of the Gurugoda a length of 145 Km) is found in the mounjtainous south-east Oya which borders the eastern boundary of the division and section of the District, bounded by the Adams Peak range. flows southwards. Maha Oya borders the northern boundary of The Kelani Ganga being a river in the Wet\ Zone shows steep the Division and is- enriched by the waters of the Rangal Oy; slopes in its upper courses and an extensive flood plain in and Kuda Oya which are flowing from the centre of 'the area its lower courses. There We betweeb 30-40 fairly towards the south. Dickwella Oya and Uduwake Oya are two significant streams, in the District, in laddition to the other streams which drain the south-west section of the innumerable water courses. The \intense erosion by closely

1 division (Map 2 0/] spaced streams. has given rise to a , dissected! landscape where large tracts remain still inaccessible. The best examples are found in the Deraniyagala and the Yatiyantota Divisions.

The Figure 1(1) is a block diagram which indicates a sample of the general physiography of the District. The area depicted in this block diagram is\roughly' about 425 ha (10,600 acres) and it is bounded by '|:he Alapalawala Oya in the north, Gurugoda Oya in the west, the Ritigaha Oya in the south and the District boundary in the East. The elevation varies from 200' to 3500' and it is a representative area of the Kegalle District (Map 4). \This block diagram illustrates that the general physiography of the District extends from low valleys, hilly areas td» mountainous- regions. The.figures 2(1-3) to 3(1-2) show several cross profiles of the district indicating the general slorie of the area. Map 3 indicates the lines along which these cross sections are drawn. Figure 4 shows the profile of the Kelani Ganga and its tributaries. Block Diogram Showing The General Physiography Of A Sample Area Of The District Of Kegalle .

I

A - Hill slopo terraced ,or paddy . B - Compl.x and corrupted mountain „op. cumvo.od 1th rubber slope ,. Home acrden. and cardamom, . D - Compl.x mountain .lop. with tea F - r„m„,

• P - -rp Summl, and ere., l.ne . „ . Undul,lng ,„,„„,„ „,,„,„ ^ ^ ^ ~" ~

...n rubber, ,- Rock outcrop.. ,„„,,„„„ cria . K R,d,e. wltn elevation 60-^300 m L - River valley " ( Sovrc. • FA0 Proj.cl CEY 70/ 522 D.c. 1973. )

Fig. I - 16 -

- 17 -

Table : 3 The Suimary of the main Physical Features of the District of Kegalle

AGA Division Elevation Nature of the Terrain, Drainage System Water Falls Main Highlands £ their Main River Tributaries Locat i on

1. Deraniyagala 1000'- Dickellakanda Seetauaka oya Magal oya 2 Seasonal Falls 5000' Anhettigama oya in Polgasuatta S Mieyanwita oya Nakkawita GNOs Kumburegama oya 3 Perennial Falls Derniyagala oya Puwakmal Ella EIap i t a Ella Keheluala Oya 1000'- Ballehela Kelani Ganga Dotholu Ella 2500' in Maiimboda £ Dickwell GMDs

2. Dehiowita 100' - Rolling £ Undulating Ambanpitiya oya 500' Seetauaka oya Kuda oya Maha oya Ritigaha oya Getahetta oya Dulgaha oya

Tatiyantota 500'- 1) North-east hilly region Kelani Ganga Gurugodaoya Seepoth Ella 3500' bounded by Ritigala Oya and Me oya Kendal oya Menikhawadi Ella Me oya 500'-2500'etevati'on Ritigaha oya Hakgala oya Amanawella Ella 2) South-west mountainous Rangal oya Kendal Ella region between Me oya and Narangahamada Ela Dombawela Ella Kelani Ganga 1000'-2500' in Hagall Ella elevation Rangalla Ella 3) Dissected area below Natural Springs in Batahendanda w E 500' in elevation

Map. 4 - 19 -

8. Kegalla <500' Escarpment in the South- Ma oya Randeni Oya - 18 East edge Marapona Oya Watura Oya Alapalawela Oya 4. Ruwanwella 500'- Dissected Plateau Kelani Ganga 700' • Gurugoda oya (Kelani Ganga) Gurugoda Oya Ritigaha oya Labupity oya Imbulana oya Ratnagala oya Goraka Ela 9. Galigamuwa <1000' Dissected landscape Kelani Ganga Gurugoda oya . Waharaka oya Mapitigama Ela Southern section is Kegalu oya Basnagoda Ela hilly and the northern Maha Oya Alawatura oya

Aranayaka 600'- Western half is half is flat Ma Oya mountainous Maha oya Several Streams 3500' Eastern half is hilly Ahupini Ella Bible Rock & Devanagala Rock, are monadnocks Dothulu oya wind gap. 10.Uarakapola Generally Dissected area with Maha Oya Kuda Oya < 1000' scattered hills, Kelani Ganga Rangal Oya 6. Mawnella 500'- Bounded by the Kodupanawa Ha oya Major Southern section is hilly Attanagalu Oya Gurugoda Oya 2500' range. The Mountanious Kuda Oya H i nguI a oya area stretches from the center. portion nothern half is flat. Uduwaka Oya Thalgalla oya Utuwankada in the west & is<500' Dickella Oya Ambulugala Kanda in the south.

Rambukkana 500'- Dissected Plateau with Ma oya Rambukkana Oya 1000' isolated hiI ls:Uattabura, Monara oya Marukwatura, Thohora oya Kabaragala, Unagala,. Kempinikanda.

- 22 - - 23 -

1.5 The Physioqraphi Divisions

The District of Kegalle exhibits/ a..complex physiographic region consisting of hills and ridges, broad valleys, gorges and plateaus.

The district can be divided broadly into three main physiographic divisions based on the elevation, namely.

1. Highlands (H) elevation over 200.0' above sea level 2. Uplands (U) elevation between 500'.- 2000' mean above sea level 3. Lowlands (L) elevation below,500' above sea level [Map 2(2)],

However, a more detailed study would enable these broad divisions to be further sub-divided into smaller units.

1. Highlands

The. highland physiographic division of the /district can be recognised in two different localities

a. Hi ~ Tne Peak wilderness area \ located in the south eastern section of the Deraniyagala Division, comprises the catchment area of^the Magal Ganga, one of the main branches of the Seetawaka Oya. The northern boundary of the area is ^the Kitugala stretch of the Kelani Ganga. From the east and the southeast it is demarcated by the higher Haiton Plateau and the western boundary is the highlands of Maliboda near Deraniyagala. This physiographic^ unit is presented with a complex pattern of high hills and steep escarpments with deep valleys. \ This unit infact represents the hill country of Sri Lanka and well demonstrates the changing of the ^physiography from the highest part of the hill country to the lower uplands, [figure 3(2} ]

o o o o o

i KEGALLE • DISTRICT - 25 I RELIEF FFATURES AND AREAS SUBJECTED TO LANDSLIDES

b. - The. other highland area of the the whole of the Aranayaka ,'Division ai half of the Yatiyantota Division, composed of the catchment areas of the —i-Hfcl mil Ritigal Oya, the Alapalawala Oya and the eastern branches of the Gurugoda Oya. This physiographic unit demonstrates a relatively a more complex nature with high mountains, intensely highly dissected steep slopes and deep valleys. This area is highly

vulnerable to landslides, [fig. 3(2)] ' 2. Uplands

The upland physiographic division, with an elevation between 500'-2000', occupies more than 60% of the Kegalle District. The landscape demonstrates generally a dissected nature with rounded hills usually over 1000'. This physiographic Division also can be recognised in two units within the District.

a. "O^ - This unit spreads over Deraniyagala and Dehiowita Divisions. This is relatively a less dissected area with one prominent rounded hill,

namely Balahela. [fig. 2(3)]

b. U2- This upland unit extends over an area covering the north-central and the north western sections of the divisions of Yatiyantota, Aranayake, Mawanella and Kegalle. This unit is relatively more dissected than U-j^ with prominent rounded hills, such, as the Bible rock. Hing-ul Oya, Kuda Oya and Marapona Oya flow across this unit.

3. Lowlands

This physiographic unit basically spreads in the western half of the district occupying the Divisions of Dehiowita, Ruwanwella, Galigamuwa, Warakapola and also a part of the northern division of Rambukkana. The eastern half of the unit is composed of narrow deep valleys while the western half is occupied by broad valleys. A greater portion of the area is occupied by the Kelani Ganga and its branches. In the Rambukkana division the lowlands are occupied by the Maha Oya. [fig. 3^)],

^ 5428

Mop. 2 (2) - 26 -

1.6 Water Resources

The water resources of any area include . • the surface water plus the ground water. The surface water is represented by the rivers and the streams. The rivers and the streams receive their water through precipitation. The amount of surface flow, therefore, depends on the amount of rainfall. However, the water received from rainfall, circulates in a continuous process of evaporation, condensation and precipitation. The amount of rainfall received by a region depends on many environmental factors such as .temperature, geology, topography, soil and vegetation. The quantity of water left after run-off is the available water for evaporation, percolation and to recharge the water table.

An inadequate amount of water as much as an excess quantity of water could be a constraint for development. To understand the water as a resource in a particular area one has to have a thorough knowledge of the topographic, physiographic and climatic features of that area.

1.6.1 Surface water

More than 60% of the area of the district of Kegalle is drained by the Kelani Ganga system. As explained in the section under Relief and Drainage, its headwater tributaries rise at elevations exceeding 5500' above sea level _on the hill slopes forming the western rim of the Central Highlands of Sri Lanka (fig.4), These numerous tributaries, descending through the highlands and uplands, are entrenched in deep, 'V shaped structurally controlled valleys, originating in southeast - northwest directions at higher elevations and east-west,' north-south and northeast-southwest directions as they reach the lower elevations. In the highlands, adjacent valleys follow parallel courses, at greatly varied elevations, which are separated by narrow intervening ridges.

Another river which finds its origin in the district is the Attanagalu Oya. It has its head waters rising in the. low hills having an elevation not exceeding 1000' above sea level.

) U0!|0A3|3 i

- 28 -

The head waters of the Maha Oya- also originate in the THE DISTRICT ' OF KFGAI I F highlands of the district. These highlands range in elevation from about 2000' to nearly 4000' above sea level. LOCATION OF RAINFALL STATIONS a RIVER DISCHARGE STATIONS These upper tributaries descend rapidly to reach elevations below 500' and thence flow with fairly gentle gradient until they leave the district. (Map 2)

The steeply descending tributaries of these rivers show youthful features in their stage of development. There is evidence of vigorous vertical erosion and down-grading of their valleys. Erosion seems to be at the maximum during the heavy southwest monsoons, where they become swift, turbulent and active in eroding the slopes of their valleys. In the process, they transport a heavy load of soil causing the lower reaches to get clogged and the results could be dangerous • and harmful flooding. The villages in the Ruwanwella Division namely Mapitigama, Anguruwella, Medagoda, Kudagama, Nakkawala, Yatanwala and Gonagala are subjected to floods.

Attempts have been made by the Hunting Survey Corporation Ltd. in 1961 to measure the surface water of all these three rivers. The Map 5 indicates the river gauging stations along with rainfall recording stations and average annual runoff of these river system. RAINFALL STATION 14 - Ambanpitiyo The data collected from these river gauging stations by the 28- Aranoyoke

Hunting Survey are depicted in the, Figures from 5(x) to 103- Digolla Estate 5(7) as differential mass curves from year 1907 to 1956. 115- Dunedin (In order to yield reliable estimates of water availability minimum of 40 to 50 years of stream flow records are 133 Etnowala. necessary). These Figures illustrate the river discharge 209- Ing Oyo Estate variations over the years and the differences in the river 23.5- Kanagama Estate flow as one descends downstream. The Figures from 6(±) 269- Kempltikonda to 6(7) present the hydrographs of the river flow at 282 - Kitulgala particular gauging stations. These graphs indicate the amount of water discharged within a given time period. For 341 - Molibodo instance, Seetawaka Oya at Alagoda Bridge discharges a 459- Pothregollo greater quantity of water within a 12 hour period than 522- Ruwonwello Gurugoda Oya at Imbulana. Another example is the Kelani SCO- Vlncit Estate Ganga at Matiyadola takes 18 hours to reach its maximum discharge whereas at Kitulgala it takes only about 12 636 —Yaloderiyo hours. But there is a difference in the quantity of KEY maximum discharge between the two stations on the same — . River catchment area river. Road boundary

RUNOFF - STATinMS ® Gouging Station 3 - .Irngulono • O Rainfall Station fi - Mp.liyo.dplo.. . Yield in ocre/feet/Sq.mili 5 - Alagodo Bridge Deraniyagaio Kitulgala Holombuwo HUNTING SURVEY CORPORATION LIMITED CANADA - CEYLON COLOMBO PLAN SURVEY 1961 .SCALE

1 Inch lo 4 Miles Map. 5

Prlr.mo t.y Survey DcDt.. Ceylon. Fig. 6(2) Fig.6(4) Prlnloo by Survey Deov.. Cly'or. 1 1

60 Tl ME - HOURS

Fig. 6(6) 40 - - 41 -

The flow profiles of the Kelani Qanga and Maha pya are shown in Figures 7 and 8. These 2 figures show the 2 river basins with their elevations and corresponding area; and demonstrate the average flow of the water with the distance from upstream.

However, it should be noted that these three rivers, as mentioned before, in their course towards the sea cut across District boundaries. While cutting across District boundaries, they leave beneficial as well as detrimental impacts along their courses. For instance, the Kelani Ganga has a total catchment area of 2278 Km with a precipitation volume of Cu M x 106. The total discharge as a percentage of the precipitation is 62% to 64%. The Kelani Ganga through its innumerable branches collects a huge volume of water, almost totally within the District of Kegalle, (Map 1) and carries 62% - 64% of this water to the District of Colombo. The Kelani Ganga is notorious for its floods in the . Severe floods have been recorded on the Kelani Ganga at Colombo in October 1913, May 1930, May 1940 August 1947 and July 1989. Hence, further studies should be done on these rivers and a national plan should be drawn up to share the water resources by the Districts and also to control and manage the natural hazards.

1.6.2 Ground Water

In most divisions of the Kegalle District, some ground water sources are utilised for local domestic water supply. However no extensive ground water aquifers have been identified in the district. The water table varies from 10m to 30 m. During the dry season most of .the wells run dry causing a shortage of drinking water in the Division such as Kegalle, Warakapola and Galigamuwa.

S J 3 II \ 39HVH3SIO BASIN .. — KELANI GANGA FLOW. PROFILE.

ELEVATION AREA fool (M.S.L.) acres 0 - 100 18 5,600 100 - 500 131,840 .500 - 1000 101,760 1000 2000 53, 120 2000 - 3000 27,520 3000 - 4000 26,880 4000 + 69,1 20

7000

6000 r-J 5 5000

- 4000

5000

2000

1000

30 40 • 50'. 60 Distance Upstream from Mouth - mile's Fig. 7

BASIN — MAHA OYA FLOW-- PROFILE

ELEVATION ' AREA foot ( M.S.L). acres 0 - 100 76,800 100 - 200 54,400 2 00 - 300 61 ,440 300 - 500 64,000 500 - 1000 88,320 lOOO^ 2000 32,640 2000 - 3000 15,3 60 3000 - 4O00 4,480 4000 + 614

4500'

_1 'AO . -50 60 .70 80 Distance Upstream from Mouth-miles Fig. 8 i i i i

TH5_Dis™rrL_QLLJ

As indicated in the Map 6 the general geological base of the District has a crystalline complex. Crystalline rocks have a porosity of only 0.2% - 0.8% and they promote a heavy run-off, almost 65% in the wet zone. High run-off from the crystalline complex results in a high density of streams instead of percolation and infiltration of water to the soil and to the bedrock. When the rainfall exceeds the rate of infiltration into the ground, it invariably leads to increased run-off causing bankful discharge and floods. Thus, instead of a high water-table and a good supply to ground water, a high run-off is promoted in the district of Kegalle by a combination of factors such as crystalline bedrock and steep gradients facing, the southwest monsoons.

1.7 Geology

Geologically nine tenths of Sri Lanka is made up of Crystalline , non -fossiliferous rock complex of g.ranulites, schists, gneisses, migmatite and granite of several varieties.

This complex can be divided into 3 main groups: (a) Highland Series (b) South Western groups and (c) Vijayan Series.

The Highland series, which has its origin 1600 million of years ago, can be further divided into 2 groups. (1) Khondalite group of metamorphosed sediments termed as metasediments and (2) Charnokites which are metamorphosed sediments, basic volcanic rocks or both. The Highland series

occupy a broad belt running across the center of the island _J Inch .lo. '4 Miles from south west to north east.' The District of Kegalle lies STRUCTURAL SYMBOLS ' within this belt and hence the geological formations belong FRACTURE (FAULT- OR JOINT) WITH ASSUMED DIRECTION OP MOVEMENT to the Highland series. SYNCLINAL FOLD (NORMAL) • WITH DIRECTION OF PLUNGE SYNCLINAL FOLD (OVERTURNED) WITH DIRECTION or PLUNGE ANTICLINAL FOLD (NORMAL) WITH DIRECTION OP PLUN0E ANTICLINAL FOLD (OVERTURNED) WITH OlftECTION OF PLUN0E

SURFACE TRACE (CE00IN0 OR GNEISS0SITY) DIP 60-90 | i .DIP VERTICAL ROCK-TYPE GROUPS I HORIZONTAL • • KHONDALITE METASEDIMENTS AND CHARNOCKITE (iNTERBCDDEO OUARTZO- FEL0SPATHIC GNEISS AND GRAWJLITE (GENERALLY, GARNETIFEROUS). CRYSTALLINE LIMESTONE, 0UARTZITE AND CHARNOCKITE) ~ ^ . 19 62.' - 46 -

Both the Khondalite and the Charnokite groups occure in very close association with each other. The khondalite group is made up of a variety of granulites, schists and gneisses, all of which can be found anywhere in the District of Kegalle. The Khondalite group can be subdivided according to their minerological composition and the degree of metamorphism that they have undergone . The main rock type of the Khondalite group are. (i) garnet - sillimanite schists and gneisses. (ii) quartzites and quartz schists. (iii) quartz- feldspar granulites and garnetiferous gneisses. (iv) crystalline limestone and cale granulites. (v) graphitiferous schists

All these rock types are found scattered all over the District (Map 7) . The three main mineral resources found in the District namely, granite, sand and graphite are the result of the existence of.these rock types.

The Charnokite rocks are greenish- grey or bluish-grey in colour. Because of their colour all charnokites are known in Sri Lanka as "Kalu-gal" . There are Several varieties of Charnokites ranging from fine-grained to coarse- grained in texture, and from acid to basic in composition. The Charnokites are the commonest rock type in the District and can be found everywhere. They occur generally as narrow or medium- sized bands inter-bedded with quartzites , crystalline, limestone and garnet bearing gneisses of the Khondalite group. Map 7 illustrates the geology of the District.

1.7.1 Geological Structure

According to the evidence found (Cooray 1966) the most important structural element in the metasediments and charnokites of the Highland Series are foliation and bedding. Foliation is associated with gneissic rocks such as charnokites, and garnertiferous gneisses, while bedding is recognizable in some quartzites and crystalline limestones. The structure of these folds and beds are shown in Map 7. - 49 -

- 48 -

These joints have a strong influence on the landscape of the District. Weathering and erosion take place Geological mapping together with- the study of aerial frequently and easily alone these joint, planes and this photographs by Hunting Survey Corporation Ltd, 1963, has result in vertical rock faces, land-slides and rock falls, led to the recognition of a very large number of folds in gorges and rectangular drainage pattern. (Figure 1) The the Kegalle District. drainage system within the Galigamuwa Division is a good example for this rectangular pattern. (Map 2) The eastern section of the District exhibits a continuation of the north- northwest trending fold structures of the 1.7.2 Soils \ Hill Country. The axes of the folds plunge to the northwest, and others forming a regular pattern of The crust of the earth has a thickness- of several synclines and anticylnes. An example of this is found in kilometers. Yet the ultimate life support system for all the wide, doubly-plunging syncline at Mawanella and South living forms is provided by a very thin uppermost layer of of Kegalle. West of the Kegalle the folding becomes much the earth's crust, which is generally termed as " soil" . tighter. Here the interbedded charnokites, khondalites and Soil is a complexed formation composed of minerals, quartzites assume relatively steep dips where individual organic matter, air and moisture. However, the proportion fold axis cannot be identified.(Cooray 1966) of these components vary between deferent soils and also between deferent depths within the same soil. Most of these folds are not displaced and they are normal or symmetical and vertical. They generally overturn to the Soil is a product of rock weathering, the degree and ease east. Majority of the fold axes plunge to the north. of which depend on the climate and the nature of the parent (Map-6). material at the locality.

There are many major fractures south of , Kegalle and 7.2.1 The Main Soil Groups in the Kegalle District Mawanella, some trending east-west and others trending northeast-southwest. As most of the folds are not Most of the soils have either developed in situ in residual displaced they can be described as normal tension joints. material that has been derived by the weathering of the bedrock or in weathered material that has been transported Jointing is well developed in most rock types in the for short distances. Map 8 indicates the Pedological Base District among which strike joints and dip joints are the of the District of Kegalle. commonest. The upper catchment of the Kelani Ganga are floored by gneisses and other rocks of the Khondalite The Red Yellow Podzolic Soils Se.ries with sevaral joints. The structure of the underlying bedrock has determined the development of the The dominant soil group found in the District is the Red darinage pattern of the rivers. In the Kelani Ganga basin, Yellow Podzolic soils. These soils are predominant in the the extent of the structural control can be understood by Wet Zone of Sri Lanka and as well as in the South West comparing the geological structure of the District with Country where the annual rainfall is over 2800 mm . The that of the topography. In the higher elevations most of District of Kegalle receives an annual rainfall of over the rivers follow the southeast- northwest trend of the 2500 mm. with an upper limit of 5375 mm. The rainfall is bedrock in parallel valleys. The elevations reduce the over-riding- factor in the formation of the Red Yellow gradually as one moves towards the west. Cross faulting Podzolic soil group. This types of soil is generally has allowed the streams to decend from one level to formed on a crystalline base which is provided by the another resulting waterfalls. The Deraniyagala Division is a case in point. ——[—]—nj—C=J—c=r

- 51 -

THE DISTRICT OF KEGALLE • OLOGICAL BASE Highland series found in the District. (Map 8) . The weathered rock's of the khondalite' group of metasediments and Charnokites act as the parent material for the Red Yellow Podzolic soils in the District. There are several sub-groups and variations of the Red Yellow Podzolic which are being distributed within the District. Map 9 illustrates the distribution of soil types in the District.

Reddish Brown Latozolic soils I Generally this soil type is also associated with areas receiving high rainfall. Yet, these soils appear in regions where rapid erosion takes place and where earlier formed soils are removed. The Reddish Brown Latozolics type of soils are not fully matured and different degrees of maturity are associated. One can identify a close juxtaposition of \ Reddish Brown Latozolics with Immature Brown Loams in the District mainly in-Rambukkana, Mawanella and Aranayake Divisions. I \ Reqosols j

This group of soil contains a variety of soils and are relatively young. This type of soils are present on rock outcrops of Deraniyagala and Yatiyantota area. Hence, they are also termed as lithosols. These soils are thin, stormy and gravelly in nature.

Alluvial Soils

A variety of soils belong to this group, Alluvial is found mainly in the river valleys and'flood plains. This soil is composed of the detrital clay, silt and sand, brought down by streams and rivers as their load. They are found in the lower elevations and are valuable agricultural soils. The minerals such as clay and gems are deposited in these KEY alluvial soils. USC - UPLAND SOIL COMPLEX The development of soil profile in alluvial material is not PARENT MATERIAL - WEATHERED ROCKS OF THE strong. The reason being that new layers of soil are •KHODALIFE SERIES spread out constantly with the successive material brought down by the streams. Alluvial soils are younger than all soil types except the Regasols.

1 Inch lo 4 Miles HUNTING SURVEY CORPORATION LIMITED CANADA - CEYLON COLOMBO PLAN SURVEY 1961 Map. 8 - 53 -

Pebbles ; ,

In many river valleys gravel or pebble beds also can be seen all over the District. These pebbles are distributed along the lower elevations of the river valleys. The economic value of these pebbles are very little.

1.7.3 Mineral Resource's

Table 4 gives • the general succession of geological formations and principal mineral deposits' in Sri Lanka Table 5 shows the distribution of mineral resources in the District. The main mineral resources are graphite, gems,sand, clay, ' laterite and granite. The origin and the structural layout of these minerals are already mentioned under geology. . Yet it is important to discuss the distribution and" the utility value of these minerals in relation to the development of the District.

Graphite

Graphite mining has existed for more than one and a half centuries and over the years it acquired importance equal to tea, rubber, coconut and other exports of Sri Lanka. But recently graphite exports declined steadily and currently it takes only the 6th place among exports. - 54 -

Table 4 - 55 -

General Succession of Geological Formations And Principal

Mineral Deposits in Sri Lanka *~ (Minerals found in the District of Kegalle are highlighted) Mesozoic Jurassic Shales, Carbonaceous Shales shales and arkosic

sandstone Principal Important Principal Geological Formations Mineral Absent Divisions Deposits Palaeozoic

Limestone, Dolomi­ Era Period Archaeozoic Pre- Charnockite- te, Magnesite, Kaolin,Ball Clay, Cambrian Metasedimendary belt. Recent residual and Anthro- Holocene Quartz,Allanite Refractory Bond Clay, Gneisses and Migmatites alluvial deposits, pozoic (Recent) Alluvial Clay, Silica Intrusives-granites, Felspar,Graphite •sand, coastal sandstons, sand,Imenite,Rutile, Magnetite,Mica, coral and shell forma­ .dykes and dolorites Monazite,Zircon,Gem, Cordierite,Apatite, tions, beach mineral Baddeleyite,Granet, sands, gem gravels, Chert,Wollastonite, Thorianite, Coral Sillimanite. shell,Clay ochers.

Source:- -Herath J. W. (1973). Industrial clays of Sri Lanka, T.aterites, Limonitic (Quaternary) Laterites(may extend iron ore, red sands. Geological Survey Dept. Pleistocene from Recent to Tertiary Periods) Gravels, red earths.

Limestone. Cenozoic (Tertiary) Limestone. Miocene - 57 -

Graphite or plumbago is pure crystalline carbon. Graphite occurs in quarts veins and fissures in the crystalline rocks. The Figure 9 shows the common types of graphite veins in Sri 56 Lanka. (Wadia 194 5) Economically workable graphite deposits occur in the form of plates and needles.. Figure 10 shows the Table 5 modes of occurrence of graphite. Graphite veins vary from a The Distribution of Mineral purees in^hejCeaaiJe_Djgtriet bv Grama uilarth,r; „,.,„..|>n. few inches to 3 or 4 feet in width, though they sometimes

A-G.A Graphite Gems Sand reach upto about 12 feet. This mineral generally occur in Division Clay Laterite Granite groups of veins within narrow zones. Such zones may continue in a uniform direction usually north-northwest to south Derniyagala Deraniyagala Seetawaka „„ c • Egodagam•Ln,a ieetawalca oya Seetawka Valley Sparesly- Frequent Frequent south-east for several miles. These graphite belts appear to """" Kumburugama oya Wattegedera (house building) (road,and buil be confined to the coves of anticlines or to areas where construction) Dehiowita Nil fracturing and fissuring are experienced, making the graphite Appalapitiya Nil Appalapitiya Nil Ehala Thalduwa to enter the resulting spaces. Very few other minerals are Paha I a Thalduwa Pahawela" Epalapitiya found in association with graphite. Uduw i I a Eh i nana Koorupetta Napawala Atalugama The most important underground graphite mine in Sri Lanka is Yet iyantota Garagoda located near Ruwanwella, named as Bogala mines. The main Maththamagoda Frequent Poonahela Sparsely Vat iyantota Frequently shaft of the Bogala mine is nearly 1000' in depth. The Kendawa scattered quality of this graphite is exceptionally high with 99% Ruwanwella Edurana Gonegala Morawatta Ruwanwella Amithirigala Medogoda Nil Morewatta purity and it is the most important mineral in the district. Ruwanwella Gonagala (some abandoned Kudagama Kannathota 'Siyabalawala mines show Mapitigala Hedagoda Bethmegedera Kudagama Kannathtota The Rangala graphite deposit was discovered at Siyabalawela that there had Doranuwa Udakanugala being mining about Gonaramba Pallekanugala close to Bogala mine. The other possible locations of Doranuwa 30 years ago) Ami th irigala graphite in the district are Deraniyagala, Egodagama and (road building Wattegedera in the Deraniyagala Division. Garagoda, Poonahela and Kendawa in the Yatiyantota Division, and Edurawa and in 9 GNDS in 36 DNDs sparse in 40 GNDS Amithirigala in the Ruwanwella Division. (Table 5)

Mawanel la Nil The extraction of graphite is rather simple. The graphite Ni I Scattered veins are mined underground along horizontal adits. Rambukkana Blasting, puematic drilling or hand prickng are the Nil Nil Oya basins KahabiIiyagoda Scattered techniques used. Lumps of more or less pure graphite is MoIogoda Genegoda brought to the surface by trolleys and electrically operated lifts. Graphite lumps are then sorted and dressed by hand and crushed. The crushed graphite is graded into sizes Kegalle Pussella Nil usually by hand. (about 50 acres Bossella Scattered in extent) Hettimulla PusselI a Graphite is an industrial raw material for the manufacture of Makura Wathura Alapalawala Ranwala lead / pencils, crucibles and foundary linings, wet and dry lubricants, paints, electrodes and dry batteries. Almost the Galigamuwa Bogala Nil entire production of graphite in Sri lanka is exported since (utiIized) Oya basins Ballapana Scattered there are no major industries in the island based on this raw Asideniya Uruledeniya (not utilized) material. The reasons being inadequate technical competence and lack of suitable markets. Until recently, most of the graphite exported by Sri Lanka was in the form of lumps or Thulihriya Galapi tamada crude graphite but now it is exported as grounded graphite. warakapola Nellundeniya Pallegama Poragasmakada . - 58 -

- 59 -

There is no detailed, mapping of th:Ls mineral in the. District. Consequently the extensions of the mines is purely on a trial and error basis. However, detailed geological mapping may be justified.

Clays

The term clay does not show any significance to the origin of the mineral. Clay is a product of the primary rock minerals which are subjected to weathering or hydro-thermal action. The original primary rock undergoes complete change. This type of clay is generally known as residual clay. On the other hand, clay is also deposited as a sediment. Hence, they are known as sedimentary clays. Residual clays develop in the same position as the parent rock, whereas, the sedimentary clays are the result of the processes of transportation and deposition. Sedimentary clays are the commonest in Sri Lanka.

Clay is generally described as a natural earthy fined - grained material which develops, plasticity when tempered with water (Herath 1975) . The nature and the consistency of the clay mineral depend on the mineral composition and the type of parent rock; the degree and the intensity of the alteration that the material has undergone and also the nature of the environment.

Clay mineral pocesses a wide variability in their properties. The usefulness of the mineral as an industrial raw material depends on these properties.

The clays found in the District of Kegalle are generally Kaolite-gabbiest - geolithic type and these clays are useful to make bricks, titles^ and kitchen-wear. Clay is found practically in almost all the Divisions, and brick and tile making is prevalent in many areas.

Sand

Sand is used for the construction industry. "Sand is being mined in almost all stream valleys in the lower elevations. This is a mineral found in- the District in unlimited quantities. - 60 - - 61 -

Laterite

Laterite is a highly weathered clay.rock known as 'cabook'. It is a secondary formation usually associated with' intermediate slopes and highlands, found in the Deraniyagala Division. Laterite is formed due to weathering of crystalline rocks. .Laterite bricks are used for house construction.

Gems

Upto recent times the best known gem bearing area was the Sabaragamuwa Province. The precious and semi-precious stones of Sri Lanka are found in gem gravels which are located in river beds, buried river valleys and swamps. The gem-bearing gravel deposits represent the residual minerals which have withstood the process of weathing and erosion. They are generally transported along with the load by the river to the < —"?> - o - down stream locations.

In the District of Kegalle there is the possibility of finding expensive gems in the valleys of the Seetawaka Oya and the Kumburugama Oya in the Deraniyagala Division, Generalised section showing the origin- and mode of occurence of gem Appalapitiya, Pahala Thalduwa, Uduwita and Koorupeta villages deposits. ( After O.N. Wadia and L. J. D. Fernondo , 1945 ) in the Yatiyantota Division and in the swamp areas of Ruwanwella encircling Gonagala, Medagoda, Kudagama and (I) gem-bearing pegmatite , (2) country rock, (3a) gems in detritus on Mapitigala. However, the gem mining is not found in large hill slope below pegmtite , (3b) barren hill slope , (4) rice field , scale still in the District. Figure 11 shows a cross section (5) gem bearing gravel layer. of the geological occurence of gem gravels.

Granite Fig. II

Rock types differ widely in their properties such as texture, porosity, specific gravity, crushing strength, abrasion index, weathering guality . and degree of solubility. All these properties together are called" engineering properties" of a rock. Granite is a coarse-grained, acid,plutonic rock consisting essentially of quartz,, orthoclase feldspar and mica. Granitic gneiss and granite gneiss are coarsely crystalline rock ' of banded or streaky appearance and granitic composition, generally of metamorphic origin (Cooray 1967) Granulite are metamorphic - 63 - - 62 -

rock composed of even-sized, interlocking granular minerals generaly formed under high grade metamorphic conditions. All these types of rocks are found in the District of Kegalle scattered allover extensively since they are all either metasediments or charnokites. They are superior in their engineering properties. Granite is extensively quarried in several localities in the Kegalle District mainly as road metal and building material. PRESSURE - Kafugastota mb.

1.8 Climatic Variables of the kegalle District 990 - "

* 1.8.1 Climatic conditions

The climatic conditions of any area exert a strong influence on the settlement pattern, the distribution of agricultural landuse, extent of forest cover and also the. characteristics of the water resources and river flow. Hence, a study on climate is a necessary and an essential part of any evaluation of the resources and the potentialities for development in any area. In this study J F MA M J J AS 0 ND the climatic controls of the District are not described in M onths detail, instead, the emphasis is placed on those climatic Fig.12 aspects that are of practical significance.

TEMPERATURE - Ratnapura 1.8.2 Pressure and Surface winds o c The general atmospheric pressure over Sri Lanka is 29 - determined by the Equatorial low pressure, belt and the subtropical high pressure belt at the global level. The Equatorial Trough of Low pressure oscillates north and south of the equator with the apparent migration of the sun. Hence, the mean position of the low pressure trough is at latitudes 10°s and 25°N in January and July respectively. Thus, the distribution pattern of sea level pressure over Sri Lanka in July is a complete reversal from that of January. Figure 12 shows the pressure distribution FMAMJJA'SOND Months at Katugastota as the closest recording station, since Fig.13 there are no pressure recording stations within the district. RELATIVE HUMIDITY- Katugastota - 64 - - 65 -

. 3 Temperature Among other atmospheric conditions, the changes' in the location of the pressure belts result in two monsoon winds in the island. Thus, Sri Lanka comes under the influence Temperature levels in Sri Lanka do not show major of the north-east monsoon winds from December to February variations latitudinally, except where very slight and of the south-west monsoon winds during June to differences are noticeable due to the seasonal apparent September. In between these two monsoons there are two migration of the sun. Yet, there are regional differences inter-monsoon periods where the convectional and cyclonic in temperature due to altitude. In higher elevations there winds dominate. is a drop in temperature. The resultant rainfall also have

It is needless to say that the overall pressure pattern and an ameliorative effect on the temperature. . Hence, the the seasonal wind system of the island as a whole have an eastern section of the District bordering the central hill effect on the District of Kegalle as well. The average country experiences relatively lower temperatures than the pressure gradient during January'varies between 1011.0 and .rest of the District. 1011.5 hectopascals and the pressure gradient is north- egsterly with an average wind velocity of 9 km/h. This is the north-east monsoon period. The mean annual day temperature in the ' District is estimated to be between 26.5 c and 28°c. Diurnal range is During April, the pressure pattern along with the wind around 6°c. There are no temperature recording stations velocity, differs from that of January. The pressure within the District. Therefore, to gather a general idea gradient does not show a great variation although it is about .the monthly variations, and also to gauge the less than during January. The gradient takes a south­ westerly direction. The pressure during April is between influence of the elevation on temperature, data for 1009.0 and 1009.5 hectopascals with an average wind selected stations around the Kegalle District were taken velocity of 7 km/h. The convective activity over the into account. The Table 6 gives the mean monthly island's atmosphere during this period has its influence in temperature data for the period 1960-1990 for recording the District. stations of Kurunegala, , Kandy, and

The month of July records a lower pressure value with a Ratnapura. Figure 13 shows the temperature distribution steep gradient from north-east to south-west. The recorded over Ratnapura. The mean average temperature for each of pressure varies between 1008.5 and 1009.0 hectopascals. these stations along with their relative locations indicate The wind velocity is at its highest for the year, where it that the temperature in the District could be around 25°c gathers a speed of 10 km/h. This is the south-west monsoon to 28°c. January, February are considered as the hottest period during which the District receives the highest rainfall. months in the northern half of the District while February, March and July are the hottest months on the eastern During October the pressure is between 1009.5 and 1010.0 section. hectopascals, where the gradient is still south-westerly. The wind velocity is between 6 km/h and 8 km/h. During this period the cyclonic activity is dominant over the island so is the dominance of the cyclonic activity over the District. - 67 -

As common to all other parts of Sri Lanka even in the - 66 - District of Kegalle daily temperature ranges are more significant than the seasonal change. Table 6.

In higher attitudes in the Divisions of Deraniyagala and Mean Temperature in Selected Stations 1960-1990 in Celsius Aranayake temperatures are lower than in the less hilly western and north-western Divisions such as Galigamuwa, Station Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Hay Jun. Jul. Aug Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Warakapola and Ruwanwella.

1.8.4 Relative Humidity Kurunegala 27.4 27.6 27.7 27.6 28.0 27.6 27.3 27.3.' 28.1 26.8 26.7 27.0 There are no recording stations within the Kegalle District Katunayake 27.3 27.5 27.6 27.8 28.1 27.9 27.7 27.6 25.6 27.2 28.0 28.1 to gauge the relative humidity of the area.. Hence, data were obtained for a few recording stations located closest ,Kandy 24.3 24.8 24.8 24.7 25.1 24.8 24.6 25.1 25.3 24.3 24.5 27.8 to the District. The data collected for Katugastota, Kurunegala, Kandy, Nuwera Eliya and Ratnapura, help one to Nuwara Eliya 15.7 15.6- 15.7 15.4 15.8 15.6 15.6 15.7 16.5 15.6 15.8 15.9 deduce certain conclusions about the relative humidity of the District of Kegalle. The data indicate that the Ratnapura 27.1 27.6 27.8 27.4 27.6 27.7 27.4 27.5 28.2 27.2 27.3 . 27.6 humidity increases with the altitude and also it varies from Wet Zone to Dry Zone. For instance, at Nuwera Eliya, both day and night humidity is higher than at Kurunegala. Source : Department of Meteorology Hence, it is reasonable to believe, in the light of not having actual data for the District, that the average humidity varies between 70% and 78% during daytime and between 88% and 94% during night. The variation is Table 7. basically controlled by the altitude. (Table 7). Humidity in Selected Stations 1990 in Percentages However, due to the insignificant spatial differences in S t a t i on Jan Feb. Mar. Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec the degree of air humidity over the island, it is not possible in a scientifically reliable manner to attempt a Day N D N D N 0 N 0 N D N D N 0 ' N D N D N D N D spatial differentiation of humidity within the District of Kegalle based on average annual values of air humidity recorded in stations outside the District. Figures 14 (.,_) Kurunega.l a ' 74 8,7 89 67 70 87 74 91 76 91 69 89 65 83 63 69 90 79 93 70 66 85 85 and 14(2) illustrates the Relative Humidity distribution at Katunayake 73 91 66 89 70 92 80 98 74 90 74 86 76 87 76 89 77 89 78 94 69 89 67 Katugastota and Kurunegala.. Kandy 79 95 69 93 73 93 ' 75 95 71 95 73 89 75 89 73 91 78 93 79 95 . 73 92 74 Nuwara Eliya 79 89 73 85 75 82 78 93 77 90 83 91 84 92 79 89 91 95 86 95 78 91 85 Monthly average humidity Ratnapura 77 95 69 93 75 95 78 95 78 95 76 93 78 93 78 93 85 96 81 95 79 95 79 In the absense of humidity recording stations within the district, the data given in the Table 7 indicates, 2 Source : Department of Meteorology D= Day N=Night important features. one is the extent of the spatial differentiation of atmospheric humidity over Sri Lanka varies from month to month and the other is that the annual course of humidity even fluctuates from one station to the other. - 68 -

- 69 -

Spatial Differentiation ^

The highest atmospheric humidity over the island is found during the South West monsoon period, while the lowest is experienced during the North-East monsoons and inter monsoon periods. The months of November and December experience the least fluctuation while June and July experience the greatest fluctuation.

During the South West monsoon period the air humidity is highest in the District of Kegalle due to the fact that the south-west monsoons drop their moisture as orographic rain •at the western slopes of the hill country (Fig.15). There is a definite correlation between the relative humidity and the amount of rainfall. High rainfall is connected with high humidity and low rainfall with low humidity (Domros 1974).

Diurnal variation

The night humidity is greater than during the day. The relative humidity during the day is between 70% and 78.6% and between 88% and 94% during night. during the south west monsoon period the relative humidity is between 7 0% and 85% during the day. The greates diurnal variation occurs during the least humid months of February and the smallest variation during the highest humid months of June.

1.8.5 Rainfall

Rainfall divides Sri Lanka into Wet and Dry Zones with an intervening Intermediate zone. The wet zone receives an average annual rainfall of 2500 mm, mostly distributed throughout the year, and includes the southwest country and the hill country which is about 25% of the island. The maximum of the rain is received on the windward side of the hill country where 65% of the islands river catchments are located (fig. 16) . The remaining 75% of the country comes under the Intermediate zone .and the Dry Zone. - 70 -

- 71 -

Within the district boundaries of Kegalle, currently there are only 10 rainfall recording stations which have recorded m~ SW— Mansann Adams rainfall for a continuous period of 3 0 years. The detail Monsoon ^ pidurutalagala data are given in the Appendix I, The latitudinal and *f5r^£Gt£5=> Namunukulix longitudinal locations, elevation and the calculated mean 3000 SW-Monsoon ' Vi$2?''^\J?c Central Highlands X^^<_ annual rainfall for these 10 stations are given in Table 8. The rainfall data for 30 years from 1960 to 1990 were collected from the records at the Department of 0 m. 3000 • NE-Monsoon Meteorology. Both mean monthly values and mean annual Adams Peak ,M >c-i _ (t values were calculated (Table 9) . In' addition 5 year NE^ Monsoon moving annual average figures were also calculated for the Central Highlands • * same period. Figures 17(1) - 17(10). By interpolating the J o • mean annual values isoheytes for the District were drawn. 21 c. The regimes of the S . W. and H. E. mon«oons over Sri Lanka Map 10 shows the annual rainfall distribution for the and the role of me Central Highlands as an orographic district with the help of isoheytes and the average monthly barrier distribution for particular stations as bar graphs. ®

Fig. 15 The Map 10 indicates that the rainfall in the District decreases from southeast to northwest, establishing that the rainfall in the District is largely physiographically controlled. In the highlands such as Maliboda, Ingoya and Weweltalawa in the Divisions of Deraniyagala and Yatiyantota where the areas are exposed to the full force of the southwest monsoons, highest rainfall is experienced. These areas are located at the rim of the hill country (adjacent to the Adams Peak range and Dolosbage hills) and belong to the area which receives the highest rainfall in the island. (Fig.18)

The illustrations in the Figure 18 show the influence of the orographic barrier on the average annual rainfall of the island. The areas situated on the western slopes of the hill country receive the highest rainfall which is represented by Maliboda (Fig 18) . According to these Figures Maliboda also experience the highest rainfall during the Southwest monsoon period. (Fig. 16). The Figure 15 illustrates the seasonal regime of the wind system over the island and its influence over the rainfall of the 21 a. West to east cross-section of the average annual rainfall totals (in mm) District.

Fig. 16 - 72 -

Table 8. s Planetary Location and Elevation and Mean Annual Rainfall (from 1960-1990) for Rainfall - 73 - Guaging Stations in Kegalle District

table 9 Rainfall Guaging Latitude Longititude Elev.t^ Mean AnnuaT RainfaU Station Mean nx-nthly RainfaU for 30 year period from 1960 to 1990 ,'n f eet in Mil imeters

Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Aranayake 7° 10' 40" Guage Station Jan. 80° 27' 45" 700' - 1000' 1379 .12 Rain Ambanpi t iya 7° 14' 15" 80° 19' 35" 600' - 1000' 2522 .07 Chesterford Estate 7° 4' 00" 146. 78 243. 22 80° 11' 00" 500' - 800' 3483 .8 186. 49 232. 48 178.26 267. 99 36. 40 62. 55 120. 64 167. 62 384. 58 Dunedin Estate 7° 2' 20" 80° 16' Aranayake 248. 59 207.59 158. 88 263. 38 30" 500' - 600' 3965 .85 76 162. 09 316. 00 261. 53 61. 85 81 436. 30 443.32 Eraminigolla 7° 18' 00" 80° 22' 55" Ambanpi t iya 427. 76 330. 15 298.45 208. 03 500' - 800' 2214 98 68 33 133 26 222. 70 528 21 Chesterford Estate 335.36 295 26 416. 94 505 37 Ing Oya Estate 7° 00' 40" 80° 25' 50" 800' - 1200' 68 418 60 464 77 409 31 5126 4 98 31 124 42 248 370 23 Liniyagala 6° Dunedin Estate 186 33 171.13 139 42 196 87 50' 0" 80° 22' 00" 800' - 1000' 92 51 258 21 315 56 223 92 4335 0 61 82 652 09 606 53 Ma Ii boda 6° 53' 40" Eraminigolla 670 12 625 03 •729.00 492 66 80° 25' 40" 1000' - 1400' 53 74. 17 104 11 116 09 278 70 408 47 Ingoya Estate 729.88 523 89 868 55 833 .67 V i nc i t 7° 5' 25" 80° 12' 32 807 58 1119 45 864 22 30" 800' - 1000' 3363. 70 157 59 200 90 393 958 .46 L ini yagaI a 681 12 547.89 486 .01 579 .88 Weweltalawa 7° 3' 20" 80° 23" 5" 2900' 148 .25 260 .23 464 .38 729 .02 - 3200' 5463. 4 Ha Ii boda 172 28 345 .80 442 .42 432 .67 319 .56 244.53 206 .78 104 .84 165 .58 230 .89 i23 .62 Vinci t 464 .38 607 .31 808 .77 470 .23 642 .29 647 .02 514.06 131 .65 261 .22 265 .95 5596 .57 'Jewel tal aua Estate 4543 .81 3956.15 3243 .3 4507 .9 Source : Department of Meteorology 1386 .5' 22'1 .41 4320 .27 5158 .02 Total 997 .18

Source: Department of Meteorology - 74 75

Mean Annual Rainfall - CHESTERFORD

Mean Annual Rainfall - AMBANPITIYA 5000

4000

5 2000 a:

1000

1990

0 >-H 1990 1970 1975 1980 1985 Fig. 17(1) I960 1965 YEARS Fig. 17(3)

Mean Annual Rainfall - DUNEDIN ESTATE 6000.

Mean Annual Rainfall - ARANAYAKA 5000 r

4000

3000

2000

1990 1000

i ' I I I I I u Fig. 17(2) i ' I 1 1 1 1 1 >- 1990 I960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 YEARS Fig. 17(4) - 76 - - 77 -

Mean Annual Rainfall - ERAMINIGOLLA

Mean Annual Rainfall - VINCIT 3000 I-

2000 5000

„ 4000 1000 E E r 3000 Mean 01—4 i i i i i i i i i i i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—I rr 2000 I960 1965 ' 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 YEARS 1000

Fig. 17(5) 0 1—I—1—1—'—i—|—i—t- -*—I—1—1—1—1—|—i—i—I—i—|—1—I—I I | L. 1960 1965 '970 1975 19 80 1985 1990 YEARS Fig. 17(7) Mean Annual Rainfall - INGOYA

Mean Annual Rainfall —WEWELTHALAWA ESTATE 10,000 I-

10000 I- 8000 h

8000 h 6000

= 6000 4000

4000 2000 -

2000 0 l—i—i—i—i—i—|—i—i—i—'—I—i—'—'—i | i i i—i—|—•—i—i i i '—i—i—'—h- I960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 YEARS I960 . 1965 1970 1975 • 1980 1985 1990 YEARS Fig. 17(6) Fig.17(8) - 78 -

Mean Annual Rainfall - LINIYAGALA GROUP

6000 - 79 - 5000

4000 E E 2 3000

5000 2000

1000 °> Q ^ I 111 I 111

I960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 YEARS 3000 Pidumtalagala Adam's Pgak s~\ Namuntokula Fig. 17(9) J Basin .

£1 b. West to east cross-section of S. W. monsooool rainfall (in mm.) Mean Annual Rainfall - MALIBODA through Sri Lanka. ®

7000 Fig. 18

6000 Mean 5000

4000

3000 k 2000

100 0

o — -> 1 H _J 1 1 1 L_ -+- 1965 1970 1980 1985 1990 I960 1975 YEARS Fig. 17(10)

i I.J 1 " ! ] I

- 80 -

The Map 10 indicates that the distribution of annual rainfall KEGALLE DISTRICT - The Mean Annual Rainfall for the District for a Thirty Year over the District varies from over" 5000m, in the southeast section to 2 000 mm in the northwest. About 60%-75% of the Period from I960 to 1990 and Mean Monthly Rainfall for 10 Rainfall Guaging Stations District receives rainfall over 3000 mm per year and hence for the Same Period can be described as wet areas. Another important feature is that in the driest sections of the District a minimum of 108 days receive rainfall. However, the areas which receive lesser rainfall are located in the rainshadow portion of the District even though they are uplands. Aranayake and Rambukkana are two such Divisions. Warakapola, Galigamuwa and Rambukkana Divisions are located in between the Wet zone and the Dry zone and hence the records of rainfall show lesser values. Examples are Ambanpitiya and Eraminigolla. In this area rainfall received during the year is between 2000 mm to 2500 mm. (Map 10)

Map 10 also indicates the mean monthly distribution of rainfall at each station. The stations located in the eastern half of the region such as Maliboda, Ingoya and Weweltalawa show that the highest rainfall is received during the months of May, June, July, August, September and October. During these months they receive the major portion of their rainfall. The monthly rainfall values establish that the eastern section of the District receives rainfall through southwest monsoons. The driest months are December, January,

February and March. Map 11 (^ to 11 (4)

The Figures 17^) to 17 (1Q) indicate the annual rainfall fluctuations and the dry years and wet years in particular areas in relation to the recording stations based on the mean annual averages for 30 years.

The map 11 shows the Rainfall Regime or the seasonal distribution of rainfall in the District.

Evapo-transpiration

Data on evapo-transpiration are limited and only estimates are available. The best estimate of annual evapo- transpiration available for the District is 1500 mm, with an upper limit at 1700 mm. (Kayane 1982).

Rainfall variability

Annual rainfall variability is about 10%. Source: Records in the Department of Metereology

Map. 10 MEAN RAINFALL - June to September MEAN RAINFALL - March to May

Map. 11(2) MEAN RAINFALL - December to February

Map. 11(4) - 86 -

.9 Agro Ecological Regions

Agro-ecology is the study of ecological parameters of the environment in relation to agricultural activities. Based on ecological parameters such as the percentages of the rainfall KEGALLE DISTRICT - AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

probability, the rain-fall expectancy, the dryness fot particular months, along with the soil types and the nature of the terrain, several main agro ecological types and many \ sub-types are identified in Sri Lanka. Out of these broad agro-ecological types, 3 types can be found within the District of Kegalle, viz. ' Rambukkano. i. Wet Zone Low-Country (WL) ii. Wet Zone Mid-Country (WM) . iii. Wet Zone Up-Country (WU) \ Within these broad types, several sub-types also can be identified, viz. \ km r i Kegalle Mawanella i. Wet Zone Low Country 1 - VIL, and WL r 1 2 ( s ii. Wet Zone Mid-Country 1 and 3 - wr^ and WM 3 Warakapola iii. Wet Zone Up-country 1 - WU^ I A WIVJ3 The Map 12 illustrates the distribution of agro-ecological / N regions within the Kegalle District. Wl_2 I \

\ * 1 Wet Zone Low Country (WL) \

Wet Zone Low Country (WL.^) \ —•J )

This agro-ecological region covers a major sections of the Bulathkohupitiya Ruwanwella and Yatiyanto'ta Divisions and it includes the whole of Dehiowita division. According to the parameters identified in this particular type of agro-ecology, these ! \ regions experience a double maxima of rainfall with 75% W L , 1 1 Wet Zone Low Country probability from both south-west and north-east monsoons. |WU|^ WL 2 J

The value of annual rainfall with 75% expectancy is > 2540 J ( WMJ I (' } Wet Zone .Mid Country mm. The Dunedin Estate is located in this agro-ecological Yatiyantota region and the average annual rainfall for thirty year period I \ WU| T Wet Zone Up Country . (1960-1990) recorded by this rain guage station is 3965.8 mm. / \ Kitulgala The month of February and the first half of March are dry I-' with 75% expectancy while all other months are generally wet. I The soil type found in this region can be classified as Red \ I Yellow Podzolic soils. The terrain is generally rolling and \ WLi / undulating. i \ \ I i / \.f'\ I / / N / s c / WU| \--\

Mop. 12 - 89 -

- 88 -

Wet Zone Mid Country (WMj^)

Wet Zone Low Country - (WL^) The Divisions of Kegalle, Aranayake and -more than 50% of yatiyantota and Deraniyagala belong to this sub-type. 75% This agro-ecological region encloses the divisions of rainfall probability for this agro-ecological region appears Warakapola and Galigamuwa, and also the Western half of the to be received in 2 maxima; the heaviest and the longest Kegalle Division. spell being during the months of South-West monsoons and a relatively shorter spell during north-east monsoon period. October and November are the wettest months which indicate The annual rainfall value with 75% expectancy is >3175 mm. that the major rainfall period is during north-east monsoons. Weweltalawa estate recorded 5463.4 mm as the average for The rainfall regime illustrates that the rainfall receive 196.0-1990. The months of February and the first half of during the south-west monsoon period is much less than that March appear to be dry with 75% expectancy. Soils are Red of the north-east monsoons. The average annual value of Yellow Podzolic with steeply dissected, hilly and rolling rainfall v/ith 75% expectancy is over 1900 mm. which is much terrain.

less than what is received by WL1 region. The rainfall

station of Vincit records 3363.7 mm while Chesterford estate wet Zone Mid Country (WM3) records 3483.8mm as the annual average for the thirty year period of 1960-1990. The months of January to April are This agro-ecological type is found in the Divisions of particularly dry with a 75% expectancy. This is a longer dry Rambukkana and Mawanella and also in a small strip towards period when compared with WL^ type. The soils in this agro- the north-eastern edge of the Division of Aranayake. ecological region are Red Yellow Podzolic soils, Red Yellow Podzolic with strongly molted sub-soil and Low Humic .'Gley The monthly distribution of rainfall with 75% probability Soils. The terrain in this region too are rolling and illustrates that the highest rainfall is received during the undulating. North-East Monsoon months of October, November and December. Value of annual rainfall with 75% of expectancy for this 1.9.2 Wet Zone Mid-Country (WM) region is around >1270 mm. There are 2 rainfall recording stations within this zone in the District, viz Eraminigolla ' The agro-ecological boundary between the wet zone Low-Country and Aranayake. The average annual rainfall figures for the and the Wet Zone Mid-Country runs from north to south across 30 years of 1960-1990 for these 2 stations are 2215 mm and . the centre of the kegalle District, thereby dividing the 1379 mm respectively. district into 2 distinct agro-ecological regions. The Divisions of Mawanella, -Aranayake and 50% to 60% of the There are 2 distinct dry periods within a year. The longer Divisions of Rambukkana, Kegalle, Yatiyantota and dry spell begins by the second half of January and ends by Deraniyagala, agro-ecologically belong to the Wet Zone Mid- the end of first half of March, while the shorter dry period Country. Within this broad zone 2 sub-types can be is experienced during the first half of August. identified viz. WM-, and WM-, . The major soil groups that are found in this type are mainly Reddhish Brown Latosolic and Immature Brown Loams. Terrain is strikingly steeply dissected, hilly and rolling. - 91 - - 90 -

The area under forests, in the Natural Forest cover Map, 1.9.3 Wet Zone Up-Country (WU) prepared jointly by the Swiss Landsat .Remote Sensing Team of the Survey Department and the Forest Department, (1983) has shown as 25% of the land or 4 million acres. In the wet zone The agro-ecological type of wet zone upcountry is also forest reserves have dwindled to a low figure of 9%. Both represented towards the eastern margin of the highland areas natural and man-made forest cover in the wet zone account for of the district. Only the sub-type of WU1 is found in the district in the borders of the Divisions of Deraniyagala and about 619,000 acres. Yatiyantota. Especially, the low country Wet Zone forests evidence the Wet Zone Upcountry (WU^) tallest tree stands with the largest number of tree species. There are abut 3000 species of flowering- plants in the island, out of which 24% are endemic. Out of the endemic A high rainfall incidence is recorded for a major part of the flowering plants, 92% are found in the Wet Zone. Infact, year and the monthly distribution of 75% probability for this endemic species form the major component of these forests. region illustrates the highest rainfall to be received during The climax forests of the Wet Zone are said to be primeval the month of June. The high incidence of rainfall extends and they have evolved over a long period of time. Hence, upto the month of November. The expected value of annual from a biological point the most valuable forests in the rainfall with 75% expectancy is >3175 mm. • From the second island are those of the wet zone. half of January upto. the second half of February can be considered as the dry period with 75% expectancy. The major soil groups found are Red Yellow Podzolic Mountain Regosols. The two obvious localised benefits by a substantial tree The terrain is maintenance and steeply dissected. cover in the island are the amelioration of local climatic conditions and the conservation of soil and water resources. 1.10 Forest Resources Another vital factor is the fulfilment of the needs of the community in terms of timber and fuelwood. The estimated' annual demand in the island for timber is around 30,000,000 From time imiTv. •morial there appeared to be a close inter­ relationship between man and forest, man depending on the cu.ft., while the fuelwood demand is 175,000,000 cu.ft. forest for more than one thing. The richness of the forest cover which Sri Lanka possessed before the introduction of the •10.1 Natural Vegetation Type of the district of Kegalle plantation economy is well illustrated by an observation of a British planter: The natural vegetation of the District as a whole can be described as 'evergreen tropical lowland rain forests'. The characteristic trees in this type of forests belong to the "Mountains clothed with virgin forests from their base • to family of Dipterocarpaceae: viz. Dipterocarpus, Shorea and their summit, the banks of rivers clothed with forests so dense that is almost impossible to penetrate them. In these Doona. The other important genera are Cullenia, Palaquium, woods you will find timber which is almost worth its weight Calophyllum, Mesua and Semecarpus (Appendix II gives a list in gold" (William Boyd 1839). of the Wet Zone tree species) The trees grow upto 30-40m in height. The bigger trees are generally buttressed. The undergrwoth is mostly made up of young trees. The forest cover in the island has dwindled from 75% at the beginning of the twentieth century to about 50% by 1945; while the sample estimates for 1983 stands at 37% (FAO 1987). Some authorities estimate the dense natural forest cover to be only 25% of the area of the island. - 93 -

- 92 -

Table 10 ': FOREST RESOURCES OF THE DISTRICT OF KEGALLE

However, in the areas with a higher elevation such as Deraniyagaula and Yatiyantota, the lowland- .rain forest Lfr. Division GN Division Area (Acreage). Total area & gradually passes in a wide ecotone into the 'lower montane percentage out of the rain forests'. In this area the trees may grow to an average total forest area in height of 35m. The most prominent species is the the District Dipterocarp, Doona-gardneri Thw, which is endemic to Sri Total Lanka. In addition, there are species of Doona and Myristica dactyloides, Ceylanica Meull, and various Calophyllum and Syzygium species. The trees are not buttressed. The Deraniyagala Ballehela 849 undergrowth is formed by young trees and a dense mass of Elevation Nilwala 649 Strobilanthes (Acanthaceae) . On steep rocks spiny-palm and 1500'-5500' Behenella 570 tree-ferns grow. Udabage 173 Kirihena 222 Maliboda 56 In the very high mountainous areas of the Deraniyagala Nakkawita 118 Division, the type of vegetation is the 'upper montane rain Pandaha 712 forests' which are rich in epipytes: mosses, filmy-ferns, Pothdenikanda 615 lichens and various species of orchids. Panakoora 60 Dickellakanda 10221 Magala 1906 Kosgaskanda' 50 Yatiwela 52 16823 53 . 7 Dodawa.tta ' 570

Dehiowita 1525 4.8

Yatiyantota Kitulgala 2272 Dedugala 715 Seepoth 603 Udapotha 582 ,Pelempitiya 527 Nelluwakkhena . 425 Amanawala 242 Mahabage 222 . Ampagala 193 (Scattered in other divisions) 1209

6990 22 . 3 - 94 -

Ruwanwella Scattered 303 0.9

Aranayake Scattered 2850 9.0

Mawanella Scattered 400 1.2

Rambukkana' Scattered 1335 4 . 2

Kegalle insignificant 274 0.9

Galigamuwa insignificant 476 1.5

Warakapola Lenagala ) 354 1.0 Paspolakanda ) Salgala )

Total under forests 31,330 100

Total land area in the District 448,000 6 . 9

1-10-2 Distribution of forests in thg District

The Table 10 gives the distribution of forest cover in the District with the relevant GN Divisions and the' acreages. The Deraniyagala Division has the highest extent of forests in the District amounting to 16,823 acres. In other words, out of the total forest cover in the district, Deraniyagala Division has 53.7%. Map 13 gives the distribution of forest cover in the District.

This is the area which receives the highest rainfall and also has the highest attitude. The Figure 16 illustrates the relationship between the rainfall and the altitude in relation to the whole island. The AGA Divisions of Deraniyagala and Yatiyantota stand on the western rim of the hill country receiving the highest rainfall. The Deraniyagala forest cover comes under the peak wilderness of Sri Lanka. - 95A -

O O- -o N Kl f> ^ o o - 96 - p o o o o o Of>- (\J m.j- or-. O oro

K> O O The wet zone lower as well as upper mountain' forests are the o o o o Mo og oin o r - oo main type in the upper elevations. The biggest area under «- fO forests inthe whole District is represented by the GN CO f^- o u-i KI to o Division of Dickellakanda which is a declared forest reserve. o O o o The Yatiyantota Division comes second in importance with ro o« — to fi O- O- CO O W CO MI o ^ O regard to forest cover, with an acreage of 6990 accounting sO o o> O 0 O O O O N ffl Kl i/"* r\i rv. r\i n, for 22% of the forests of the Districts. Kitulgala GN in OJ o3 *0 S CO U-l in r\j Division has the largest area under forests. CO O O o o • 00000 — SO Aranayake has 2850 acres, while Dehiowita has 1525 acres a3 in O Mf >~* co <-t m under forests. The Figure 16 illustrates that these areas O- fX.' o O o N lA 000000 stand on the western slope fo the hill country receiving the 0000' 0-O> in f> f"i in IA -O (1 Kl hgihest rainfall during the year making them wet throughout the year. Specially, the Division of Deraniyagala is

0000 merging into peakwilderness. Hence, there are several blocks - IA O) r- of climax vegetation which are declared as protected forests in these Divisions. For example, Dickellakanda, Magala, 0000 Kitulgala and Ballehela are protected areas. — M( CO 0 — 0 0000 cO *0 O O 000 The distribution of forest cover in the District is very uneven. For instance, Deraniyagala Division has a forest M =D >o rv 00000 cover of 30% which is more than the national percentage, 00000 0000 •o — "~ ~ ^ while divisions such as Kegalle, Warakapola and Ruwanwella — vQ m rsj have each less than 1% of the area under forest cover. O O o o

0000 The total area under forests in the District stands at 30,439 acres which is only 7% of the total land area. This is far below the expected level of forest cover as a whole, given the favourable climatic conditions of the district. Table 11 gives details about the landuse in the district. - 97 - - 98 -

.11 Wild Life 2. HUMAN RESOURCES

2.1 Historical Significance There are two wild life reserves in the District of Ke'. the bird sanctuary situated in the Kegalle AGA Division is The history of the AGA division of the Warakapola extends as locally termed as 'Kurulu Kele' . This bird sanctuary has an far backs as the 12th century. It is said that the king areal extent of 113.3 hectares and was declared as a Parakramabahu V was born at Jathagama of Dedigama. . The sanctuary on 14th March 1941. The boundaries given in the 1 gazette notification are from the North,' the Colombo-Kandy chronicle of Chulawansa refers to 'Surisara cheitiya which main road and from East, South and West the Circular road. had been built by Parakramabahu V in Dedigama. During the But today these boundries have changed. Portuguese period there had been a road leading to the hill country through the division of Warakapola'; Portuguese had created a fortress at Menikkadawara. Lenayala and Saigala_ The second sanctuary extends to two AGA Divisions, namely, are two other sites which have an archaeological value. Ruwanwella and Warakapola. The GN Divisions are Galapitamada and Nelundeniya. This sanctuary was declared on 18th Beligala is significant as a location of Dalada Maligawa February 1949 and the extent was 134.4 hectares. This is during Vijaya Bahu III. known as 'Welhella-Katagilla' sanctuary and topographically this is in a more hilly area. 2.1.1 Population

The population in the Kegalle District was 682,411 in 1981 Both these sanctuaries are supposed to have same type of wild-life. Some of the species which are found in these with a density of 410/ km2 which was twice the national sanctuaries are given in Appendix 3. average density. The estimated population in 1991 is 749,269 with a density of 450/km2. The estimated population for 1996 and 2001 are 782,853 and 814,559 respectively. The The major problem faced by the authorities in maintaining density would be 470/km2 and 489/km2 in 1996 and 2001 these sanctuaries are the encroachments and illicit felling. respectively Table 12 gives the details of the distribution Currently a project had been undertaken by the Department of Wild Life and Forestry to map out the Kurulu-Kele sanctuary of population in the District for year 1990 and 1981. Map and to establish the demarcations of it. The project also 14 shows the aerial distribution. has planned to construct a major trail which would help the officers to reach the interiors of the sanctuary with less The increased number of people by year 2 001 would be 64,880 difficulties. The major task of this project is the eviction more than in 1991..The increased urban population would be • of encroachers. Appendix 4 gives the survey map of the 4996, while the rural equivalent would be 59,884. Kurulu-kela and the details of encroachments. A total of 9.3 hectares of the sanctuary has been encroached upon. The The extra land required for housing in urban areas would be plans are also underway for the reforestation of bareland 2 0 hectares while in rural areas 958 hectares. The required which are being abandoned by the encroachers, with indigenous extent of' extra land for agriculture in the urban sector species of trees. would be only 12 hectares while in the rural sector this would be as much as 3018 hectares. Thus the total extra land requirements for the District of Kegalle between 1991 There are no major plans right now drawn up for the Welhella- Ketagalla sanctuary. and 2001 would be 4008 hectares and of this requirement 1181 ha. would be available during 1991 by making use of the abandoned estates and other usable state* land. Still there would be a shortfall of 2827 hectares to fulfil the needs of the people in the District by the year 2001. The available extent of 1181 ha are being alienated within the District based on certain guidelines provided by the State. • - 99 - - 100 -

o o o o „ o CO <— Population Density o- ro ro CO o o r- o CO o LOA -J- GeJ < ro -j- OJ OJ ro ro ro ro ^1 ro U- t between northern and southern parts of the District . The CL 1 o r-N~- o*— CO Oro O OCO CcoO cr-~o 1^LA- LroA oO_ GJ o OJ roo LCAO oO-J CO ro oLA Oro • o iro: >• ro -j- OJ OJ ro ro ro ro «j- ro AGA Division of Aranayaka, has the highest density in 1990 o O LA -o o O N- o co O o ro CO L(/_) i o o o OJ ro o ro ro o r^- o average density. However, the spatial variations in the >- —CJ' •i O <1 roo oCO OoJ ro LA o - — O O-J-J CoO rCoO the AGA Divisions of Mawanella, Aranayake, Kegalle, ro i OJ ro LA ro ro LA LA o OJ -j* OJ <- N. -)LA •o ro Oro LA o o o OJ O OJ LA LA O Southern AGA Divisions of Deraniyagala, Dehiowita, ro o CoO OoJ o~ o OroJ rco Oo oro OJ or-.~ LroA ro CO ,— O Or CO o O OJ OJ Yatiyantota and Ruwanwella have a density varying from o ~ O ro t o OJ o T— •L_- OJ ro OJ ro OJ OJ OJ ro OLAJ District average. (Table 13). ••J" —CJ. i, OJ •o N- NJ" O CO OJ o o~ O ro ro o O O LA o vT o o < CJ i o- Nr—. LoA O-J- OLA O OJ rOoJ ro- - —r i O LT~A OoJ o O*—J CO —••t COO O LvAT LoA N. LA o OJ oO COOJ 0^? roC • o GJ —' # OJ CO o LA LA LA -J- LA —• E i Tr-- O CO —i COO s. CroO CO LTA C-JO CO Orol O LLCJ, 1t OJ IA OJ OJ rO OJ OJ ro o roo GJ CJ OJ o o O ro >\! O co LA ro L_ ro • O-.JJ o CLAO rCoO NLA. OJ rO CO coo r^- Nro- C) OJ ro ^J- OJ OJ OJ ro ro ro —r• o .tor ra JZu ro wro ro ro ro ra CJ ro oj CD ra *OJ ra _i Gl oc >ro- u c —a;. ^ro ra ra E COL ra CJ < 1/1 O3t >ro- cy >ro^ O _vDr mro j^.ro GJ oaj O —> <1 c xz— — 3ro: roc — X) rau> uro ro Ut_ _f < o— 1 OGJ OGJ >ro- D

- 102 - c

e 14

Comparison of Area and Population as percantages of the total in ijtbe Kegalle District

jGA Division Area % Population % (1991)

Deraniyagala 13.1 ' 5.8 Oehiowita .13.9 9.5

Katiyantota . 14.6 12.8 Ruwanwella 10.3 - 7.2

uranayake 3 _ 9 8 _ 7 ilawanella • 10.2 11.8 Rambukkana 7.0 9.7 o o m o O OJ (egalle . 6.3 10.4 c OJ OJ LA re. LA OJ o OJ ro OJ OoJ ;aligamuwa 8.9 10.5 terakapola 11.8 13.6

fatal 100.0 100.0

'otal area of Sri Lanka 65,650 km2 'otal area of the District 1662.8

r-A o o- o o LA O o o O irea in the District as a percentage of Sri Lanka 2.53%

CO CM ,_ O CO o ro o jistribution of Population O o N- LA CO LA O OJ OJ CO rA o os "~ OJs OJ m f\l Ko l mf\i -j-

N- LA OJ LA x O •O rA CO o opulation. A striking feature in the northern region is • - o *0 o rA o o O LA a3 "A o O -4- LA CO OoJ CoO oCO o .1J O o- LA o CO o- o- o- hat it is dominated by small-holder agriculture, mainly jOinestead gardening while the southern region has large scale o sO fA o OJ o ro O CO ftate plantations of rubber and tea.- Map 14^) illustrates rA ?— O rA o o~ o CO —• pe distribution of population of the District. >o o o OJ -J- LA O O CO [V) O o •O r-- O -A -7 o- O o o OJ OJ

6 - 104 -

.KEGALLE DISTRICT - Distribution of Population' (1 dot represents 100 persons)

Mop 14 (I) Mop. 14 (2) I - 105 - - 106 -

Population Growth Rate c

fable 15 The annual growth rate of population-Is 0.7% for the^District recording the third lowest annual growth rate for the island people Residing in 1981 outside the District who are born in 1981. NuwaraEliya and Kandy are the other Districts which have recorded a lower growth rate than the District of the District of Kegalle Kegalle. The national average annual growth rate is 1.7% 1981 In terms of absolute numbers of population, the District of Total Residents Kegalle ranked as the 9th in 1981, while in terms of density 775,191 Total population 684,944 it ranked as the 6th, among all Districts in the island. The Colombo 21,136 District of Kegalle has 2.6% of the total land area of the Gampaha 16,081 island while it carries 4.6% of the population. Life — 3,480 expectancy at birth for the District is lower than the Kandy 10,279 national average, being 67 years against 68 years for the 3 ,469 whole island. Infant mortality rate for the District is 4.2% Nuwera Eliya 4,717 which is higher than the all island rate of 3.7%. Maternal Galle 1, 3 61 mortality rate is same as the national rate with 0.8%. With Matara 942 a relatively lower life expectancy and a high mortality rate, 1,049 the District of Kegalle can- be described as a ^relatively .1,569 underdeveloped rural district'in the island. Mannar 519 1,979 The population that had been living in the Kegalle District Mullative 553 throughout all census years from 1871 to 1981 had been in the 450 range of 4.4% to 6%. The share of population in the Kegalle 8,701 District had been on the decline since 1946. The declining trend of population in the District has been a combined / 1,769 Kurunegala result of low rate of natural increase and the out- 17,802 migration. The major out-migration streams from Kegalle 2,070 District in 1981 had been to the District of Colombo, 12,897 Polonnauwa, and Kurunegala while the minor streams had been 21,089 to the Districts of Gampaha, Anuradhapura, Ratanapura and 1,913 Moneragala Kandy. Table 15 gives the total number of residents within 3 ,283 Ratanapura the District, and the number of people living outside the 10,587 Kegalle District in 1981, who are born in the District. Out of the 627,497 total residents of 775,191 (1981) 627,497 people or 81% had Source: Department of Census and Statistics been born within the District, and 90,247 people who are born outside are residing in the Kegalle District. The total population in 1981 was 684,944 out of which 147,694 had been migrated into the District. The net lifetime migration out of Kegalle District in 1981 had been 5,588 people. - 107 - - 108 -

c

Urban Population Table 16

The urban population which include Kegalle Urban Council and Kegalle District the former Town Councils of Dehiowita, Mawanella, Rambukkana, Urban Population 1990 1981 1971

Ruwanwella, Warakapola and Yatiyantota (Map 14/2j contain a population of 56,197 in 1990 which amounts to 8% of the total Urban Council Kegalle 15,992 15,016 13,305 population of the District. Out of the urban population 51% Former Town Rambukkana 6, 356 5,968 4,809 are males. The District of Kegalle is mostly a rural District Councils with a 92% rural population. The total area covered by the II Ruwanwella 5,153 4 ,838 4,453 Kegalle Urban Council in 1963 was 4. 5Km2 and it has been ti Warakapola 5,241 4,920 3 , 873 expanded to 7.8 km2 in 1981. Table 16 gives the increase of ii Yatiyantota 2,354 : 2,2 08 1,970 the urban population in the District since 1971. These Dehiowita 7,429 6,975 6, 660 figures illustrate that the urbanization within the District Mawanella 13,672 12,836 11,008 has been a very slow process over the years. Table 17 gives . the age composition of the urban population of the District. 56,197 52,761 46,078 3 2.2% of the urban population belongs to the age group of 5- 19 years while 20-44 years age group constitutes 39.6%, which As a % of the total - 7.7% means that 72% of the urban population belong to young age population of the District group of less than 45 years, indicating that the younger population have a tendency to migrate towards the towns Total Area (Km2) within the District. 1963 1971 1981 .1.2 Labour Force U.C Kegalle 4 . 5 7 . 9 7 . 8

Labour force consists of those persons who furnish the supply Source: Kegalle Kachcheri of labour for the production of economic goods and services. foe 17 It includes not only those who are actually engaged in such activities, but also those potentially available for such n population in Kegalle District fay AGA Divisions and Age activities. The population between the ages of 15 and 55 picture (1990) which is usually considered as the labour force, comprises 441,715 people or 59% of the total population in 1990. The highest number of people belonging to this age group are in (forser Town Council units) Warakapola and Yatiyantota Divisions, constituting 13.5% and W ftrea Kegalle Rasbukkana Ruwansella Barakapola Yatiyantota Dehiwota Mawanella Total I 12.6% respectively,of the total labour force of the District. f U.C . . Here again the northern Divisions have a larger proportion of picture the labour force than the Southern Divisions (Table 18).

1,372 683 493 544 265 859 1,617 5,833 10.4 5,199 2,115 1,521 1,626 750 i,00.' 4,751 13,299 0 L , 0 1,773 689 503 616 239 721 1,418 5,959 10.6 4,765 1,729 1,575 1,568 689 2,121 3,661 16,108 28,7 2,113 817 796 641 304 1,058 1,700 7,429 13.2 770 323 265 246 107 333 525 2,569 4,5 15,992 6,356. 5,153 5,241 2,354 7,429 13,672 56,197 100 28.5 ' H.3 9.2 o_3 49 13.2 24.3 100 109 - 110 -

Employed Labour Force

Out of the total labour force of 441,715., 47% or 207,600 people are employed. Out of the employed population 63% are males and 37% are females. Table 18 shows the number and percentages of employed labour force. The highest percentage of employed labour force is found in the southern Divisions T- _c to •o (V) respectively. These are the plantation Divisions. The lowest c~ o o «- o- O *-> _J o "Soa >«-n s -i employed number are found in the Galigamuwa, and Aranayake O 3 Qj. 4J Divisions accounting for 35% and 37% respectively. However, c *-* o O it is disheartening to note that only less than half the labour force in the District is employed. (U XI CO 0E) DE o Unemployed Labour Force

Table 18 also illustrates the unemployed labour force based o on sex. Out of the total Labour force 234., 115 or 53% of the ECL

Gender Differences in Labour Force Participation OCO 4-* iJ OD O—I Out of the total employed labour force in the District, 63% are men while only 3 7% are women. However the minimum rate of O •O CO women's participation is found in the Kegalle Division accounting for only 28% out of the total employed population. Galigamuwa and Warakapola also show a lesser percentage of women's participation with 33% and 35% a CO XEI o- 00 in respectively. E CO o Unemployment rate is high among the women in the District. A remarkable spatial difference cannot be noticed among women's t-t t_ CO Labour force participation except that the Division of o O Ui Kegalle has the highest rate of unemployed women, accounting for 66%. The general female unemployment rate varies between CO 00 53% and 63%. o-

O >• XI X! c E - Ill - - 112 -

2.1.3 Literacy rate

Table 19 Table 19 demonstrates the literacy rate"of the persons' 10 years of age and over by sex in 1971 and 1981. It shows that Literacy rates of persons 10 years of age and over by sex. between the two census the District has improved in the 1971 & 1981 • literacy rate from 78.4% to 87.5% for both sexes. The District literacy rate for 1981 is little higher than for the 1971 1981 whole island. Sri Lanka Kegalle Dis Sri Lanka Kegalle Dis

There is a marked difference between the sexes in terms of Both sexes 78.8 78. 4 87.2 87.5 literacy where in 1981 male literacy was 92% while the female Male. 85.6 86.2 91.1 92 . 0 literacy was only 83.2% showing a difference of 8.8%." Female 70.9 70.3 83 .:2 83.2 However over the last 20' years the female literacy rate has Difference 14.7 15. 9 7.9 - -8.8 increased from 70.3% to 83.2% reducing the gap between the sexes by 7.1% or in other words women's literacy rate over the years have increased by 50%. Source : Census & Statistics Dept.

Education Level of Unemployed Labour Force Table 20 Out of the total of 234,1.15 unemployed people 221,510 have Unesployed Labour Force-Eudacation Level reported their level of education (Table 20) . Accordingly, 32.7% of the unemployed population have an education level of AGA Division <6r8 I Gr 8 I OL AL I Total Total less than grade 8. Another 4 5.8% have schooling upto grade 8, Reported Unesployed which means that 78.5% of the unemployed people do not have a Nuiaber I Labour Force sound formal education. The future plans to ameliorate unemployment problems should take this matter into Deraniyagala MA 1850 NA 1850 . 100 9754 consideration. Job opportunities should be designed to Pehiowita 4272 20.6 11997 58.6 4020 19.4 371 1.7 20660 100 20660 absorb these under-educated group. The study has revealed that the existing avenues to obtain some vocational skill for Ydtiyantota 11275 46.3 9148 37.5 3094 12.7 831 3.4 24348 100 24348 this class of people are grossly inadequate within the 1 District. RuManMella 4024 25.4 7932 50.2 3411 21.5 427 2.7 15794 100 16048

Aranayake . 5926 32.6 8608 47.2 3283 18.0 331 1.7 18148 100 25010 Out of the reported number of unemployed people 19.3% have fiawanella 11676 40.0 13708 46.9 2713 9.2 1079 3.6 .29176 100 30291 received an education upto General certificate of education (Ordinary Level) It is appropriate to find immediate avenues Raabukkana 9955 39.6 11579 46.1 2884 11.4 678 2.7 25096 100 25096 for this category to obtain some type of vocational skill. This category has the potentiality to be trained, as skilled Kegalle 6675 24.6 13052 48.1 6857 25.2 539 1.9 27123 100 27123 labour. This is also the most volatile and flatulent group Galigaeuwa 7860 26.2 13907 46.4 7957 26.5 225 0.7 ' 29949 100 29949 who can be easily .mislead by vested interests to disrupt the accepted norms and harmony of the society. Hence, finding Warakapola 10872 37.0 11532 39.2 6689 22.7 273 0.9 29366 100 29366 livelihood for these population should be a key priority in the District development plan. Total 72535 32.7 101463 45.3 42758' 19.3 4754 2.1 221510 100 234115

NA = Not Available

Source; K'achcheri, Kegalle - 113 - - 114 -

Within the District only 2.1% of the people who have studied Number of People Seeking Employment Abroad upto Advanced level are unemployed. This can be .interpreted either as that the youth who get educated upto Advanced The prevalent unemployment and underemployment is well level get employed either within the District or outside the reflected by the number of people seeking employment abroad. District; or may be that the youths do not get themselves Table 21 gives the details of the categories of employment qualified to study upto Advanced Level. . The problem of these job seekers are expecting. Based on the available data unemployment is more acute among the people who have a lower 18,956 people are expecting to find employment abroad. Out educational level. A larger percentage of the unemployed of this total 10,790 are males and 8,166 are females. Out of belonging to the educational level of less than grade 8, both male as well as female job seekers, the highest number indicates a larger number of school dropouts. expects jobs as domestic helpers or housemaids. The second most popular future job among males is the labourer. Among AGA Division of Yatiyantota has the largest number among other jobs sought by the males are those of carpenters, unemployed who has the lowest level of education. The masons, electricians and drivers. Females basically seek northern Divisions of Mawanella, Rambukkana and Warakapola work as housemaid or labourer. also have a higher percentage of this category. Galigamuwa,Ruwanwella and Dehiowita have the lowest proportion among unemployed who are educated upto or below However, the particulars of jobs that are sought abroad by grade 8. the unemployed indicate the lean job prospects available within the District and the type and level of skills the unemployed . pocess. The biggest number of job seekers are Dehiowita Division with a percentage of 58.6%, represents the from the Divisions of Warakapola, Aranayake and Rumbukkane Division which has the largest number of unemployed who have while the least number is from Dehiowita. obtained an educational level upto grade 8. However, the percentages among unemployed belonging to the category vary form 37.5% to 58.6%. Number of People Employed abroad

Table 21 also gives the Division wise number of males and The percentages among unemployed who have reached the females employed abroad. Altogether 7112 people are already ordinary level in their education vary from 12.7% to 26.5%. employed outside Sri Lanka. The highest numbers are from The lowest percentage is found in Yatiyantota while the Mawanella and Galigamuwa while the lowest number is from highest percentage is in Kegalle and Galigamuwa. Advanced level qualified or studied upto, among the unemployed are Deraniyagala. It is interesting to note that out of the very few. The reason may be that only a few people continue total number employed abroad 68.4% are females and the their studies after Ordinary Level. Mawanella and Yatiyantota highest number of females are from Mawanella, Galigamuwa and have the highest percentage while Warakapola and Galigamuwa Yatiyantota. Even among men who are employed abroad the have the lowest percentage belonging to this category (Table highest number is from Mawanella. Deraniyagala and Ruwanwella 20) . represent the two Divisions which have the lowest number of men employed abroad. - 116 - - 115 - 2.1.4 Labour Force Participation in Economic Activities

Table 21 Table 22 indicates the details of the labour force participation in three major categories of /economic activities. It also gives the break-down of the economic ^-^^-^-BgoBie employed ,hma, sectors and also the labour force participation based on sex.

A.G.A. Car- Mas- Elec- Agriculture Dri- Domestic Labourers °*ers Total Total Divisfcn pen- cns tric- vers No of Employed ters. ians Abroad According to the reported data, 35,309 males and 20,493 M- F " F M F M F All M F Total females are employed in the category of agriculture. In this Deraniyagala Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na ' 875 770 1645 category majority of the people are self employed while only Dehiowita 98 50 17 59 84 143 85 51 302 74 16 50 15 425 333 758 about 18% of men and 15% of females are employed in the State Yatiyantota 110 233 28 110 292 402 163 123 672 375 45 230 137 1169 810 1979 sector, and another 28% of males and 32% females are employed Ruwanwella 113 82 179 637 816 9 93 151 598 181 45 91 Aranayake 243 43 721 686 1407 77 349 426 in private agricultural enterprises. 223 42 255 376 805 480 46 127 Mawanella ^194 86 '1765 936 2701 88 29 268 200 612 329 189 549 738 Rambukkana 142 74 71 1193 626 1819 156 54 222 202 988 252 666 972 1638 The State sector is well represented by the Deraniyagala and Kegalla 122 97 56 1139 1065 7204 122 33 139 204 863 207 159 -453 612 Dehiowita Divisions, indicating the prevalence of State 27 35 875 959 1834 Galigamuwa 83 80 12 194 494 688 138 193 607 271 92 sector estates. Mawanella and Rambukkana Divisions have the Warakapola 215 55 871 717 1588 394 741 1135 164 11 H6 324 958 590 178 271 128 1757 1264 least number of State estates, hence, the number employed is 3021 216 298 514 also less. The highest number of females who are employed in Total 1320 1198 235 1 509 1824 6405 2759 478 1059 62610790 816618956 the' State plantations are also found in the Divisions of 2243 4869 7112 Deraniyagala and Dehiowita. The least number of females in Na : Not available. the state sector agriculture is found in the Rambukkana Division. Source: Kegal leKachcheri The Private sector agricultural activities are more in the Divisions of Dehiowita, Deraniyagala, Warakapola, Galigamuwa and Ruwanwella. These Divisions have the most of private small- holders of rubber, tea and coconut. Ruwanwella", Warakapola and Dehiowita have the highest number of females engaged in the private sector as agricultural labourers.

The highest number among male self employed agriculturalists is found in the Warakapola Division amounting to 5206. Mawanella, Rambukkana and Galigamuwa also have a larger number of people engagedN in homestead gardening. The cultivation of minor-export crops in their home plots is also widespread. The least reported number of males engaged in self-employed agriculture is found in the Dehiowita Division indicating the scarcity of land mainly due to the terrain and the occupation of arable land by the plantations. The largest number of females self-employed as agriculturalists is found in the Warakapola Division while the least number is in the Dehiowita Division, - 117 - - 118 - r— C\J (\J o co -

OJ rA *~ is from Warakapola, Dehiowita, Rambukkana and .Mawanella CO rA Divisions. The Divisions of Aranayake and Deraniyagala report OJ rA rA OJ «— CO —' LA the lowest number of males employed in this sector. T— OJ —t Warakapola and Ruwanwella are the two Divisions which O ON O rA < «- ro OJ rA 2 NM- OJvO OJ LA employed more females in the private sector industries while OJ —t LA oj rA Rambukkana has the lowest.

COO- LTA- OJO - N >0 rg Even in the category of industries, self-employment is the most prevalent. A major proportion, both male and female ONJ- ON - labour force, is employed as self-employees in the Divisions O O O O COON LA vOjJ rA of Warakapola, Galigamuwa, Mawanella and Rambukkana which are all located in the northern section of the District. The N0 O N- OJ N- %0 -O oj least numbers are found in the Divisions of Dehiowita and OJ * T— OJ -J- Deraniyagala. This is also an indication to illustrate the

rA rA rA relative differences in the spatial development within the District. < < o < —, •

CD +-J 4-* , O <0 — D —• Dl E - 119 -

In the private sector 7100 males and 3748 females are reported to be employed in services . while the lowest number is reported in the Deraniyagala Division. The.., Divisions of - 120 -. Warakapola and Mawanella have employed the majority of females in services in the District, illustrating the relative differences in urbanization within the District. Even in the category of Industry self-employment commands The Colombo/Kandy A± road passes through these two Divisions the major share comprising 42% of males and 44% females. In and this has an impact on the retail sector, n Retail the service sector, State is the dominant employer establishments, collecting and distributing of agricultural accounting for 52% of males and 58% of females out of the produce and consumer articles are the main activities in the total employees in this category. service sector in these two towns.

Table 2 3 reveals certain facts about the socio-economic Self-employment in the services category vary much less in status of the District. Firstly, the agriculture is the the self-employment sector, well illustrating the rural dominant economic pursuit. Both in Agriculture and industry nature of the District. Mawanella and Rambukkana have the informal sector is predominent. This indicates that even in highest number of both male and female in this category. the category of agriculture, homesteads and subsistence paddy or small-holding plantations, could be the dominant Table 23 Percentages of Sector-Wise Labour force features. The predominance of the self-employment on the Participation in Economic Activities category of industries indicate that these industries are small-scale and handicraft than formalized factory industries. The dominance of the State sector in the Sectors . State Private Self-Employed services, indicates the non-availability of opportunities for Sex Male Female ' Male Female Male Female self-employment of this nature which is a common feature in Category rural areas. The conclusion one can derive from this table is that the District of Kegalle is basically agricultural, dominated by small-holders and that the industries are mostly Agriculture 18% 15% 28% 32% 53% 42% small-scale and handicrafts, while the region as a whole is Industry 17% 18% 41% 38% 42% 44% less urbanized or mostly rural in character. Services 52% 58% 21% 21% 27% 21%

Source : Data supplied by Kachcheri, Kegalle

Table 23 illustrates the percentages of sectorwise labour force participation in economic activities. The highest percentage of male labour force participation is found in the agriculture category under self-employed sector accounting for 53%, while among the females the highest percentage is found in the category of services under the State sector comprising 58%. However, the agriculture category under self- employment is the dominant economic activity in the District. - 121 -

- 122 - 2.1.5 Women in Development and Conservation of Resources

Based on 1981 census data, about 17% of all rural households in the district are headed by"women while 14%' of the small farms are operated by women. Table 24: Female Population and Family Size 1990.

Out of the total population in the district nearly one half is composed of females (Table 24) and spatially some AGA AGA Division Total Total Female % out of Total Number Family Size Divisions have more than 50% female population. The Population Population the total of families average family size in the district is more than 4 and the Population male/female ratio does not change even among the dependent population. Table 25 gives the female labour force along with the incidence of employment and unemployment. AGA Deraniyagala 43466 21618 49.73 9562 ' 4.54 Divisions such as Galigamuwa, Kegalle and Rambukkana have high rates of female unemployment. High rate of female Dehiowita 73739 34393 49.54 15190 4.57 employment is shown in southern AGA divisions of * Deraniyagala Yatiyantota and Dehiowita. These are the Yatiyantota 96034 47861 49.84 19930 4.81 plantation divisions of the district and the estates have provided employment to females. Ruwanwella 65178 32728 50.20 14615 4.46

Women dominate certain occupations such as handloom Aranayake 88160 44607 50.59 18828 4.68 weaving, sewing and pottery making. A fair number of female labourers are found in sand mining and metal Mawanella 72997 36782 50.39 15900 . 4.59 crushing activities as well.

Rambukkana ' 78655 39735 50.52 17101 4.59 To assist disadvantaged female headed households, the Sri Lanka Women's Bureau in' 1981 introduced a two year project Galigamuwa 78062 39507/ 50.35 17059 4.58 for income generating activities, with the help of a grant from NORAD. About 500 women were benefited by this Warakapola 98845 49241 49.82 22075 4.48 project. Activities such as banana cultivation, cattle and goat keeping, weaving, sewing and poultry keeping were introduced. However, these activities do not sustain as there were gross inadequacies with regard to planning, technical support and marketing assistance.

However, women force has a great potentiality if properly mobilised, to accelerate the socio-economic development while protecting and conserving the environment. In the rural sector women come more into contact with the environment than men. The activities such as fetching water, collecting firewood and digging the land for home gardening create situations where women come into direct contact with.the environment. Hence, it is essential that environment planning and conservation should involve women as much as possible. - 123 - - 124 -

2.1.6 Poverty in the District Table 25: Female labour force In Sri Lanka there is a great disparity in income distribution in terms of households. For instance, in 1985/86, the lower 20% of household's in the island'received only 4.8% of the national income, highest' 2 0% of households AGA Division Total Female Employed Female Unemployed received as much as 56.1% of the income while the highest L.F L.F Female L.F 10% received 43.0% of the income. There is no data available to analyse the income distribution within the District but it is reasonable to believe that more or less Deraniyagala the income distribution within the District is similar to 12148 100 6095 50.17 6053 49.83 that of the rest of the country. Dehiowi ta 20401 100 7765 38.17 .12636 61.94 The densely populated District of Kegalle has a large number of poor farmers on small-holdings. There is a very Yat iyantota 28571 100 15542 54.39 13029 45.61 high incidence of umemployment. In addition, 25% of the workforce is underemployed, being able to find employment Ruwanwel la 16608 100 6507 39.18 10101 60.82 only for about 2/3 of the year.

Aranayake 19940 100 5840 2929 14100 70.71 The average per capita income for Sri Lanka is US$430 (1989), while the average per capita income in the rural Mawanel la 25229 sector is US$250 per year. The average per capita annual 100 758 30.07 17642 69.93 income in the District of Kegalle is estimated to be US$220 much less than the average figure for the rural sector as a Rambukkana 22149 100 6404 28.91 15745 71.09 whole. The incidence of poverty in the District can be illustrated by the number of food stamp receivers in the Kegal le 24002 100 5735 23.89 18267 76.11 District. The selection of food stamp receivers were based on the poverty line of US$170. Table 26 indicates the GaIi gamuwa 23171 100 5360 23-13 17811 76.87 total number of families and the number receiving the food stamps. On the average, the percentage of families below Warakapola 25883 poverty line is be'tween 51% to 67%. There is not much 100 10357 40.01 15526 59.90 spatial variation in the level of poverty within the District.

The results of this acute poverty is manifested in many forms in the society, mainly as social indicators. For example, demographic indicators and nutrition level of the society are the manifestations of poverty. A comparison of some of these indicators of the District with that for the whole island will demonstrate the acutness of the incidence of poverty in the District. Infant motality rate for the whole island is 3.7% while the corresponding rate for the District is 4.2%. Life expectancy at birth for the island is 68 years while for the District is 67 years. Acute under nutrition for the whole island is 6.6% and the District rate is 7.1%, chronic under nutrition .is 34.7% and 39.6% respectively for the whole island and the District, 2n<^ and 3rc^ degree protein deficiency for the whole island is 44.1% while for the District is 45.4%. All these indicators illustrate that the District of Kegalle is one of the poorest . - 125 0) Cn rd - 126 - •M >I C -P 0) 3 01 0) U O > U »-H o 00 r- VD 2.1.6.1 Measures to alleviate poverty 01 01 m IT) U0 co ID in in LT) In order to minimise the incidence of poverty it is c necessary to stimulate economic growth and at the same time o - r~ VD cn rH O o VO ID cn rH in r- r- CN o benefits from the process of growth and expanded social rd rH rH rH rH rH t-H CN expenditure, especially in terms of access to minimum employment, income and basic nutrition. c o co Public Investments -p cn CN 00 in oo 00 VO rd O in cn cn CO 00 in rH oo in cn cn in co 01 in CO 00 o VO CO. o in 3 CN CO CO CO oo The major component of the public investment during the U a, CO CN CO VD CO o 0) o CN > CO last five years have come from the . Decentralized Capital -H 01 Budget and the District Development Council Budget. o 0) a Kegalle Integrated Rural Development Programme originated i 4J O O •H cn cn vo CO VD CN in 1986 also have made investments to improve facilities vo 03 CN CO CN vo s e 00 ro CO ID in vo cn CO such as drinking water, minor irrigation, fertilizer rd in stores, rural roads and a few income generation projects cn U for women, in addition to the expansion of education OJ TJ C facilities. The investments from the Decentralized Capital T-i O Budget and the District Development Council Budget had been o +J in CM rd co in oo cn r- tn co in O in in O on roads, electricity, minor irrigation, education and ft co vO CN cn O in 3 CO o VD ro oo r- e 01 ft CO in VO co co co health, drinking water, housing, and self-employment. It rd ^ O CN ID •P ai a, reveals that most of these investments have been made to W > 73 0) develop social and economic infrastructure. Direct O o O 01 investments to improve the income level of the community is fu K 0) T3 01 extremely low. For examples, out of the total C -H H rd rH O o m oo CN r- cn >i -H cn Decentralized Capital Budget, only 4.2% and out of the 4J in in VD 00 r- co CN cn U e oo r- CO rd oo rH cn District Development Council Budget less than 3% have been tn rH rH 00 > spent on direct productive and employment generative o projects. But on the other hand IRDP has invested 35% of its budget on direct productive projects.

rd Cn rd -p rd rd •P o ai C rd National Agricultural Diversification and Settlement -H rd >1 -P 01 rd 3 O Authority (NADSA) is also operating in the District in O >i 0) ft •H •H c c rd C 3 e rd ID rd rd c rd XI rd attempting to resettle people in neglected land, in e JC >i rd rd Cn rd rd at •H 2 l-l e U a •P 3 rd -H rd 'addition to a programme of reforestation of marginal land. 0) rd < rd 0) K rH rd a rd O o rH - 127 - - 128 -

Janasaviya 3. RESOURCE UTILISATION

The latest and current heavy investment programme in the 3.1 Land Resources ..., District is Janasaviya which started in October 1989, by selecting 8052 families as recipients from the AGA division Out of the total land area of 164,110 ha in the District of of Aranayake. Each family is getting food and other Kegalle (448,000 acres), about 116,000 ha or 70% is suitable necessities to the value of Rs.l000/= per month and another for agriculture,-Qf this land, 75% is devoted to three major Rs.458/= is deposited in the National Savings Bank in perennial tree crops of tea, rubber and coconut. Table 27 favour of the head of each family. In addition, Bank will gives the comparative figures of landuse for Sri Lanka and be providing Rs.25,00O/= for self-employment project for the District of Kegalle. Various authorities and surveys each family. « give different figures. However, the figures in Table 27 indicate that the District is specialising on tree crops in Janasaviya Support Team relation to paddy. Out of the tree crops, rubber is dominant. Between 2 5% to 3 0% of the island's rubber land is There' are about 150 Janasaviya Support teams with a found in the District of Kegalle. The contribution of the. membership of about 600 people which play a catalyst role district in terms of cultivated land to the island's economy of development in the Division of Aranayake. These members in respect of tea vary . between 3% and 4%, and coconut include young and elders village leaders and some between 6% to 7%. government servants living in the Division. These support teams play active roles in organizing shramadana work under 'Other Crop Land' or 'Highland annual crop' is the most Janasaviya, identifying different needs of the villagers, dominant type of landuse, demonstrating the adjustment of keeping close contact with government officers in relation landuse to the terrain of the District. It also indicates to village needs, mobilizing savings, arranging credit the intensity of the land utilisation which in turn suggests facilities and assisting in loan recoveries. Under the the high density of population, and the scarcity .of plains or Janasaviya programme these teams have demonstrated good lowlands for paddy, which has given rise to highland tree potentials to meet the needs of the Division in terms of crop cultivation. Out of the island's total land under this development. This is also a force which should be type of cultivation, the district of Kegalle has 34% to 44%. harnessed to protect and conserve the environment. During Out of the dense forests in the island the District has only the Janasaviya second round out of 17,059 families in the 0.7%. This indicates the intensive use of land and the Division of Galigamuwa, 6851 families have received pressure of population on land. Table 11 gives the Janasaviya. population density per hectare, based on AGA Divisions. AGA Division of Mawanella has the highest density, Kegalle and In January 1991 Rural and Regional Development Bank (RRDB) Aranayake Division come next followed by Rambukkana, has made some investments to benefit 56 people in the Warakapola and Galigamuwa. Least density is found in more Pitadeniya and Devalegama villages of the Galigamuwa AGA rugged and hilly divisions^in the south. Division. However, this project does not show any success as the intended beneficiaries are engaged in other occupations as well. The objective of the programme has been to alleviate poverty through improvement of economy of the poor and to increase the women's participation. - 129 - - 130 - Table 27: Comparative Agricultural Landuse data for Shri Lanka and the District of Kegalle

3. 1/100,000 scale landuse maps of 'the survey dept. (1981 - 88) District of Kegalle

™ Cm ha, . As a % of the in hectares . . Built up land 22640 90 island total 0.39

Non-Agricultural 1. Census of Agriculture 1982 land 6550 40 0.61

Homesteads 781280 44270 5.6 Paddy 499525 11500 2.3 D Tea 201630 5660 2.8 Tea 207145 7400 3.5 Rubber 199030 49070 24.6 Rubber 171152 51000 29.7 Coconut 300040 10780 3.5 Coconut 416253 28000 6.7 Mixed S other 52640 8220 15.6

2. National Conservation Strategy 1988 Paddy 800470 10880 1.3

Sparcely used 1288530 20 Forest cover 1600000 10600 0.66

Other crop land 61660 20970 Tea, Rubber 34.0

Dense forests 1189500 & coconut 1000000 ' 65410 6.54 8240 0.69

Open forest Paddy 800000 10880 1.36 424680 2450 0.57

Scmb land WiId life 502330 930 0.18

Reserves 700000 - 248 0.035 Grass land 92190 200 0.21 Grassland Water 290520 820 0.28 & Scmb 500000 1130 0.22 Barren land 77480 500 0.64 H i ghI and annual crop 100000 44270 44.27 Forest plantation 145660 970 0.66

(to be continued) - 132 - - 131 -

3.1.1. Arable land not Cultivated

There are about 13,791 acres or 5,583 "ha. .of arable land which 3ble28 : Arable land not cultivated within the District of Kegalle. are at present abandoned. Out of this, 92% are highlands and only 8% are lowlands. Out of the highlands, 57% belong 'u !' to the State, and out of the lowlands 67% are owned by private people. Yatiyantota Division has the highest acreage Highland Lowland Total for the of abandoned. State owned high land with 3773 acres, while division Private State Total Private State Total Divisions Deraniyagala has 1724 acres. These are abandoned tea and (Ac) Owned (Ac! (Ac) (Ac! Oaned (Ac) (Ac) (Ac) rubber estates.

Largest extent of privately owned abandoned highlands are jraniyagale 1054 1724 2778 18 05 23 280! found in the Divisions of Yatiyantota and Deraniyagala. Out of the lowlands Mawanella Division has the largest extent of. 955 £93 1648 50 75 ' 125 1773 privately owned abandoned land. (Table 28) itiyantota 1422 3773 5195 51 N.A 51 5246 3.1.2 Steep Land manwel 1 a 533 77 610 34 N.A 34 644 Table 29 illustrates the areal extent of the steep land in the District of Kegalle. Out of the land with steepness jnayaka ' N.A N.A N.A N.A H.A H.A N.A between 30°% - 60° %, 17,561 ha are intensively utilised and another 14,969 ha are under utilised for some reason or the sane! i a 475 295 770 479 295 7?4 1544 other. This land may have a potentiality to develop further with suitable measures. Out of the land with a steepness 22 i 77 300 b ! ? 307 over 60%, more than half is intensively utilised. This indicates the prevailing hunger for land in the District. si!ie 206 56 262 /lO 0 10 The use of this land for cultivation and other purposes have caused several detrimental impacts such as landslides, soil 282 252 534 10! 1 102 636 erosion and floods in the lower slopes. . Area over 60°% steep should be totally avoided for further development, in rakapoi a 292 256 548 17 3 20 568 view of the possible detrimental environmental effects. tal for the 5442 7203 12645 766 380 1146 13791 Strict 3.1.3 Agricultural Land Use 43* 57X ' 92!i 677. " 33Z 82 1007, • .

Table 30 illustrates the suited crops and specific management requirements of the Soil Groups of the District of Kegalle. The most prevalent soil groups are the Red Yellow Podzolic Table 2 9 and the Reddish Brown Latozolic. The suited crops for these : The areal extent of steep land in the district of soils are mainly tree crops, specifically plantation crops Kegalle in hectares and minor export crops. In terms of management requirement good drainage facilities are essential. Organic or inorganic Steepness Intensively used Under Utilised nutrients are required.

30% -60% 17,561 14 , 969 > 60% 10,685 . 9 , 993

Source : Landuse Policy Planning Division Mlni.stry of Agriculture (1991) - 133 - - 134 -

Table 30 : Suited Crops and Specific Management Requirements 4 Plantation Crops of the Soil Groups of the District of Kegalle " ' - Table 31 indicates the crops that are cultivated in the District of Kegalle. Table 32 indicates the size of agricultural land holdings in the district, and Tables 33 and 34 demonstrate the distribution of agricultural landuse Soil Group Suited Crops Specific Management based on ownership and AGA Divisions. Out of the total Requi rement arable land 87,000 ha are devoted to three plantation crops on both under estate and small holdings. Out of total cultivated land, rubber accounts for 44% while coconut and tea account for 24% and 6% respectively. Rubber is' dominated Red Yellow Podzolic Tea,, rubber, coconut, Good drainage facilities by the estate sector, while coconut and Tea plantations are Reddish. Brown Latozolic coffee, cocoa, cinnamon, nutrient supplementation dominated by the small holders. Map 15 illustrates the Alluvial soils pepper, mulberry, cloves, by organics or inorganics distribution of privately owned agricultural landuse in the nutmeg, tobacco, vegetables, AGA divisions in acres. fruit crops, pasture grasses The largest extent of rubber lands in the estate sector are Regosols Coconut, palmyrah, cashew Soil conservation, measures found in Dehiowita (12,777 acres) and Yatiyantota (10,708 nutrient supplementation • by acres) while Ruwanwella, Galigamuwa, Deraniyagala and organics or inorganics Warakapola Divisions too have a considerable number of rubber (small doses at frequent estates. Most of the small holdings in rubber are less than intervals) 3 acres in extent. 58% of the total number of small holdings that are privately owned are under rubber.

71% of the coconut lands and 59% of the tea lands are also Source : Natural Resources of Sri Lanka, conditions and Trends. cultivated as small holdings. .The largest extent of land under coconut is found in the AGA Divisions of Rambukkana and Warakapola which are geographically closer to the coconut triangle of the island, while the Division of Deraniyagala which is more or less the hill country has the biggest extent of tea under estate sector.

Issues involved in the Plantation Sector

Table 32 shows the average extent s of land holdings in the District. 51% of the holdings are less than 0.4 ha and another 2 4% is between 0.4 and 0.8 ha. In other words, 76% of the land holdings of the district is less than 1 ha in extent. In terms of the size of a plot 51% of the holdings have an average plotsize of 0.19 ha while 24% has an average size of 0.59 ha. The limited extent of land holdings, stands Against the economical and effective use of inputs which in - 136 - - 135 -

Table 32: Size of Agricultural Land Holdings in Kegalle District Table 31: Crop Cultivation in Kegalle District Area (ha) 1W

Area cultivated in ha. Size in ha Number Percentage Total Average

Cr°Ps Total Estate Small Holders % of Total Less than 0.4 50,720 51 9, 457 0. 19

0.4 --0.8 24,188 24 - - 14,267 0. 59 -. —

Rubber ' 51,000 31,000 20,000 ' 44 0.8 -• 1.2 • 11,552 11 12,096 1. 05

Coconut 28,000 8,000 20,000 24 More than 1.2 13,888 14 39,830 2 . 87

Tea 7,400 1,250 6,150 6 Total 100,248 100 75,650 0. 75

Minor Exports 6,000 6,000 5

Fruit & Mixed 12,000 ' 12,000 11 Source : IRDP Project Kegalle IFAD (1985)

33 " Agricultural Landuse Private Ownership in Acres Rice 11,500 11,500 10 / Total 115,900 40,250 ' 75,650 100 Tea Rubber Coconut Mixed Minor :ood Paddy Ml Export C:rop s 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 Source: IRDP Project Kegalle IFAD 1985 aniyagala 508 1025 3095 228 1063 219 4758 914 743 41 593 29 297 32 iowita 125 . 450 5455 6855 1450 648 1544 1305 616 2 2941 35 787 21 iyantota 1411 1180 5486 4374 2205 795 9703 2343 2928 221 1043 151 1396 150 anwella 23 6084 4767 2682 1203 12927 2167 438 99 213 67 1365 66 fiayake 2366 489 2912 1715 1003 141 6984 1166 1729 480 729 7 3005 150 anella 335 179 2067 2258 1990 1077 5710 590 1464 139 583 104 4812 598 tokkana 1 0 1617 1502 5566 3357 4762 1525 484 126 317 22 4223 260 at le 190 49 3409 1494 1655 606 6050 560 711 27 380 3 2912 60 '9amuwa 30 34 4245 2416 3072 921 8262 832 697 42 370 8 2803 115 *apola 6493 4439 6854 2126 8073 727 761 92 639 71 3497 282 il 4972 3429 40863 30048 27540 11093 80743 12129 10571 1269 7808 497 25097 1734 59% 41% 58% 42% 71% 29% 87% 13% 89% 11% 94%' 6% 94% 6%

:e of the extent of cultivated plots..

less than 3 acres. "tore than 3 acres. 137 KEGALLE DISTRICT - Agricultural Land Use Private Ownership in Acres (Based on A.G.A. Divisions)

\ Acrei 10.000 Table 34: Agricultural Landuse • State Ownership in acres .J 8,000 i- 6,000 . Aoo/ o 2,000 nil %i Rambukkana \ Crops Tea Rubber Coconut Mixed Minor Food Paddy . -W. , >. AGA Division r .V 0 12 3 4 5 Export 1 1 1 1 Crops V...-, I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ' \ ( \ ' ' I •LoruJUM.—• ' •I. (8,000 r •.• S km - 1 1 e.OOOr"'\ ' '<..•! 6,00) '0 1.2 3 ? 3 1 2 3 123 123 12 3 1 2 j 6.O0IJ 4,000 | 1 4,000 2,000 Y/J i \ « Deraniyagala 2581 139 119 4102 10 242 190 39 65' 31 05 637 165 160 12 04 82 13 '.2,000 .0 i 2. 3' 4' 5 6 7 6 \ 12 3 4 V \ Land use5 6 7 8 \ L«r,dun •- Mawanella J • • Kegalle Dehiowita 1861 11 12777 93 122 21 10 112 12 395 2 ( I 6 109 34 1277 33 \ Acree \ ^ 8,000 Yatiyantota 6017 266 140 10708 160 642 3 23 72 173 195 936 3 50 151 i. 47 10 •^0,000 .—5 Warakapola \'000 III 4,000 I • I Aranayake Ruwanwella 7441 7 280 20 16 24 256 Acr«i ( J ILf i 11 \ o \2P00 1 \ 16,000 I 23456 78 .• 1 2 3 4 5 6li 7 t \ Land Ule ' —s Lond me \ \ \ Aranayaka 417 5 1 230 77 49 3 4 29 270 23 40 1 K Galigamuwa 4 i L, 14,000 / 12,000 •\ ) Acrei 10,000 • SIZE OF CULTIVATED PLOTS Mawanella 152 34 598 42 6 9 167 67 12 POO 18 3 8,000 LESS THAN 3 ACRES ) Ruwanwella 10,000 1 MORE THAN 3 ACRES Rambukkana 6,000 1014 34 16 128 18 123 20 - 6 254 10 1 6 10 7 2 9 10 3,000 / Y/j i 6,000 | 4,002,0000 Yaliyantota Lond Use Legend Kegalle 1772 28 2 2583 68 144 40 10 151 139 135 12 f"\- 4,000 70 41 2 1 Mm. V ! -I - Tea 12 34 5 6 7, 4cr 2- Rubber Land use / " \ J 2j000 1 16,000 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 J 3 - Coconut Galigamuwa 144 / 1 Landutt 4568 12 75 377 10 5 124 308 18 5 14 4 - Mixed ' 44 i 16,000 5 - Minor Exports 6 - Food.Crops 14,000 7 - Poddy Warakapola 182 1112 321 177 285 22 79 344 96 20 80 6 12,000 8 - Forest 10,000 r . Total I '•—s 8,000 (• 6,000 1. JEDB lands or SPC Acrei i A f^"\ 4,000 2. IRC lands 6.000 I ^ 2.000 4,000 . 3. Crown lands ^.Uili. .2 3 4 5 6 7 8 \ 2,000 |3 4 5 6 .7 \ Dehiowita' / Land ute ^ 'Deraniyagala <•' \ r V

Map 15. - 139 - 140

turn result a poor and inadequate output. This can be considered as the main cause of rural poverty in the 35.I Land Ownership Based on Huober of Faui lies district. Table 35 illustrates land ownership based jon number of families in the district. On the average 18% families are '3~acres- • More than Total landless. In addition to the the landless farmers, the Br of Less than 1/4 acre - 1 acre- 5 acres 5 acres No. of land ownening farmers too are incapacitated by the small size less 1/4 acre I 1 acre 3 acres I I Fasilies I of the plot. Land fragmentation is the result of enlarged ies I I 1 families and also the prevailing land tenure system in the N.A N.A N.A N.A District. Community consensus should be developed to arrest uramyagala N.A N.A N.A 13 .682 4 426 2 15190 100 land fragmentation. 5244! 35 3649 24 3280 . 22 1909 jhioHita 6262 100 1409 22 311 5 158 2 jliyantota 1310 21 1662 27 1412 23 ' 774 7 516 4 11789 100 22621 19 2687 23 3556 30 1994 17 Rubber is grown mainly on the steeper agricultural land and ijannella 14615 100 2369 16 591' • 4 294 _ 2 on rolling hills in the estate sector. Small-holders grow ranayake 2246 15 .4330 30 4735 33 ' 629 3 433 2 18823 100 3041 16 6818 36 . 5509 29 2398 13' rubber on steep slopes . as well as on valleys. Small wanel la 15900 100 2728 17 776 5 503 3 holder rubber yields are low due to poor tappig techniques, jibukkana 2723 17 3921 25 5249 33 17101 100 2402 14 679 4 302 2 limited use of inputs and the presence of a high percentage le 3120 • 18 4806 28 5792 34 845 5 443 3 17059 100 of old rubber trees. Some of the necessary improvements are 2257 13 5846 34 5190 30 2478 15 ^ligaauwa 22075 100 3735 17 1313 6 730 3 done at present, under the World Bank - financed small holder irakapola 2649 12 6697 30 6951 32 rubber project (Cr 1017-CE) 138819 41724 21422 6600 3805 slal 24852 40416 15.4 4.8 2.7. 100 Coconut is grown throughout the District. However, the centaqe 17.9 29.1 30.1 estates are concentrated in the north-western part of the District. Coconut plantations also have the problem of old trees, soil erosion and limited fertiliser applications. Some of these problems are attended by a project under an Asian Bank (ADB)/International fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).

Tea is grown at higher elevations dominated by small holdings where old seedling tea interplanted with an occasional coffee plants or some pepper vines. The average plant density is less than half the potential level of 12,350 plants/ha. Inadequate use of fertiliser and severe soil erosion, are major problems. The average yield in small holdings is very low when compared to better managed estates; ratio being 2: 10 ton/ha. The potentiality is there to increase the yield by in-filling the plantations with better tea plants, increasing the ,fertiliser quantity and also through better extension services. - 141 - - 142 -

Other Agricultural Activities Table 36 : Animal Husbandry in the District of Kegalle

Table 3 0 illustrates that a whole" variety of crops are suitable for the soils in the District. Coffee, cocoa,

cinnamon, pepper, mulberry, cloves, nutmeg and many varieties AGA Division Cattle Buffaloes Poultry Goats Turkey & Ducks Pigs of fruits and vegetables are suited to the existing soil types. As a result nearly 6,000 ha within the district are cultivated with minor export crops. Out of the minor exports, coffee comprises 4 3% while pepper and cloves occupy joeraniyagala 693 112 3447 726 54 12 another 17% and 13% of land respectively. Dehiowita 2343 571 12139 2321 77 82 Minor export crops in the District are cultivated as mixed garden crops in home gardens along with fruit and nut trees jatiyantota 2210 1131 19336 2423 '7 34 and trees for fuelwood. Thus the minor export crops in the

District are not systematically tendered. Very little Kuwanwella 1743 1672 5934 1250 30 ( 186 fertiliser is used and people do not have a sense about quality seedlings and plants. There is tremendous Aranayaka . 1235 1306 10037 2321 _ potentiality in minor export crop cultivation in the District. the arable land not presently cultivated (Table Kawanella 1587 1521 24190 1679 14 257 28) can be successfully utilised for minor export crop production with proper extension services. Rambukkana 1604 3064 17371 841 - -

6 Livestock Kegalle 1155 1441 14687 1290 47 182

Table 36 contains the distribution of livestock in the AGA Ealigamuwa 1157 ' 2205 17418 1237 42 134 Divisions. Livestock play a very important ancillary role in the agricultural economy of Kegalle District. Cattle, L'arakapola 1867 3609 13018 1237 42 134 buffaloes and goat are the main types of animals reared in the District. Cattle and buffaloes not only supplement farm total 15594 16632 139577 14889 . 271 887 labour but also is a good source of nutrition specially in the form of milk. It also supplement the farm family budget. Nrce : Kachcheri - Kegalle Buffaloes in the Kegalle District provide as much as 60% of the total farm labour and bulls provide a substantial proportion of energy as draught animals.

Poultry along with turkey and pig farming are also found in the District. This has a very great potentiality not only supplying the much need animal protein to the rural families but also as a source of income generation. There is a ready market in the Greater Colombo Area if animal husbandry can be established on commercial scale based on scientific techniques. Infrastructural facilities and institutional arrangements should be properly strengthened. At present there is an on-going projected funded by the Asian Development Bank (LN.2576-CE) - 143 -

- L44 - 3.1.7 Agricultural Institutions

.9 The Problem of encroachment on State Lands Department of Agriculture provides extension services for paddy, subsidiary crops, fruits and" vegetables. ^Special projects for farm women and young farmers are carried out, The term 'encroachment' refers to intrusion on State lands or under the Agricultural Extension and Adaptive Research 'Crown land" as defined by the Crown Lands Encroachment Project (Cr.931-CE). An Assistant Director heads the Kegalle Ordinance No.12 of 1840. Crown Lands include all forest, extension services, assisted by 2 subject matter officers. waste, unoccupied or uncultivated land, and streams and road The District is divided into 2 zones for purposes of reservations. The Waste Lands Ordinance of 1897 classifies >- delivering agricultural extension services. However, the the relative position of the Crown and 'the subject' with limited number of official staff, lack of vehicular regard to title in subsequent years. facilities in addition to the unsatisfactory state of public transport and the difficult nature of the terrain are Encroachment on Crown Land -is a common feature in most parts limitations against providing adequate extension services to j the rural farmers in the District. Lack of proper knowledge of Sri Lanka since Independence. It is believed that the ~ about the correct agricultural techniques among the farmers lenient attitude of successive Governments has contributed in is one main cause of environmental degradation in the a great measure to encourage encroachments. Thus, it is district. Although the farmers have the right to know about mentioned that "by 1977 the unauthorized occupation of State ~ the proper use of land and other agricultural inputs through Lands had reached'gigantic and unmanageable proportions the extension services, the help that the farmers receive ar«e the magnitude of which was such that even law abiding grossly inadequate. citizens preferred to believe that encroachment on state lands was the regular process to claim avrership. to a block of The Agriculture Department has a farmer training centre at Wagolla with 12 ha of land and facilities to house about_ 50 land". (Administration Report 1983 ML and LD). "~ trainees. However lack of resources in terms of finance and personnel hinder proper and adequate training operations. The encroachment survey.conducted in 1979 has discovered that Extension programmes for tea, rubber, coconut and minor nearly 6% of the total area of the island had been encroached ~~ exports are carried out by respective Departments. upon by over a half a million people. Between the six year period of 1979 to 1985 there had been some 104,490 new 3.1.8 Agricultural Inputs encroachments on an extent of 70,646 ha. This is an indication that encroachments on State land is a continuous The Coconut Cultivation Board, Rubber control Department and ! tea estates, supply fertiliser directly to small holders feature in Sri Lanka. . . growing these crops. The Ceylon Fertiliser Corporation through Multi-purpose Co-operative societies and Agrarian According to the survey in 1979 the Province of Sabaragamuwa Service Centres supply fertiliser to paddy, horticulture and ranked very low in the list showing extent of encroached minor exports. Private importers in Colombo Operate in the land. Generally a high rate .of increase in encroachment may -. District through about 30 retail traders. However, the be a symptom of acute land-hunger on the one hand and ] remote villages in the southern parts of the district are not the availability of land to encroach upon on the other. adequately served by the distribution network. Agro- Hence, the low rate in the Sabaragamuwa Province may be -j chemicals are distributed through Thrift Societies. interpreted as a result of shortage of land rather than the

Tea seedlings are obtained by the small holders through Tea absence of a land hunger. 1 Small holders Development Authority which operates a nursery | at Hinguloya with an annual capacity of 125,000 vegetatively During the same survey a high rate of encroachment on stream propagated seedlings. Small holders also obtain their tea reservations we^e reported from the Sabaraganuwr Province. -i seedlings from the nearby estates. However, the production The availability of water for cultivation and the presence of J does not fully meet the existing demand. good soil on stream banks and the non-availability if land elsewhere are.obvious reasons for such encroachments„ - 145 - r

As discussed under watershed management in this report, encroachments on stream reservations can result in several serious environmental problems such-- as diminishing stream flows, drying of springs, soil erosion, siltation of river •it.)t 17; Reported Number oi f-'.i^oroachrn^iJ: ir. f.h<; District of Koqallo beds with resultant flash floods, and also severe floods in down stream areas. The encroachment in the steep slopes may lead to slope instability and earthslips. In view of these eroached Requiarhed Hot regularized !o be reodanzs* AGA Division Nuaoer encroacheo detrimental consequences, the encroachments on stream Piois Acreage Plots Acreage Plots Acreage Plots Acreage +reservations and steep slopes should never be regularized.

Encroachments in the District

The Table 3 7 indicates the reported number of encroachments Deftiowts based on AGA Divisions. The reported total number of

encroached t plots in the District in 1990 is 7158 with an 10c acreage of 5401 (1 ha = 2.47 acres). Out of this total sliyar.tota number of plots 60% are.already regularized. Another 12% belong to the category which should not be regularized and RuKdnBeiia the balance are to be regularized. Out of the total acreage U, A f-!. A encroached upon, 59% are regularized and another 14% are Aranayake found to be environmentally not condusive to allocate as permanent plots.

The largest number of encroached plots are in the Deraniyagala Division, numbering 2161 with an acreage of 2609 making the average extent of an eroached plot to be 1.2 acres. Dehiowita with 1585 encroaches rank as the second, amounting to a acreage of 1137. In this case the main reason for encroachment can be reasoned as landlessness (Table 35). In the Division of Dehiowita 35% of the families are landless, and 24% of the families have less than 1/4 acre for 3207 Si! their use. Another 22% of the families own only between 1/4 and 1 acre. In addition to the landlessness the extent of land available for a family is inadequate for a reasonable income as the majority of the people in Dehiowita are engaged in agriculture. The average extent of an encroached plot is 0.7 acres which can be attributed to the lack of usable land due to the topography. - 147 - - 148 -

The Division of Yatiyantota had 1238 people encroached upon 529 acres of state land, still making the average size of a of arable land, private as well as State ov/ned which are not plot to be small with 0.4 acres. Yatiyantota, has 20% of its families as landless. In the Division of Yatiyantota 27% of utilized for any cultivation. Within the District of Kegalle the families own less than 1/4 acre of land each, while there are 13,791 acres of arable land which are not being another 23% owns between 1/4 acre to 1 acre plots. used for cultivation, and out of this 91% are highlands. Galigamuwa is another Division which has a fair number of Out of the highlands 57% belong to the State. When there is encroachers. Here 888 people have encroached upon 472 acres. arable land lying idle, the community who has a severe land

In the Division of Galigamuwa although the percentage of hunger is tempted to encroached upon. landless families account only for 151; the plots owned by a majority of the families are very small in extent, where 34% Another reason for encroachment is the policy of owns less than 1/4 acre plots and another 30% owns between 1/4 acre to 1 acre plots. In this case .the encroachment may regularization of the encroached land. As mentioned earlier, be induced by the inadequacy of the extent of the land owned encroachment is considered as a pathway to an ownership of a by the families. plot of land. Non-enforcement of prevalent rules and regulations and the political patronage at the local level The least number of encroachers are reported from Mawanella. are strong reasons to encourage encroachments on State Land. This may be mainly due to the unavailability of land that could be encroached upon. In the Division of Mawanella 36% of the families own plots with an extent of less than 1/4 A survey carried out by the Land Commission (1987) reveals acres. that a large majority of the Local Level officials believe 'that a rigid policy should be -adopted in evicting In the Division of Kegalle 18% of the families are landless encroachers from critical reservations and strict discipline and 475 families have encroached upon the state land. should be maintained among divisional level officers who (Appendix 3 shows the details of the extent of land

1 handle the subject of encroachment. The Commission further encroached upon on the wild life reserve of 'Kurulu Kele .) points out that, since the lack of employment opportunities Reasons for encroachment emerged as the most dominant causation factor for encroachment, it is necessary to explore possible avenues of It is possible that a fair proportion of encroachers are not employment and income generations for encroachers. It is entirely landless people. The land Commission (1987) also stated that the 'disproportionate relation to the actual believes that one of the primary reasons for encroachment may be the unrealistic allocation of land for public purposes demand by the people forms the root cause of the problem of where land set apart remain idle. Table 2 8 shows the extent encroachment1 . - 149 - 150

3.1.10 Rural Industries fcable 3 8 Industries employ about 23,129 males,and 15,260 females. The estate related industries comprise about 480 rubber, inirai Industries in the district of Kegalle 60 tea and 15 coconut processing establishments and related activities. The stagnant nature of the estate sector has limited the growth of industrial employment. j^GA Division Total Industries

State Sector Industries Small Industries Cottage Industries

Public Sector industries in the district are very few. No.of No.of No.of No. of State Mining and Mineral Development Ltd. has graphite Industries employee Industries employee industrial .enterprises at Ragedera, Bogala, Kotiyakumbura and Bulathkotupitiya, while National Packaing Materials corporation has a factory at Warakapola. Other state run industries in the District are mainly training-cum- deraniyagala 227 297 n.a n.a production establishments. There are 18 handloom textile centres, 16 handicraft and sewing centes, 11 carpentry, 8 )ehiowita . 38 .169 32 94 coir, cane and reedware, 4 ceremics and 2 light engineering. Although, originally the State set up these atiyantota 120 5,14 315 487 centres mainly for training, at present they are mere production oriented. However, these centres are runing at Juwanwella 114 ' 573 ' 89 132 a loss with government subsidies. ranayake 157. 784 ' 1119 2886 Cooperative enterprise fawanella 129 866 413 793

In 1960's } 2 large co-operatives with 186 centres with a total of about 1500 handlooms started production. But ambukkana 119 434 461 601 today these looms are id ling due to mismanagement, political interference and the inadequacy in competing with egalle 116 736 1119 2886 power-loom cotton cloth. These 2 co-operatives still operate with about 450 people, producing about 300,000 yards aligamuwa 24 82 ' ;655 2921 of material annually. Some enterprising weavers have switched over to silk textile weaving but still these are Warakapola 149 193.4 1235 2561 in a very infant stage. - 152 - - 151 -

Private Sector Industries However, the formal credit institutions have failed to reach the majority of small farmers and industiralists in the District. Loan processing is costly and complicated There are about 1193 small scale industries and 5439 which discourage the rural people. Only abput 2,5% of rural cottage ihdusties in the district. (Table 38) Industries that belong to this category are carpentry and furniture producers in the District use formal sources of credit, making , wood carving, black smithy, light engineering and while 75% resorted to informal sources such as merchants, small repair ... garages, copper and brass works, gold money lenders, landlords and kinsman. smithy, electrical works, textiles, tailoring and garment making, mat weaving, brick and tile making, fibre workes, Marketing and Trade metel quarrying, beedi wrapping, clay works, alluminium works, rice processing, lime burning, bakery, welding, There are about 8835 licensed private traders in the curing tobacco, coir industry and leather works. These district of Kegalle. In addition there are,. 16 village industrial units are very small and techniques used are fairs and 10 multi-purpose unions. About 460 co-operative simple. In addition, to these cottage industries too are societies are also operating within the district. operating at homes involving family labour. ' The State policy with regard to marketing has been to Rural Credit expand the role of private traders, while concentrating public sector activities on stabilising the market within acceptable limits of seasonal price variation. The principal sources of institutional credit in the District are the People's Bank, lending directly to farmers and indirectly through the co-operative Rural Banks, Bank Small-holders in the district usually sell their tea to of Ceylon which lends directly to rural producers; and middlemen traders or directly to the public estates or Thrift and Credit Co-operative Societies or village based private tea factories. Coffee, pepper, and cloves produced savings and loan association. in the district are marketed either through petty traders or directly to dealers stationed in the towns of Kegalle, Mawanella and Warakapola. These dealers in turn come into Peoples Bank operates in the District through a regional supply-contracts with the dealers in Colombo. head office, 14 branch officers and 41 Cooperative Rural Banks. Bank of Ceylon has a district office and 10 branches. The majority of loans from these 2 banks are Rural Infrastructure given to traders, especially to urban customers. Roads Agriculture loans constitute only about 10% . At present 4 Trunk Roads pass through the District namely, Al road these 2 banks lack field staff, transport and training in linking Colombo and Kandy to Kegalle, A7 Awissawella- rural finance to encourage the broad and effective credit Hatton -Nuwera Eliya road traversing through Kegalle; A19 programmes for small farmers and industrialists. Kegalle-Polgahawela Road and'A21 Kegalle-Karanewella Road. There short rail link which passes across Rambukkana AGA Thrift, and Credit Co-operative societies (TCCS) are Division joins the District to the Railway network of the scattered all over the District located in about 350 island. villages. TCCS are the main rural lender in the District- Out of the loans in 1984, 52% are for agriculture. The There are nearly 1,130 Km. of public roads in the District main constraint in TCCS is the limited access to funds. (1986) (Table 39) In addition, there are 1,019 roads which came under the jurisdiction of Municipal Council and other local bodies which are now coming under Pradeshiya Sabhas (Table 40) . - 153 - - 154 -

•The roads under Road Development Authority (RDA) are Maintained to a reasonable standards. In 1990 only A & B

R0ads with a length of 390.76 Km. were maintained by the Table 3 9 RpA. But the roads which are under local bodies are in a state of disrepair. The absence of link roads to connect Roads Maintained by RDA under chief Engineer (1986) Km. in isolated villages with the public roads, hinder the benefit the District of Kegalle 0f the public road network reaching the majority of the rural population Table 41 gives the available data on the Paved Unpaved % out of national total distribution of road network based on AGA Divisions. 3.5 A Class 143.89 5.2 gural Roads B Class 246.87 43.25 4 . 4 C Class 412.22 61.79 4.8 Rural roads can be categorised as: D Class 202.80 20. 00 E Class i Farm to market roads. ' 125.04 ii Feeder roads to the rural road network Total 1,005.78 iii Major rural roads.

Source: Road Development Authority. At the moment one cannot be happy about the state of the rural roads in the District. Although some of the major • rural roads are up-graded , the farm to market roads and Table .40 feeder roads are generally in a state of disrepair. Since almost all these roads are either graveled roads or 'dust' Roads under Local Authorities Km. roads they are not all-weather roads. During the monsoon period most of these roads are impassable with muddy and Metelled & Tarred 272 soggy surfaces. Agricultural officers, input suppliers and Graveled 548 marketing agents, do not reach villages due to poor state Other 199 of access roads. Total 1019

Rural roads or 1 minor-roads' come under the jurisdiction Source : Road Development Authority. of the local bodies, viz the Pradeshiya Sabhas and the Table 41 Gramodaya Mandalas. .These Local bodies right now face many problems in maintaining and up keeping of these roads, Road NetWork - Length in Km. among which; " E" Esta "A" "B" "C" "D" * Insufficiency of funds 46.8 na na Deraniyagala nil 27 . 8 2 6.5 * Inappropriate identification of priorities * Lack of necessary skills in handling funds Dehiowita 08 22 . 4 17 . 5 04 . 0 na na Yatiyantota 55 25.93 29.84 05 . 0 na na * Political interference, Ruwanwella nil nil 28.24 17 . 5 na na are predominant. 74.8 91.0 na Aranayaka nil 9 . 5 28 . 9 Mawanella 8.4 37.76 45.39 11. 6 na na Rambukkana 6.4 6.4 49.6 56 . 0 na na 15.9 198 . 50" na Kegalle 15. 5 4 . 0 39 . 0 Galigamuwa 7 23 . 0 39 . 0 5.0 na na Warakapola 11. 2 12 . 0 37.4. 6 . 5 na na

na 111. 5 280 . 3 314 . 5 2431 na - 155 -

At the local level, although machinery , personnel and know how maybe available the above mentioned issues interfere with the road development programmes. s KEGALLE DISTRICT - Transportation Network and Some Services 1 Kurvnttjolo The funds for the local bodies come mainly from the Central

Government. Any funds given by the donor agencies, ..i \ ?/ although may be for rural roads, still have to come through | \Kudogomo\ the Central Government. Wetlgamuv. '.POLGAHWELA However, due to the inherent weaknesses in local bodies in Wofcotu>

Map 17. Vehicles - 157 - - 158 -

Table 42 gives an idea about the most popular modes of transport in the District. Push cycle and motor cycle form>| The majority of persons living in the urban areas in the the most popular vehicle. Public transport is supplied by < District are provided with relatively safe piped water distributed through community stand-pipes. However, similar vans which are operated as goods cum passenger vehicles.~ facilities are available to less than loC of the rural' Time tables are not generally adhered to. population. The main source of drinking water in village areas is open dug wells, and a 25% of the rural population still depend on streams and ponds for drinking water. Table 42 - Nnsber and Type of Vehicles in the District of Kegalle Table 43 shows the number of families in need of safe Vans Lorries 4 wheel 2 wheel H.cars ft.cycles Push cycles Carts Boats drinking water. In the Division of Dehiowita, for instance, Tractor Tractor as much as 63% of the population need safe drinking water. 50% of the population in almost all divisions are in need of safe drinking water. A3 na na One of the major problems . with regard to drinking water 5.0 673 1826 contamination. This is mainly due to lack of latrine fin n 3 na facilities in' the villages. Table 43 shows the • number of I 1 £ 430 1608 families in need of latrines. In general as much as 44% to AR 350 1010 62% of the families need latrines. People who do not have 216 643 145? latrine facilities normally use areas close to water bodies. 68? it; /; Theschuman excreta mixing into the water, tend to pollute •17 Z 1432 the water with these biological contaminants. The available latrines are also pit type which are not hygienic. The result of human excreta getting into water bodies is the extensive prevalence of intestinal and bowel diseases in the District. Water Supply and Sanitation Especially during the rainy season the villagers who live down-streams are subjected to dysentery, diarrhea and other bowel diseases. Department of Health Services is aware of In the rural sector of Sri Lanka only 60% of the population the situation and currently /there are some programmes of has access to a recognised .water supply facility . The health education. Introduction of proper latrines, balance 40% funds water from various sources. However, especially under Integrated Rural Development Project is 84.5% of the rural population use dug^well water and another being undertaken but it is not adequate enough to arrest the 8.5% obtain their water supply from rivers, streams and magnanimity of the problem. reservoirs.Only 5.1% is supplied with pipe-borne water. . However, with regard to sanitation the provision of adequate Water also gets contaminated through other sources such as excreta disposal facilities is even lower than that of water solid waste; i, factory wastse, animal excreta and chemical supply levels. pollutants. The sources of these vary from uncontrolled waste disposal in the town areas to factory wastes of river pollution. An example is the , silk weaving factor in the In general, as much as 3 6.5% in the rural sector do not have Kegalle town. Another example Is the rubber factories at any form of toilet facilities. Pit lavatories are Deraniyagala Division polluting Kumburegam Oya and the Magal predominant in the country, and 43.5% of the rural toilets Oya. are pit lavatories. Only 17.5% in rural areas have water seal toilets. Out of all the housing units in the island Extensive use of both organic and inorganic fertilizers, only 5% have flush toilets. pesticides, weedicides and insecticides especially in the southern hilly areas, are additional causes polluting the water bodies. So far studies have not been done in the The National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) and the District of Kegalle to establish the extent of water Urban Council are responsible for the provision of water into pollution. the Kegalle urban area. In the rural areas the Ministry of Health and the NWSDB are the key organizations, while in the estate sector, Sri Lanka Estate Plantation Corporation and the Janatha Estate Development Board are the leading Institutions to supply water. - 159 - - i6d -

AMENITIES IN THE DISTRICT OF KEGALLE Housing

In the District of Kegall-« there is a shortage of living quarters. In some AGA Di/isions housing problem is very 43 Tabic Total Number Number of Number of Number of acute. For instance in .LGA Divisions of Warakapola and of families in fami Iies in families in Aranayake, out of • the total families 28% and 24% i families need of houses need of need of safe respectively, need housiij g facilities. In all other latrines % drinking water % Divisions the percentage of families in need of housing, vary between 6% and 11% (Table 43|) 1. Deraniyagala 9562 n.a n.a 5941 62 4002 42 Lighting Dehiowita 15190 1652. 11 9122 60 9611 63 About 80% of the households in the country are lit with 3. Yatiyantota 19930 1647 8 10860 55 9364 47 kerosene lamps and this is^common to the District of Kegalle as well. Although the District of Kegalle comprises the Ruwanwel la 11789 943 8 5894 50 4646 40 wettest region of Sri Lanka, and high-tension transmission lines are passing through the District (Map 16) only a very Aranayake 14615 3489 24 7730 53 6445 46 small fraction of the community uses hydro-electricity. Even this small fraction uses electricity solely for lighting of Mawanel la 18828 5290 28 9240 49 9827 •52 houses. Table 4 3 shows the number of families who uses electricity, and the percentage varies between 6% and 24%. Rambukkana 15900 945 7829 49 7906 50 Only 2 AGA Divisions, namely Mawanella and Kegalle, 24% and 2.1% respectively, represent the highest percentage of Kegalle 17101 1548 8546 50 7529 44 families using hydro-electricity. . ) 9. Galigamuwa 17059 1277. 8 88678 51 8588 51 There are several waterfalls/ in the District (Table 3) which can be harnessed through mini-hydral power plants to supply 10. Warakapola 22075 n.a n.a 9764 44 11387 52 the much needed energy to light ^the houses.

14 Social Infrastructure i

Education

There are about 611 schools in the Kegalle District out of which about 95 are Maha Vidyalayas and 07 are Madya Maha Vidyalayas (Table 44). In 1985 these were 9 schools per 30 km of area and over 10 schools per 10,000 population.

Table 44A shows the student/teacher ratio which is fairly satisfactory. In 1985 a total of 7748 teachers were there in the District comprising with 1224 graduates 4982 trained teachers, and 1596 untrained teachers. Yet, lack of teaching facilities and equipment, especially with - 162 -

Table 44

KEGALLE DISTRICT - ELECTRICITY SUPPLY Distribution of Schools in Kegalle District '

Technical ESCaCe.. . Total AGA Primary Kanista Maha Hadya Maha Tami I Division schools v-idyalayas vidyalayas vidyalayas schools col lege Schools No o Schoo

53 Rambukkana 15 21 16 01 Yatiyantota 59 . 21 01 30 111 Ruwanwella 16 13 4 01 01 •' 2 37 Galigamuwa 21 23 11 01 56 Kegalle 01 60 Dehiowi ta •35 08 19 01 63 Warakapola 29 30 14 01 01 76 Hawanella 19 26 14 01 60 Deraniyagala 38 04 42 01 53 i • Aranayake 25 21 07 i M • H' 95 07 20 02 03 611 I Total 395 Source:. Kegalle Kachcheri

Table 44A

No of school children and Teachers in the District of kegalle

Power station AGA No.of School No.of teachers Student teacher No of Division Children ' ratio. schools Grid sub station 220 k V- Transmission line (Under construction) Rambukkana 18069 701 •' 26:1 53 .32 kV Transmission line Yatiyantota 21518 747 28:1 111 66 kV Transmission line Ruwanwella 13766 691 18:1 37 33 kV Transmission line 22.11:01 56 33' kV.Transmission line Galigamuwa 16564 749 (Under Construtlon) Kegalle 25241 1188 21:1 60 Dehiowita 14391 754 19:1 63 Warakapola 24999 1132 22:1 76 Mawanella 22015 1229 18:1 60 Deraniyagala ' 9398 501 19:1 42 Aranayake 14696 584 25:1 53

Source: Kegalle Kachcheri

Map. 16 - 163 -

regard to science teaching and vocational education, and also the impassable nature of the access roads during the - 164 - South West Monsoon periods hamper, the maintenance proper/ educational levels. Schools lack drinking water facilities, Table 44C toilet facilities and also class room furniture which act as impediments. Educational Attainment of persons 30 years and over -1981

Table 44B shows the percentage of persons 5-19 years District of attending schools by age and sex. There is a vast Kegalle Total Male Female improvement in the level of attendance from 1971 to 1981. No Schooling 20.8 11. 2 30.5 As much as 88% of children between 5-9 years and also 10-14 1-4 16.4 18.1 14.7 years attend school. However, secondary school 5-9 47.4 55. 5 39.2 attendance is rather low . But in general, the average GCE(0/L) school attendance in the District is above the national <6 Subject 5.1 4.9 5.4 averages. GCE(0/L) 6 or > 6.5 6.7 6.4 Table 44C shows the educational attainment of persons 3 0 Higher 2.7 3 .1 2.4 years and over in the District. 21% of the population do not have education with a higher percentage of 3 0% with Source: Census & Statistics Dept. regard to females. Majority of the population over 30 years have received education upto 5-9 years. The percentage with regard to higher education is very low. Health

Table 44-B The District of Kegalle is served by one base hospital, with more than 150 beds. The facilities provided in this hospital is fairly satisfactory . There are 18 central Dispensaries 4 Parentage of Persons 5 to 19 years attending schools by. age & Sex Maternity homes with 11 beds in each, 5 central Dispensaries with Maternity Homes, 6 Rural hospitals with 22 beds in each, District 5-9 10-14 15-19 pheripheral Hospitals with 30 beds in each and seven District hospitals in seven AGA Divisions with more than 50 Kegalle 1971 1981 1971 1981 1971 1981 beds in each. In addition there are 8 visiting heathe Total 63.7 88.3 74.3 88.6 38.8 52.7 stations and 13 school dental clinics. Male 64.4 88.4 75.6 88.8 38.7 50.9 Female 63.0 88.2-72.9 88.-5 38.9 54.6 There' are Anti-Malaia campaign, Anti-VD campaign and Auti- Sri Lanka Leprosy campaign maintaining regional units in the District. Total 60.9 85.4 69.8 82.7 34.5 42.1 There are, also preventive health projects which include

ale 61 6 vacination against communicable diseases, medical examination M - 85.6 72.2 83.2 36.5 41.3 Female 60.2 85.2 .67.4 82.3 32.4 42.9 of school children and village level health education programmes There is a primary health care programmes funded Source: Census & static- by the Asian Development Bank operating in 3 AGA Divisions in statistics Dept. Kegalle District. - 165 - - 166 -

ENVIRONMENTAL. ISSUES AND CONSERVATION From these observations it follows that there is a close correlation between man and the forest in the district of Depletion of Forests «- , Kegalle. The clearance of forest J_s invariably to satisfy the land needs of the growing population. Thus, the The Table 11 shows the landuse types in the district of conservator faces a dilemma and the approach and strategy for Kegalle based on AGA divisions. It also gives the area in conservation have to be formulated carefully and hectares under each landuse type. The data in the Table systematically. reveals that 91.5% of the land area in the District is cultivated. This suggests on the one hand, that the 4.1.1 Effects of deforestation District is highly populated and on the. other, that there is an increasing thirst for land. From the first, it stems that There are several detrimental effects consequent upon the there is a growing demand for timber and fuel' wood; while the reduction of the forests in any area. . The District of second factor indicates a threat through encroachements to Kegalle is highly vulnerable to environmental hazards such as the natural forest lands and other reserves. Hence, the landslides and rockfalls as a result of deforestation mainly planners and decision 'makers are faced with the dual problem due to its geographical factors, especially the physical of satisfying the human needs and at the same time landscape and the climate. maintaining the environmental stability. Another effect of deforestation is the diminishing timber The Table 11 also gives the density of population per hectare supply. With the growing population the demand for timber is and it indicates that there is a negative correlation between also growing. Immediate steps have to be taken to meet the area under forest cover and the density of population. this demand and also to sustain the forest cover to meet the Lesser the density of population larger the extent of land demands of the future generations. In addition, the biomass under forest cover. This suggests that the increase of supply too is getting depleted due to deforestation. Out of population is basically responsible for the dwindling of the the total consumption of energy in the district, more than natural forests. 90% is supplied by biomass. In the domestic sector the preparation of food is totally dependent on biomass. This deduction is further reinforced by the fact that the Therefore, in order to have a continuous supply of biomass to largest land extent is under homesteads in Divisions where the community, conservation and management of forests are the forest cover is minimal-. For example, in the Division important. of Kegalle where the natural forest cover is nil the land under homesteads constitutes.43% of the total land area. At The depletion of natural forests threatens the extinction of the other extreme there is Deraniyagala Division in which the birds and animals. It also could cause the extinction of homesteads account for only 19% of the land while forest gene-pools of certain indigenous and endangered, not only cover constitutes 23% of the area. animal and bird species, but also tree species. In addition, the depletion of forest cover leads to the disturbance in the Similar observation can be made in terms of forest cover and environment appearance.^ Natural environment should be the density of population per hectare. For example, the preserved to fulfil the esthetic needs of the community. density of population per hectare is only 1.86 in the Deraniyagala Division which is the lowest for the District while Deraniyagala poesses the largest extent of forest cover. Same observation is true for the Division of Yatiyantota. - 167 - - 168 - •2 The benefits of forest conservation Watershed management should take a priority place in the development policies. Legislation and regulations should The benefits that can accrue by conservation of forests be strictly enforced and institutional framework should be cannot be measured in monetary terms alone. For instance, strengthened for effective enforcementThe'economic aspects presently the contribution to the GNP by the forestry sector should be carefully taken into consideration in monitoring in Sri Lanka is only 1%. Yet, that does not mean that the and evaluating the legislation and regulations. The share of contribution to GNP should increase before investing enforcement officers should be adequately trained and money on the forestry sector. The more important roles necessary skills should be given. Adequate research on the such as environmental stability and the satisfaction of human causes and the effects of watershed depletion should be an needs should be taken into account than the monetary on-going process. The public should be educated and made benefits. The indirect effects of an enriched forestry aware of the importance of proper watershed management. The sector will definitely trickle down to all other sectors of peoples participation is an essential ingredient in watershed the economy. Hence, the benefits of the forestry sector management. People' should be motivated and activated by cannot be measured in isolation, in absolute monetary terms. ensuring them of sustained environmental economic and social • 3 watershed Management benefits^ as consequences of proper watershed management. In dealing with the public to safeguard the watersheds the approach should be retributive rather than punitive. The majority of the population in the District of Kegalle live on agriculture. The population also is growing. Hence, All remaining wet zone forests, especially in all catchment there is the need to maximise food production. Due to population expasion more land is needed for cultivation and areas should be protected. No new land clearing, should be settlements. This leads to, encroachments on the watershed permitted in the wet zone. Reforestation of the abandoned areas and the depletion of the forest cover. Ironically the chena lands and bare-lands in catchments areas and banks of agriculture needs water and the depletion of the forest cover all water bodies should be done almost immediately. has its impact on the water resources. In watershed management, soil conservation and forestry should be integrated.. In erosion prone areas it is essential Watershed management based on correct scientific guidelines should be an integral part of the development programmes of to establish complete vegetative cover or tree cover by the District. This is essential as there are three rivers suitable agro silvicultural means with minimum soil which find their origin in the mountains of the District. disturbances. These three watersheds, Maha Oya, Attangalu Oya and Kelani Ganga involve the- ecological and economic well-being of not Integrated research should be encouraged with forest only the inhabitants within the District but also of several hydrology and Tree physiology to discover more appropriate millions numbers outside the District. tree species to catchment areas with qualities such as a good growth on degraded slopes, conserve soil and water resources, evergreen canopies and dense litter. There are several constraints and shortcomings which act as negative impediments for proper watershed management. These Hydrological research to test the effect of different species are not specific to the District of Kegalle but are common to all areas in Sri Lanka. on local conditions should be a continuous exercise.

Opening up of adequate network of roads . to conduct supervision and safeguard against illicit logging is desirable. - 169 - - 170 -

Watershed management approach should be multi-disciplinary. District. The district with its Reddish Brown loamy soil Team approach with different disciplines such as Meteorology, appears to have the highest potential for soil erosion in the Climatology, Geology, Pedology, Landuge, Irrigation, whole island. The encroachments oh reserved lands should be Hydrology, Agriculture, Fisheries, Animal -Husbandry and arrested if soil conservation is to be effected. The Forestry should be applied. clearance of the vegetative cover for chena cultivation could lead to soils loosing its nutritive value thereby becoming 4.1.4 Forestry and the Soils unproductive. The heavy rain which falls on cleared slopes can cause severe floods or severe soil erosion thereby not Scientifically it can be proved that all living things are only making the hill slopes bear but also damaging the interdependent. Any change that drastically interferes with cultivated land down the slope. The bear land accelerates any living or biochemical cycle may have its repercussion or the run-off causing further soil erosion and also resulting impact on life as a whole. If forest cover - is removed floods in lower slopes. The soil thus eroded by run-off can indiscriminately it can have its impact on other life giving cause siltation of the river valley which is the major cause resources. of floods in Divisions such as Yatiyantota, Dehiowita and Ruwanwella. The heavy and rapid run-off reduces the Soil can be considered as the most important life supporting percolation and infiltration of water into the earth which element out of all the resources of the District since the affects the water table and the quantity of ground water. majority of the people in the district live on agriculture. The nature of the geology in the district is such that a In addition, the agricultural products in the district steep slope devoid of vegetative cover and soil layer, when largely contribute to the external trade of the country as subjected to heavy rainfall with rapid run-off causes well. landslides in areas if the slope had been' cleared for chena cultivation and other activities. There should be an adequate consideration given in development plans for the soil factor. Soil tests and Effective soil conservation methods should be strictly analyses should be pre-requisites in locating agricultural followed if the present productivity of the land to be projects, formulating cropping patterns for different areas maintained let alone increasing the productivity. selecting crop types, choosing land for irrigation projects, estimating and deciding on irrigation and fertiliser The slopes which are subjected to severe soil erosion should requirements, recommending the type of agricultural practice be reclaimed by replanting these slopes with an appropriate and recommendating farm layout plans. Soils should be taken vegetative cover. Instead of chena cultivation peasants into consideration in all types of landuse planning. should be offered with alternative opportunities through productive agro-forestry system. Utilisation, conservation and management of forest resources also depend on the soil conditions. By controlling the soil erosion on agricultural crop lands and also on watershed areas, agricultural productivity with a All development plans should give priority to soil erosion, sustainable yield can be expected. soil conservation and soil management. The slopes over 45° should be managed properly in terms of soil factor. The Soil erosion also can affect the potability of the water. clearing of forests in the steep slopes and catchment areas When the slopes are washed away^ the waters carry with them should be strictly prohibited in view of the ridge and valley not only soils but also chemicals, artificial plant nutrients topography and the nature of the rainfall of the Kegalle ; and also other organic matter which in turn get into water bodies. These pollute the water thereby reducing the potability level of the water. - 171 - - 172 -

5 Forests and Soil Conservation 4.1.6 Forest cover and Rainfall/Run-off

Forests are effective in ameliorating soil erosion, especially In recent discussions it has been mentioned that elimate is if the soil is undisturbed. The tree canopy intercepts becoming drier due to deforestation, while rivers run at low rainfall and reduces its energy. Rain drops that reach the levels with high sedimentation. However, there is no ground are readily absorbed by the leaf litter and then by evidence as to any effects of forests on the occurrence of the soil, avoiding splash erosion. Even if the forests have rainfall. It is argued that the evaporation from forests a relatively impervious sub-soil, run-off water would increases rainfall, but Penman (1963) concludes that although dissipate less vigorously through various root decay vegetation has an effect on rainfall distribution, there is channels or animal burrows. However, when forest is no evidence as to any effect of forest cover to the amount of destroyed by logging operations or by forest fire, the precipitation to be received. natural protection from erosion is taken off. Extensive

deforestation reduces transpiration and may leave the sub­ Abernathy (1976) studied the variation -in run-off/rainfall soil perennially wet and impervious. The .sun light fallen on ratio over a period of 2 5 years, in some selected river the soil surface causes rapid decay of organic layers. The catchments in the island and observed a steady increase of rain which falls on the uncovered soil effects erosion. the run-off/rainfall ratio over the years. An average Logging process itself encourages soil erosion. Loggirig increase per year in the wet zone catchments by 1.28% and in .operations destroy natural drainage channels leading to new the Kelani Ganga by 1.539% had been observed. Thus, it can channels giving rise to gullying which causes heavy soil be deduced that deforestation in catchment areas, although erosion. does not affect the rainfall pefise, it definitely accelerates the run-off rate. A study had been done to evaluate the influence of selective felling on the hydrological parameters and sediment yield of 4.1.7 Forests and Floods a wet zone catchment (Ponnadurai 1982). the study has observed that the selective felling results in higher run­ Perera • (1973) remarks that 'floods are the most dramatic off both due to reduction in both infiltration capacity and symptoms of land-misuse although not all floods are due to interception by vegetation; along with a significant increase man's mismanagement 'Where forest lands are in the sediment due to higher peak flow rate yield. It was undiscriminately exploited for timber; or pasture lands are revealed that the soil erosion is caused, in areas where the overagrazed; or steeply sloping lands are opened up for tree cover is removed , The reduction in vegetation cover agriculture; no such exceptional rainfall is needed to reduces the interception of rain drops but also results in increase the peak discharge values by several orders of removal of humus rich organic matter. The direct impact of ' magnitude or to cause severe erosion in the upper catchments the rainfall on disturbed soil surface due to timber felling and high sediment yields in the streams' (Ponnadurai 1982). results' in surface sealing and scour, destruction of soil The forest clearence in the upper reaches can be considered structure and reduction of infiltration rates. It can be as a single positive cause for floods in the down stream. concluded that felling of timber in the catchment areas in any form interferes with hydrologic equilibrium, resulting in higher run-off and excessive sediment movement or soil erosion. Therefore, it should be stressed that felling in the catchment areas should be totally stopped. - 173 - - 174 - .8 Energy Prospects in the forests Resources On the one hand, if trees are purposely grown for fuel wood, Careful analysis shows that biomass, which is accounting for the fixed carbon in the wood would be released as ' Carbon 70% of the current energy needs of Sri Lanka, can be made to Dioxide during the burning process,thus making the nett meet the bulk of the energy requirements of the community effect of Carbon Dioxide in the environment to be zero, even into the next century. This however', will require whereas in the case of burning of oil or coal the quantity of simultaneously, the growing of forests for both purposes of carbon dioxide that releases to the environment would be an timber and fuel wood and judicious forest management. Thus, additional quantity. On the other hand, when trees are grown identifying an alternative source of energy will indirectly only for timber purposes the nett result in the atmosphere help to conserve the forests. in terms of addition of Carbon Dioxide would be minimal, as the growing trees absorb Carbon Dioxide and if the wood is An alternative source of energy can be found through not burnt no Carbon Dioxide would be released to the efficient use of energy. For instance, by introducing and atmosphere. popularising the improved energy efficiency methods such as modernised 'Fuel Wood Efficient Domestic Cooking stoves', it Hence, growing of trees for timber could help not only to is possible to reduce the present consumption of fuel wood in enrich the environment and meet the needs of the people, but households. also can help to improve the air quality in the atmosphere.

Meanwhile there is an attempt to replace the use of oil in industries such as drying of tea and burning of tiles by 4.1.10 Forest Plantations and ecological considerations using biomass. This would create further demand for fuelwood. The initial requirement for fuel-wood due to the It has been argued that monoculture plantations especially of •transfer from oil to fuel-wood in industries,- can be met non-indigenous species are not ecologically, favourable. A through efficient use of present fuel-wood supply, while the case in point is pinus and eucalyptus plantations in the up- long term requirement can be met by improvement to the forest country. It is believed that mixed forest plantations with cover. If this is implemented, the dependence on oil can be different species are preferable to monoculture. Among the contained. By increasing the production of timber and basic considerations for selection of a forest plantation, biomass, there can be a tendency to generate jobs as well for the necessity to fulfil the demand for industrial wood and the local community. fuel-wood', and the provision of adequate safeguards for conserving soil and water are foremost. 9 Forests and the Air Quality The forest species should be selected based on the soil It is accepted that the most appropriate method to enrich and conditions and the steepness of the slopes. maintain a sound environment is by growing trees. However, once a tree is fully grown it has to be cut either for timber It is recommended that out of the forest areas, certain or for fuel-wood. It is true that the trees absorb Carbon regions should be totally kept for wild life conservation, Dioxide and purify the environment. However, a full-grown while certain areas should be maintained for both forestry tree does not absorb an appreciable quantity of Carbon and wild life. At present the policy is to set aside 40% of Dioxide. It is only in the process of growing that a plant the forest area for wild life conservation. With growing absorbs a substantive quantity of Carbon Dioxide. population and the demand for forest products, it is considered to be little on the high side. However, the allocation of forest land purely for wild life management should be done after evaluating the population pressure and other ecological factors. - 175 - - 176 -

In view of the increasing population and the limited land Skilled man-power at all levels should be increased for area available for the use of the people, it is recommended to manage certain forest areas for dual purpose of wild life better forest management. In fact, it is the practical and forest conservation. However, the areas devoted for wild application of science, technology and socio-economics, which life conservation must be away from settlements for the well would facilitate to overall management of forest areas being of both man and beast. towards achievement of certain desired objectives and goals.

4.1.12 National Strategies for Forest Conservation The conservation methods should be geared to the maintenance of Man and Biosphere Reserves of natural forests with the aim of preservation of indigenous flora and fauna, concurrently It is important to take into account the National Forestry preserving the micro-climatic conditions for scientific Policy (1980) in formulating strategy for forest conservation reasons. in the District.

4.1.11 Forestry and Community Participation The National forestry strategy includes:

1. ,To maintain, conserve , and create forests for the One method of encouraging the community in forest preservation and amelioration of the environment, soil ^conservation and management is to integrate forestry with and water resources, and for the protection of the local agriculture. The areas where forestry can be introduced into fauna and flora when they are required for aesthetic, agriculture should be in close proximity to settlements. scientific, historical and socio-economic reasons. Illicit felling or logging is a major cause for depletion of forest cover. The illegal felling is done because the demand 2. To ensure and increase as far as possible the supplies of for wood is not met at a reasonable price. Therefore, the small wood for agricultural requirements and fuel wood growing demand for timber can be met through co-operative for domestic consumption. reforestation schemes such as agro-forestry, social forestry and community forestry. In all these instances peoples' 3. To maintain as far as possible, a sustained yield of participation is essential, hence it should be encouraged, timber and other forest produce for general housing, supported and rewarded. Forestry should be encouraged as an industrial, communication and defense requirements of investment. Recent science of forest genetics and wood the country. technology has made it practical to grow and utilise certain tree species over a very short rotation periods of 7 to 10 4. To work the forest to the highest possible economic years. People should be encouraged to plant trees in advantage as is consistent with the foregoing bareland, chenas, grasslands and" in degraded slopes and objectives. cleared forest areas, with fast growing exotic and indigenous species by approved silvicultural methods as wood 5. To involve the community in the development of private plantations to serve industry and fuel-wood. Organised wood lots and forestry farms through a programme of extension services should be directed to plant annually with social forestry.

peoples participation;tree species of timber, fuel wood fodder, fruit and ornamental trees. - 177 -

- 178 - To arrest the immediate large-scale deterioration of the environment as a result of mismanagement, heavy demands on timber and forest products and hapha-zard land use/ the government has taken various measures: Earthslips or Landslides

Many areas of the central highlands of Sri Lanka on and off 1. Total ban on the excisions of forests in the wet zone experience land-slides and mass movements of earth and rock except for small extents for public purposes. in various forms and degrees. Although, the areas subjected to these hazards are relatively small, the impact of them 2. Specific forests in the wet zone to be made available could be severe and could cause heavy losses of life and for scientific exploitation under strict supervision to maintain minimal supplies of timber in industry and . property. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to public. understand the cause and effect of these natural hazards and take appropriate steps to avoid or minimize the causes and to ameliorate the gravity of the effects. In this regard it 3. Harvesting of timber to be on a selective basis and conforming strictly to the felling rules prepared by the cannot be overstressed the need of inter-disciplinary forestry department. approach and multi-disciplinary investigations in handling these natural hazards. 4. Free import of timber* 1 Causes of earthslips or landslides

5. Integration of forestry with agriculture and plantation The occurrence of landslides is a result of sum total of sectors and in settlement planning, factors such as topography, rock type, geological structure, rainfall and agricultural practices. In most cases the major 6. Total ban on issuing permits for chenas, factors are geological,, although the immediate cause which set the trigger ing-of f of a landslide is the heavy and 7. Encroachers on forests reserves, road'', river and stream reservations to be re-settled and reforesting of such continuous rainfall. areas. The Table 45 illustrates the number of landslides which have occurred in the district of Kegalle since 1930. It has been • 13 Immediate steps to be taken to conserve forest resources found that in almost all these", cases the mass movement of earth occurred mostly on dip slopes. The surface material or a. Amending the Forest Ordinance and the regulations the overburden on these slopes are poorly consolidated and framed there under, providing for deterrent punishment they lie on solid unweathered bedrock. In some instances including mandatory terms of imprisonment for some the earthslips have occurred on slopes lying at the feet of offenses and automatic confiscation of tools, boats, the escarpment and clefts. The .district of Kegalle as carts, vehicles etc. used in the commission of forest described earlier is geologically framed by the metasediments offenses on conviction by a court of law. of the Khondalite Group mainly granitic gneisses and chafl-iokites (Map 6) . ' The geological structure is well b. Preservation of representative forest communities jointed and evident by many faults (Map 7) . These rocks in typical of each climatic zone under the International the District are weathered into Red Yellow Podzolic and Man and Biosphee Programme in order to preserve gene resources for study and spread at a future date as a precautionary measure to combat the. dwindling natural forests. 179 - - 180 - Table 4 5 Reddish Brown Clayey soils which are sometimes embedded with Landslides in the District of Kegalle 1930-1589 boulders of varying sizes (Maps 8 and 9) When these weathered material is saturated with water due to heavy rainfall (Map 10) the clayey soil act as a kind of lubricant, causing the mass of earth and rock to move rapidly down the slope, under Year Location Number of Number of the force of gravity. This is accelerated if there is no Deaths Houses damage natural vegetation to bind the soil and to regulate the flow of water.

1930 Thalawela Not Known Not Known In general, in areas of bedded and banded rocks such as in 1947 Kadugannawa 40 Not Known 1947 Aranayake gneisses which are frequent in the district, the relationship between the slope of the ground and the dip or the plunge of Sela-wakanda Not Known Not Known • 1957 Pahala kadu­ the rock strata is of prime importance. Unstable conditions are especially prevalent in areas where the ground slope is gannawa 05 . 15 1978 Bulathkohupitiya greater than or equal to the dip or where the rock strata dips in the opposite direction to the slope of the ground. Wegalla 03 10 1981 Yatiyantota In addition, the joints in the rocks accelerate the instability (Map 6). Polpetiya 02 20 1981 Arayanaka Mass movement on gentle slopes, is a slow phenomena but the Berawela Not Known 3 0' ; 1982 Mawanella effects can be widespread unlike the effects of the rapid movement of landslides. These mass movements generally Heenalipanakanda Not Known Not Known 1983 Mawanella result in subsidence of various kinds which can continue for many years. Tumbage village in the Yatiyantota Division has Elangapitiya Not Known 15 1985 Warakapola experienced this type of movement since 1976. Thiyambarahenakanda .10 03 1986 Although the landslides and other mass movements occur on Waharaka Not Known Not Known 1989 naturally unstable slopes of weathered clayey material, these June- factors are infuriated by man-made conditions, some of which Pindeniya-Atala Not Known Not Known are deforestation, inadequate and inefficient system of Galigamuwa 167 Not Known Kotiyakumbura drainage, cultivation on slopes, and the building of houses etc. on unstable slopes. Malmaduwa 14 Several Ampe Noth Not Known Not Known 4.2.2 Some High Risk Areas in the District Bambaragala 24 09 Polpitiya In order to understand clearly the causes and the subsequent Veehela 01 05 effects of landslides in relation to the human and natural Nelluwathukanda 04 03 environment of the district of Kegalle, it is relevant to Source: Social Services Dept. . examine the findings of a study done by National Building Research Organisation in June 1986 ' on 4 landslide areas in the District of Kegalle, viz Ganegoda, Tumbage, Kabagamuwa and Pallepalpita.

\ - 181 - - 182 - Ganeqoda iii. Kabagamuwa Ganegoda village is situated in the GN Division of Approximate location is 80° 21J 52"E and 7° 8' 34" N. Getiyamulla of ' the AGA Division of . Galigamuwa. 'The With a mean attitude of 500.*. above sea level, approximate location is 80° 20' 50" E and 7° 7' 02" N Kambagamuwa village is situated with the Galigamuwa AGA and the general elevation is 500' above sea level. Division (Map 18). There had been a threat of a landslide in May/June 1985 in this area (Map 18). A relatively small landslide has occurred in 1985, Approximate size of the slide was 50 yards by 30 The continuous and heavy rainfall had made the mountain yards. This area was also identified as a high risk slope to crack for about 1/4 mile in length. Springs area. Evacuation of the two houses built on the slope had appeared on the slope. The evidence have suggested was recommended. Stabilisation ,of the slope was that this mountain slope is a potential area for a suggested by improving the drainage conditions and dangerous landslide. The study has revealed that the planting suitable vegetation. degree of hazard to be very high and evacuation of 7 households located below the crack on the slope was iv. Palle-pelpita recommended. The study also has suggested to fill the crack and to take measures to improve the drainage on This area is located within 80°- 16' 10"E and 7° 6' the slope. 30"N. With an elevation of 450' above sea level, Palle-pelpita is \situated within \the GA Division of Tumbage Malmaduwa in the \Warakapola AGA Division associated

with Thiyamberahena-vKanda (Map 18} . \ This area is located within GN Division of Kendawa in Yatiyantota AGA Division. • The location can be defined Y • \ as 80° 21' 22" E and 7° 05' 40" N. The mean elevation . After a 5 days of continuous heavy rainfall, occasional is about 500' (Map 18). small scale slides have been reported A This is a low upland range which appears to have been affected by The mass movement had been noticed since 1976. The geological block' faults A \ first indication had been after a heavy rainfall, the On June 5 1985 by 7 a.m.. a medium size slide had cracking of 3 houses which were built on the hill occurred causing death for^lO people. The land use of slope. Ever since, it had been noticed that some trees the area showed semi-permanent houses that were built have displaced horizontally by about 30 yards. along the hill slope and about 4 acres on the slope had Originally 3 houses had been badly damaged and been cultivated with rubber ,^ coconut and arecanut Major subsequently creep ^movement has caused cracks on the cracks on the hill slope were reported and a further houses located further down on the slope as well. On slide was expected. PeopVe in the area had the the flat areas or on the steps along the slope, water tendency of building houses \even on the higher hill had been collecting. This is supposed to be a high slopes. This area was identified as a very high risk risk area and it was suggested to do further studies on area and the estimated possible damage to life and this area. property was very high. the hill slope of the Thiyamberahena-kanda had be cleared for chena cultivation which had interfered with the natural drainage system. - 184 - I

KEGALLE 0,ST CT - ~ . RI ond Numb of The investigation on this area has recommended the evacuation of house-holds living on the hill slope especially adjacent to cracks; to. prohibit the clearing of the Thiyambarahena-kanda for chena cultivation; to stop the construction of houses on the upper parts of the slope; to fill up the reported cracks in order to prevent water creeping to the cracks; reforestation of the hill slope with suitable vegetation; growing of a type of grass on very steep slopes, and terracing and contour drains at head of slide for improving the stability.

Table 46 illustrates the number of families affected by the landslides in June 1989. The major affected area was the Yatiyantota AGA Division. Out of the 52 GN Divisions 27 GN Divisions had been affect by landslides and accompanied floods. In total 6417 families or 56% have lost their homes amounting to 23,327 people and 66 people had got killed.

In addition, there had been great losses to public property as well.' 3 schools were badly damaged electricity distribution network was interrupted with

H damage to 9 high tension electricity .distribution

.i LewongomaX °l°i°w° "iit Wegalia~^o°oL North v/ oc. o/ ... ' poles, at Purussella, Parawatta and Mallalpola. In Panopitiya /Punehela Niwunhella Konnontotaq.Kannontojaoo ' '^ Abomollo addition substation at Mathamagoda was damaged. Telkumuduwalo °P Narangola 100 Imbulana y oo / c. Dombepolo' Several roads were impassable as a^ result of floods and 000 >•••• District Boundary. ( Wahcrcko "Mohello f AmoogolAmoL„,Amf' o„ NarongaloBulothkohupiliya Amancwela /K/lti A.G.A. Division Boundcrjj severe damaged had been caused to bridges and culverts. * W'«.'.* A.e.A.01VISK)N I ,.„„„.„ / Oedugala i • — _ / YATIYANTOTA A.B.A.DIVISION OOOO o Flood ond Landslide Vitj 000 Molalpola Meiuwokkondo Mohoboae I /A" ' / ' Joyamindagam' ° a ooooo °oa : ,(: 1 O R«pr.i*nr» 10 Famlfiil It is being anticipated that there could be landslide / \Wendola 00 • Encroachments 1 ' >oholii>a Garagojl/oYotiyontol o oooo Weercgolla .* Gonogamuwa ( 1 • 'R.pr.itnu 10 Pis" threats in future as well in these areas. Hence, there 1 uee,0 ..... ( '° ... "^\../ poipuiyo «: ..... j is an effort on the- part of the authorities to resettle •\ MonpTaoL lilli Iholo Gorojc^vGr^epoJlo Kiluig*"s5UlK' N.A. Da.lo .not available \ / Meegammoio \ f \ ^ these households or families* in more safer areas. The * Tolcuwo ISIS.. Eluwona , V; \. \..... table 47 gives a detail description of these efforts loicunu ••*••;.. / Walpolo I Kitulgala of resetting of landslide victims within the district «.o..IholaToldovi DEHIOWITAo IAC, A' nijl<;inu 1 11 of Kegalle. The Geological > Survey Department is at Majjiyongamo present conducting studies on, landslide hazard. •i:;V-"Modolo Algoda r«i; v • - \ \ °° .. Hingurolokando East Balangolo Hingurolokcnda West \ ... Godigampola DERANIYAGALA A.C.A. DIVISION ... (N.A.) '\\ 'IPonowal . ....

Map. 18 - 185 - - 186 - Table 4 6 LANDSLIDE VICTIMS June 1989 Table 47 Resettling of Lansilde Victims

AGA Division GN Divisio and area Number of AGA Division Number of GN Division and Extent Number Number of subjected to landstide famlies affected famileas to the name of the of a of fami Ii es Death resettle resettled land Acers r Derniyagala resettled N. A N.A in acrs Dehiowita Atulugamkanda 82 Batangala 23 Yatiyantota Urumeewala 104 08 Derniyagala 275 Illuktenna 1/4 10 33 Narangala 51 Estate Kitulgala North 220 ' Kitulgala South . 85 Samausirigama 1/4 Bulakohupitiya 31 Udapolwatta 1/4 25 103 Kendawa 07 Anhettigamwatta 1/4 15 38 Dombepola 305 Wehi amuna Amanawela 597 Palampitiya 700 jahahithagama Gonagamuwa 22 Dehiowita 115 Devalekanda watta 1/4 20 52 Polpitiya 368 05 Degalawatta 15 23 Neluwakkanda 28 Thelkumuduwale 25 Ampagala 194 Yatiyantota 890 Peelahenawatta 1/4 50 101 Malalpola 175 Ajmeerwatta 1/4 48 135 Yatiyantota 04 513 Miriswalatenna 1/8 12 84 Mahabage 100 Edurapotawatta 1/8 20 85 Anuggammama 58 Haloluwa 76 Humbahapitiya watta 1/4 50 130 Malwatta 108 Halgollowatta 1/4 18 33 Ampana(Kinkohufenna) 50 Yatideriyawatta 1/4 12 46 Dedugala 08 Meddewatta 1/4 24 64 Poonahela 15 Welhelatenna 34 Kembugana Rangalla 1100 siddamulle watta 1/4 33 85 09 Narangala 80 Potalagamawatta 1/4 14 40 Garagoda 04 327 Veeoyawatta 1/4 40 141 Mathamagoda 500 Nagastennawatta Yatiyantota Lewela 96 1/8 10 40 Ganepalle 120 Ruwanwel la 31 PeterhiIIwatta 1/8 14 28 Paressella 424 Aranayake 18 NADSA Land - - - Berannawa 40 Mawanella - - - - - Pelellegama 100 Rambukkana - - - Jayawindagama 83 - - 03 Gonagamua 27 Kegalle 114 Golindawatta 1/4 20 49 Ruwanawella Not Available N.R Galigamuwa 510 Parawatta 1/4 35 98 Aranayake N. A. N.R. Pindeniyawatta 1/4 15 42 Mawanella N. A. N.R. Kekunakanda(crown) 1/4 07 28 Rambukka N.A. N.R. . Kegalle N. A. N.R. Edellawatte(Sooriypura) 1/4 ' 25 75 Galepamuwa N.A. N.R. Dikkhenwatta 1/4 15 29 Warakapole N.A. N.R. Yat ider iyawatta 1/4 17 32 Higgodawatta 1/4 18 67 Mylandwatta 1/4 21 51 Weniwe Itawatta 1/4 25 58 Warakapola 139 Kivuldeniya 1/4 12 39 Godampalawatta 1/4 25 79

Total in the District 690 1974

Source: Kegalle Kachcheri - Land Division 1990. Tabic 48 _

.Impact of Floods and Landslides in the District of Kegalle - 188 -

1989 June Land-slides and floods The other areas that are subjected to landslides are in Houses Destroyed Number of Number of Numbei of families resettled and helpe the AGA Division of Dehiowita, the GN Divisions of In Total Paritial ly f ami Iies acres needed financial ly Atulugamkanda and Batangala^. Within 1990 a total affected to resettle Land si ides FIoods F innacicv! number of 1974 families had been resettled in suitable areas within the seven AGA Divisions, which are been Derniyagala N.A N.A 375 75 99 27 subjected to landslides and floods. Deh iowi ta N.A N.A 105 115 476 Yat iyantota 1404 745 6417 719 890 296 These resettlement lands have been selected by the Ruwanwella N.R N.R 771' 123 Assistant Government Agents in respective Aranayake N.A N.A 18 5 23 Divisions. In many cases each family is given 1/4 to Hawanella N.A N.A N.A N.A N.A 1/3 acre of land. all these, resettlement land are Rambukkana N.A N.A N.A N.A N.A easily accessible by some road, while most of them are Kegalle N.A N.A 114 114 151 50 old rubber plantations. The state has to incur heavy Galegammwa N.A N.A expenditure on the resettlement programmes. 2087 515 31 64 Warakapola „ N.A N.A' 139 117 74 The Map 18 illustrates the distribution of landslide source: Kachcheri Kegalle and flood victims . in the District, as a result of June 1989 hazard.

3 Causes of Landslides in the District of Kegalle

The major causes of landslides in the district can be summarised under two headings as human and natural. Cultivation of hill slopes with rubber and homestead gardening, clearing of natural forest cover for chena cultivation, construction of houses on hill slopes, terracing of hill slopes for paddy cultivation, destruction of forest cover in watershed areas through illicit felling, obstruction of natural water ways by many activities, construction of roads and public buildings in vulnerable areas, can be listed as human interventions with regard to landslides. The natural causes are geological, structural, topographical and climatalogical factors. The most landslides in the District are caused by the saturation of unstable subsoil layers and ^the resultant increase of water pressure along fault lines. The eastern section the district is situated on the western rim of the hill country which receives the highest rainfall in the island (Figure 15 & 16) . Hence, the AGA Divisions of - 189 -

- 190 - Deraniyagala, Yatiyantota, Dehiowita and Aranayake are extremely susceptible for landslides. In addition these Land had been allocated to landslide and flood victims of divisions have very steep hill slopes which rise from 500* to May/June 1989 to resettle themselves in several areas of the 3500' above sea-level. Map 18 illustrates the areas District. Out of these newly selected areas, some areas were subjected to landslides. All these areas are ' located in subjected to suitability studies by the. Geological'Survey extremely wet steep hill slopes. It had been argued that a threshold figure of 350 to 400 mm of continuous rainfall Department at the request of the Government Agent of the during two consecutive days .could cause landslides in areas District. prone to them (Piyasekera 1986) It is also found that there is a direct correlation between antecedent precipitation and 1. Deraniyagala AGA Division landslides (Kuruppuarchchi 1987). i. Allocated Land - Illuktennawatta - Samansirigama (Wattegedera GN Division) Most of the factors caused by human are, in some degree ' or the other, connected up with the economic conditions. The Illuktennawatta is a former rubber estate located ignorance and the unawareness of the effects of some of their about 1 mile northwest of Deraniyagala. The estate is activities such as encroachment on reserved land, clearing of linked to the Dehiowita-Deraniyagala Road by a estate forests on steep slopes, can be also considered as road. The Samansirigama resettlement land is located contributory factors. Hence, the effective remedial measures about 1/4 miles from the Deraniyagala town on the lie in the creation of public awareness of cause and effect Manchanayake Road. of these natural hazards.

In this estate 10 acres had been allocated for 33 4.2.4 The suitability of the resettlement lands selected in the families with 1/4 acre of land each. The Seethawaka District Oya demarcate the Southern limit of the allocations. The slope is moderate at most places. At several Landslides and floods mean heavy expenditure for the State as localities weathered biotite gneisses are exposed and victims of these catastrophies have to be rehabilitated and the overburden is thin, ranging from 2 m to 10 m. resettled. This expense is totally an unproductive venture in terms ,of returns. Hence, it is advisable and appropriate It had been established that most of the allocated to check the suitability of the newly selected land for the land blocks were stable and suitable for construction construction of permanent buildings arid houses, before the of houses. However, the new road cutting in the victims are finally settled, with a view to arrest a lowermost part of the slope had destabilized the land. repetition. It was recommended that straight channels be constructed for systematic drainage. The District of Kegalle as described earlier, lies in the Highland series of metasediments. The rock bands are .2. Dehiowita AGA Division complexly folded. The ridge and valley topography is the predominant relief feature. The general altitude varies i. Dewalakandawatta between 500' and 3500' above sea level. The gradients of the slopes vary from moderate to steep. The overburden is less 20 acres of land is being allocated for resettlement than 15 m at most places. Most of the available resettlement on a hill slope near the Dehiowita town. The lands are located on strike valley slopes and ridges lowermost boundaries of these allotments are marked by (Maps 2, 6 & 8) the two roads Dehiowita-Ruwanwella and Dehiowita- Deraniyagala. - 191 - - 192 -

58 families from Atalugama are given 1/4 acre blocks It was recommended that most slopes at Deegalawatta were stable and suitable for the construction of in this rubber estate. The land is located on a hill permanent buildings. However, the steep slopes were slope of an elongated hill trending north-south. The not recommended for permanent construction and should slopes are moderate with weakly jointed charnokite be kept as reserved land. gneiss.

The overburden is rather thin and there are numerous Yatiyantota AGA Division rock outcrops. Several natural springs can be i. Halgollawatta - (Malalpola GN Division) observed which make the area generally wet.

This 18 acre extent of land is situated, near the 8*"*1 It was recommended that most- of the area, in the mile-post on the Yatiyantota-Punugala Road and is northern and southern parts were fairly stable and located about 1/8 miles from Malapola Township. suitable for house building.

54 allotments, of 1/3 acre land in extent each have It was suggested that to minimise soil erosion, proper been distributed among the landslide victims. This drainage should be formulated and construction of land is a former J.E.D.B. rubber estate. undisturbed straight drainage channels would be a good remedy. The whole area demonstrates steep slopes varying from 30° to 70° angle. A few isolated hillocks have gentle Some of the land blocks were identified as unstable gradients and are situated in the uppermost sections. and hence, not suitable for house construction. The overburden in most places are thick and studded with boulders. The main lithology is composed of Deeqalawatta charnokites interbanded with quartzite.

This is another extent of land of 106 acres within the The study revealed that the land on the right bank of Dehiowita Division, which formerly belonged to Janatha Kithulela stream were not suitable for construction of Estate Development Board and is located about 1 1/4 houses. but the land on the left bank were fairly miles on the road to Udayogama estate; The estate suitable and it was advised to avoid the steep slopes road to Udayogama starts near the milepost on the in construction of houses. It was also advised not to Dehiowita- main road. remove the old rubber trees since it could lead to

About 15 families from Batangala have been given 1/4 severe soil erosion. acre land blocks. This estate is composed of several ii. Peelahenawatta - (Dombepola GN Division) small hillocks and the slopes are very gentle. The thickness of the overburden ranges from 10' - 30'. Peelahenawatta is located about 10 miles east of The geology is composed of quartzites, calcgneisses Yatiyantota bordering the Yatiyantota-Dolosbage road. and charnokitic gneisses. The rock trends north-south Peelahena is situated in between the two villages of with a 65° - 80° dip towards the east. The quartzites Denawakawatta and Dombepola which are situated on the show intense joints. Since the rocks are not deeply steep slope of the We Oya valley. Both these villages weathered, soil layers are stable. had been subjected to landslides previously and the slopes are reported to be cracked. - 193 - - 194 -

Peelahena land is located on the right bank of the We Kegalle* AGA Division Oya which is also the Southern boundary. i. Parambewatta - (Malawita GN Division) > Only the slopes in the uppermost part of,the Peelahena land was recommended for construction of houses. The Parambewatta is situated about 3 miles east of middle and lower slopes and also the land near We Oya Mabopitiya town, which is located near the 8th are said to be unstable and not recommended for milepost on Kegalle-Bulathkohupitiya Road. construction of houses. About 53 families had been given 1/4 acre blocks, the RuwanweUa AGA Division land consists of dome shaped hillocks. Lithologically land is composed of charnokite gneisses interbanded i. Peterhillwatta - (Siyabalawala GN Division) with quartzite. Most of the slopes, are moderate and the dip angles vary from 30° to 60°. At most places Peterhillwatta is located north of the main road, the overburden is fairly thick. about 1 1/4.miles from Anguruwella on the Anguruwella- Warakapola road. This is a previous rubber estate. Except for the land in the'Ilwana Division the rest of About 25 acres had been allocated to 200 families. the land is not recommended for the construction of houses. It was warned that the slopes are not The land consists of two northwest-southeast trending suitable for vertical cutting and the disjointed ridges with a strike valley in between. The altitude boulders could tumble down easily. The soil is also of the ridges vary between 200'- 300' and are composed observed to be not stable. of quartzite and biotite gneisses. These rock bands dip east varying from a 60° to 70° angle. Most of the ii. Golindawatta - (Bosella GN Division) slopes vary from gentle to moderate, except the slope near the southern end of the land which is extremely Golindawatta is located about 5 1/2 miles South of steep. In the uppermost part of the slope several Kegalle town and the estate road which leads to unstable boulders are located. Golindawatta originates on the Kegalle Bulathkohupitiya Road about 2 miles from Kegalle town. It was recommended that except the steep slopes near the southern perimeter of the land, the rest of the About 47 families have been given 1/4 acre land block area was stable and suitable for the construction of per family. The land is located on the western slope houses. The land on the quartzite bands are said to of a northwest-southeast trending ridge, composed of be more stable than the rest. charnokite gneiss with a dip of 60° east.

It had been warned that the boulders on the uppermost The overburden is thin at most places and the parent part of the slope at "Akkara-four" Division could rock is exposed in many places. The slopes are gentle dislodge in the near future. As the slope is also to moderate. fairly steep it was not recommended for the construction of houses. The study recommends that this land is stable and suitable for permanent houses. However, construction As the water table is very low it is anticipated that of stone fences and a systematic drainage system are water may have to be supplied from an outside source recommended to arrest soil erosion. if a settlement is located in this area. - 195 - - 196 -

Galigamuwa AGA Division Several land blocks are also located on a fairly steep i. Kiriparuwawatta slope. A number of natural springs can be noticed.

*" * There are several unstable boulders. f 103 families were given 1/4 acre land blocks each. This land is located about 200 m east of Kotiyakumbura The observations have concluded that most of the land along the Kotiyakumbura - Halloluwa road. The land is in Atalewatta are generally unstable. Therefore, it located on the eastern and the western slopes of an was recommended that only the gentle dipping uppermost approximately north-south trending turtle-back shaped land is suitable for the building of houses. • hill. This elongated hill is about 1/4 mile long, 200 m wide and 50 m high. Since the overburden is thick and it is delicately supported by the underlying parent rock, the slopes at The western boundary of the land is the Kotiyakumbura the middle and lower most part may become unstable - Halloluwa road and the eastern boundary is marked by during heavy rains. The areas where natural springs a cart track and a stream. are found the land is too wet for building purposes. t The elongated hill -is composed of north-south iii.Pindenivawatta -"(Pindeniya*GN Division) trending, 60° - 80° easterly dipping, Charnokite gneiss bands. There is only a thin soil cover on both This land is located about 2 miles east of Pindeniya tn eastern and western slopes and slightly weathered town which is located near the 7 milepost on parent rock is exposed at some places. Galigamuwa - Awissawella Road and the estate road to Pindeniyawatta starts near the school at- Pindeniya The slopes at Kiriparuwa are geologically . stable and town. favourable for the construction of houses. About 40 families from Malwana had been given land in ii. Atalewatta (Dickhena Division) -(Atale GN Division) this tea estate. Pindeniyawatta is located on the northwestern slope of a north-south trending hill Atalewatta is located near Pindeniya town on to the range. This hill range consists of Charnokite gneiss rock interbanded with quartzite and garnet west of Galigamuwa-Kotiyakumbura road. The estate sillimanite - graphite - schists. The slopes on which road which leads to Dickhena Division originates near the resettlement is situated are gently moderate and the 6 milepost from Galigamuwa. the overburden at most places are fairly thick. 29 families were given 1/4 acre blocks each. The area consists of a northwest • - 'southeast trending thick This area is recommended as a favourable area for Charnokite gneiss band. Most of the land is on a building of houses. flat-lying large outcrop of charnokite. The houses are located on a thick overburden, resting on the iv. Mylandwatta - (Arandara GN Division) foliation plane of the flat-lying outcrop of parent 49 families were given 1/4 acre block each. This rock. Some houses are also located on the slope. The resettlement area is situated at about 1 1/2 miles slopes vary from moderate to steep, but the uppermost away on the estate road which starts near Arandara parts of the slope are gentle. At most places, the town. Arandara is located near the 5 milepost on overburden is thick ranging from 10' to 40'. . the Galigamuwa- Road. Mylandwatta consists of a nearly 200' high dome shaped elongated hill which - 197 - - 198 -

has several gentle to moderately dipping slopes. Waharaka Division Easterly dipping (60° - 70°) charnokite gneiss interbanded with guartzite and garnet-^sillimanite- 44 families from Knavesmire and Uduwa villages have graphite gneiss are the main geological composition of been given 1/4 acre land each.. ' The land is the area. characterized by 40* - 50' high dome shaped hillocks. The hillocks have a northeast-southwest trending, The 20 acre land was a rubber estate. The slope at southeast dipping charnokite gneiss rocks. The the northwestern end of the land is very gentle. At thickness of the over burden is moderate and variable the southwestern section evidence of a former from place to place. The slopes are gentle to landslide could be observed. The slope at the moderate. northeast section of the area is fairiy steep. In several places during rainy season springs have been observed.' 'Akkara 17' Division

Certain blocks'are identified as not suitable for the . 12 blocks of 53 perches each are given to landslide construction of houses especially where springs are victims. Land is given from the summit of the same found. The vertical slopes are expected to be hillock. The slope here is very gentle and the undisturned by any kind of earth cutting. overburden is thin. This hillock consists of northwest-southeast trending, southwest dipping Rest of the slopes are geologically stable and charnokite gneiss. favourable for construction of houses.

Some of the blocks located on the lowermost part of v. Kekunakandawatta the northeast part of this hillock demonstrate former This resettlement.land is located about 1/2 mile from landslide evidences. Walagama school on the minor road, which is situated near the 4^ milepost on Kegalle-Polgahawela road. Several large boulders which had moved were observed on the uppermost parts of the-slope. 27 families from Bambaragala have been given land from a coconut plantation. The land is almost flat It had been observed that Waharaka division on the and a thick lateritic overburden could be seen. whole is stable and suitable for the construction of

There is no danger of landslide in this land. The houses. The land on- the summit of the hill at Akkara slopes are stable and hence favourable for 17 are also stable and good for construction purposes. construction purposes. There are several unstable boulders on the uppermost vii. Yattideriyawatta - (Kambaqamuwa GN Division) part of the slope. Old rubber plantation should not be removed to arrest soil erosion. Proper drainage Yatideriyawatta is located near Kambagamuwa on should be installed. Kegalle-Bulathkohupitiya road. The estate road to Yatideriya starts near the 10 1/2 milepost. There are 2 resettlement divisions viz. Waharaka and 'Akkara 17'. Waharaka Division is located about 3 miles from the main road near Hunasaldeniya village. "Akkara 17' land is located near Rangalle division of Yatideriya estate. - 199 - - 200 -

The sand mining in the District has caused several 7. Warakapola AGA Division environmental problems such as erosion of river banks, and i. Naranqodawatta ^ ,. collapsing of flood protection structures such as bunds, culverts and bridges. The operation of heavy vehicles to This resettlement land is located in Kiwuldeniya transport sand also damage the river banks. division of Narangoda estate, about 2 miles from Galapitamada town. Galapitamada town is situated AGA is the authority to issue permits for sand mining, but between 7th and 8th milepost on the Warakapola- due to lack of employment opportunities and the high Ruwanwella road. incidence of unemployment and under employment, people in the District indulge in sand mining as a livelihood. It is About 40 families from Malmaduwa, and Makura have been difficult to quantify the number of people or families who given 53 perch land blocks each. This was a former live on this activity. However, sand .mining should be scientifically controlled and regularised, since it could rubber estate. damage the environment to a irreparable extent, concurrently The land consists of small parallel .ridges of alternative employment opportunities should be provided to charnokite gneiss and quartzite bands. The strike the community. ridges are trending northwest-southeast and the rock dips 80° west. The slopes are gentle to moderate and It is recommended to undertake a detail study of sand mining within the District with the objectives of assessing the the overburden is moderately thick. The slopes in development of sand mining, establishing the extent of this land are stable and favourable for construction environmental impacts, suggesting alternative activities, of houses. finding substitutes for sand and also to formulate alternative policies to regularise the activity of sand 4.2.5 Other Environmental Issues mining.

Sand Mining (In 1989 a team of experts from the Netherlands visited Sri Sand which is transported by the rivers towards the sea is a Lanka to draw the Terms of Reference for such a study, after necessary input to maintain the coastal beaches. ' The conducting a preliminary study). quantity of sand lost in the beach by the sea erosion is replenished by the sand brought down by the rivers. Thus, if Quarrying

the quantity of sand mined from the beds of the Maha Oya and ( the Kelani Ganga exceeds their annual deposits, coastal Quarrying is another human activity in the area which beaches near Colombo and will not get their necessary interferes directly with the environment. Granite intrutions supply. It has been estimated that the total quantity of are frequent in the district of Kegalle. Granite is used sand brought down by the Kelani Ganga annually may be around for house building and road construction. 1.4m tons, while the quantity extracted in 1984 was estimated Granite is quarried by using high explosives. This in most to be 916,000 tons. instances, damages the total rock structure in the locality. Haphazard and uncontrolled mining of sand from the Maha Oya The results are rockfalls, land slides and soil erosion. The and the Kelani Ganga is a common activity occurring along the abandoned quarries tend to collect water and are breeding streams of the District. Illicit sand mining is still more grounds for mosquitoes. The landscape is also disfigured and common among the people living along the river banks. the reusability of the land is almost impossible. - 202 - - 201 -

However, since a fair number of people find livelihood Among the .measures that could be applied to maintain a through quarrying and metal crushing, it is essential that balance between gem mining and sustainable environmental the industry should be regularised based on scientific and management are conservation techniques to restore depleted accepted laws and the impact on the environment should be gemming lands, incorporation of environmental factors into properly monitored. plans and permits of gem mining, continuous monitoring of compliance of law and of environmental conditions and Gem Mining educating the local residents to the needs and benefits of environment protection. (NARESA 1991) Gems have been discovered in AGA Division of Deraniyagala, Dehiowita and Ruwanwella. Although the extent of gem mining Chena cultivation is not as intensive as in the Ratnapura district, illicit gem mining has caused environmental concerns. The more frequent The imbalance of man/land ratio in .the district has forced form of gemming in the district is the dredging of the stream, the people to encroached upon state land mainly for chena bed, at a point upstream with a temporarily built wooden cultivation (Table 37) . The First Land Commission (1927) structure until the pay gravel is exposed. This is followed referred to some chena lands in the Kegalle District where by raking up the earth and pilling up it in a low ridge. The farmers returned to the same plot after 20 years . But today stream flow removes the lighter material from the heap due to the increase of population and the depletion of virgin leaving the heavier material behind. Subsequently sorting is land, many farmers do not fallow their land but cultivate done to pick up the gems. Other form of gemming is by continuously. sinking pits. If not properly regularise both these forms * of gemming lead to environmental hazards. Chena farming, it is said, is neither economically nor environmentally sustainable. The average size of a chena is There are environmental damage caused by gem mining along less than 1 ha which is not adequate to maintain a with its economics benefits. Major environmental impacts are sustainable livelihood. Cultivation of lands with shorter the soil erosion and sedimentation valleys causing floods in fallow periods has depleted soil fertility and caused weed the lower reaches of the river. Water pollution and soil infestation, soil erosion, and crop-yield decline. To reduce erosion through gem mining are caused by mining the river the damage to the environment through chena cultivation, an banks, removal of vegetation cover, and by the process of intensive study should be undertaken to identify the chena accumulation of dislocated earth. In addition to soil lands which are environmentally vulnerable and unsuitable. erosion soil fertility is also reduced due to the sedimentation of clay minerals and other types of minerals in Soil Erosion paddy fields and agricultural land. Water pollution is also a severe environmental damage, which gives rise to Soil erosion is another environmental hazard in the District. detrimental effects on aquatic life and fish spawning There are several causes of soil erosion . Heavy rain and grounds. steep slopes accompanied with encroachments on watersheds and steep slopes, chena cultivation in steep slopes, In addition to these environmental hazards there are several deforestation, ,cultivation of perennial crops on uncovered health problems associated with gemming. Abandoned gem pits steep lands, bad management practices on tea and rubber are breeding grounds for mosquitoes. There is a very high estates, uprooting, and replanting of rubber lands, removal incidence of malaria in almost all AGA Divisions within the of cover crops from rubber lands are the major causes. district. Landslides and floods also aggravate the situation. - 203 - - 204 -

Soil erosion is not only reducing the quantity of soil but also depleting the soil from its nutrients. Both these 5. AN AGENDA FOR AMELIORATION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN THE hazards have severe detrimental effects on the already poor DISTRICT OF KEGALLE - y farmer in reducing his farm yield. "...

5.1 Water Resources Appropriate landuse types to suit the soil and terrain conditions, application of techniques to arrest the physical * Identification of degraded watersheds and divided removal of soil, and popularising traditional and organic catchment areas. methods of increasing soil fertility are essential * Demarcation of the limits of catchments of all irrigation ingredients to resolve the problem of soil erosion in the canals feeder streams, and rivers. District. * Identification of prioritisation of uses of water to regulate and minimize wastage and overuse^/ If soil erosion can be checked and general soil condition and * Revision of existing regulation on river banks and tilth maintained, crop yields will be sustained without the reservations. aid of , increasing quantities of artificial fertiliser and * Identification of an ' authority to oversee the water the incidence of pests and diseases will aiso be reduced. utilization and management and enforcement of legislation. (The Administrative Report Department of Agriculture 1927). * Identification of .areas where legislation should be strengthened and modified. Floods * Revision of jurisdiction of various authorities over water * resources and related.areas. There are certain areas in the district of Kegalle which are * Continuation of research and monitoring of land frequently prone for floods. Especially the AGA divisions in utilisation. the southern section of the district, viz Deraniyagala, * Formulation of studies on fragmentation of holdings to Dehiowita, Yatiyantota, Ruwanwella and "Aranayake are review the land tenure system. subjected to flood hazard due to the overflow of the Kelani * Revision of the present system of regularization of •Ganga and its tributaries. Map 18 shows the GN divisions encroachments. which are being subjected to floods in 1989. In terms of periodicity rivers overflow during the south-west monsoon 5.2 Forest resources period in the months of May and June and in the inter-monsoon

period of September to October. * Recognition of the importance of the bio-diversity in the District. There are several economic and social costs associated with * Establishment. of an institution to incorporate all aspects these periodic floods. The basic -problem is the disruption regarding forest resources reforestation, replanting, of normal livelihood. Damage caused by floods to house and plantations for timber and plywood etc. other property has a cumulative effect on the intensity of * Strict enforcement of laws on protected forest reserves. rural poverty. State has to incur unproductive expenses to * Demarcation of forest areas for different •'purposes such as evacuate the victims and to provide relief facilities. The fuelwood, timber, research etc. damages caused to the transport system not only isolate the * Enlargement of staff capabilities who could handle the victims but also have their impact on the rural ' economic administration and management of forests. system. This often leads to difficulties i'n providing food * Meaningful training of staff along with in-service and medical supplies. The problem is aggravated by the training. spread of dysentery, diarrhea and other bowel diseases, * Establishment of a separate staff to handle illicit especially associated with contaminated water. Fortunately, felling and encroachments. loss of life due to floods is not a frequent phenomena in the district. - 205 - - 206 - * Allocation of more funds for forestry sector for reforestation, forest management and forest protection. 5.3 Wild Life * Conducting Local Level research on forestry. * Special training for. extension officers "to change their * Setting up of a mosaic of protected areas in the District. attitudes. * Continuous research on endemic and endangered species * Formulate management plan for all forest plantations in within the District. the District. * Undertake a comprehensive survey of the wild life found in the District. * Maintenance of natural grasslands without replanting with trees. 5.4 Agriculture * Conversion of all degraded agricultural land into forests or agro-forests. * Encouraging the farmers to construct soil and water * Re-consideration of • the present policies for timber conservation earthworks. harvesting and utilization - eg. selective feeling in * Rehabilitation of all irrigation works within the timber reserves. District. Inventorise all irrigation works in the * Conservation of forest genetic resources ex-site and District and monitor the functioning of these works. safeguard the species" of plants that faces the threat of * Sustenance of agricultural productivity through improved extinction. water management and revised land tenure system. * Establishment of separate areas for .growing of plants for * Collection and preservation of germplasm of traditional- medicinal arid food purposes. varieties of paddy especially found within the District, * Establish a separate botanic garden within the District to which is an invaluable genetic resource. plant, manage and protect endemic and endangered species * Continuous research on high-yielding varieties and cost- outside their habitats. reduction technologies in production . * At present as forests are.managed with varying objectives * Conducting research on processing technologies which would such as conservation, agro-forestry, forests for timber or lead to reduce cost, minimize waste, and improve the fuel, a realistic approach has to be followed in deciding • quality. suitable land based on specific needs of management. * Prevention of cultivation of annual crops on hill slopes The wet zone low and mid-country natural forests represents without adequate soil conservation methods and measures. ecosystems with high level of biodiversity and endemicity'. * Total prohibition of cultivation, of slopes greater than These forests have been subjected to heavy overcutting and 45%. consequent degradation. 'Selective felling* has often meant * Strict supervision of land which are liable to rockfalls excessive over exploitation in accessible forests thereby and landslides. reducing the forest cover and resulting soil erosion. * Prevention of excess and careless use of artificial fertilizer . and pesticides, insecticides and weedicides. Recently the State has decided to re-examine the management * Educating the farmers in the scientific methods and plans as related to the maintenance and preservation of measures that should be used in storing, and applying agro-chemicals. biological diversity, conservation of soil and water, and the environmental impact of proposed felling rates and * Strict enforcement of law with regard to agro-chemicals. intensity. * Prevention of water pollution through agro-chemicals. * Encouragement should be given to farmer families to Most forests in the majority of AGA Divisions in the District produce adequate food in order to generate income, are fragmented and over-exploited. Undisturbed forests in alleviate poverty, increase the intake of calories and the' District are small and restricted to inaccessible steep protein to reduce malnutrition and to maintain good health slopes. in order to increase the labour productivity. - 207 - - 208 -

7 Animal Husbandry * Animal production should be incorporated into integrated systems of farming to make use of coconut plantations^and Cattle and Buffalo other existing grass lands within the District. * Establishing of scientific market gardening to supply Animal husbandry can be combined well with the agricultural fruits, vegetables and flowers to the urban market in practices in the District and the environment. The degraded Colombo area. and abandoned land can be transferred into pasture land. * Introduce.market gardening as a livelihood for unemployed. Grass also can be grown in large scale in the coconut lands, * Minor export crops should be given due place in the which in turn would control soil erosion. District. There is tremendous potentiality in developing crops such as cocoa, coffee, - cinnamon, pepper, cloves, Cattle and buffalo keeping will not only help in ploughing cardamon, nutmeg and papaw in the District. fields and threshing, and provide draught,- but also will * Introduction and maintenance of export promotion villages. supply organic matter to the fields. Cattle and buffalo, in * Provision of subsidies for minor exports. addition will provide nutritious milk to the children in the * Provision and extension of rural credit. District to ameliorate the existing acute malnutrition * Criteria such as slope, soil depth, rock-out crop, especially among the school going children. drainage should be applied in selecting land for farming. . * In critical catchment areas, irrespective of ownership, More incentives should be given to the private sector to conservation oriented tree crops and cover crops should be invest on .cattle and buffaloe rearing. Pasture improvements planted. and better marketing are also essential, in order to improve * At AGA Division level co-ordinating committees should be this industry. established to resolve conflicts and implement scientific r landuse planning. This committee should look into the Rearing of pigs, polutry, ducks and rabbits are possibilities availability of arable land and sparsely used land etc. to improve income and nutrition.

5.5 Plantation Agriculture J 8 Fruit Growing (Pomology)

* Increase the productivity of existing plantations. Fruit growing on a commercial scale is a possibility in the * In rubber plantations other crops should not be District through its favourable climate and soil. There is a introduced. ready and a persistant market for fruits in the adjoining * In tea plantations fuel-wood plantations should be Colombo district. considered. * Crop diversification and introduction of mixed cropping At present fruits such as Mango, Citrus, Pineapple, Avocado, systems should be considered in coconut lands. Mangosteens, Rambutan, Banana, Guava, Passion Fruit, Durian Custard Apple, Jakfruit, Papaw and cashew are .grown 5.6 Horticulture throughout the District in homegardens without any serious attempt. * Encouragement and assistance should be given to cultivation of flowers and foliage. Market for these Fruit trees can be planted in degraded catchment areas which items are found in Colombo. would serve dual purpose of subsidizing the economy on the * Assistance and know-how should be given specially to women one hand, and arresting soil erosion on the other hand. Some with regard to export oriented cut-flowers and foliage to fruit trees such as citrus, guava and papaw can be successful reduce the incidence of unemployment among women in the planted in hill slopes of the District . District. - 209 -

- 210 - Proper management of fruit plantations, with correct harvesting, storage and distribution may contribute to 10 Tourism upgrade the present fruit cultivation. Cultivation of fruit trees has so much potentiality to create jobs-, especially to * Conduct a survey on tourism assets of the District in women in the District. order to formulate a comprehensive inventory of all tourism assets - the District of Kegalle has several of Industries, Trade & Commerce these assets such as waterfalls, wind gaps, natural forest and wild life reserves, and animal orphanages, spice * Industrial locations should be developed with the gardens, handicraft villages etc. emphasize on maximizing benefit to the District and also * Evaluate these from the tourists' point of view by country at large. allocating values and select suitable attractions. * The nodal settlements in AGA Divisions which- consist of * Assess physical carrying capacity of the selected advantages of external economics and agglomeration attractions and the surrounding areas in order to avoid economies should be identified as potential locations for over saturation. industries. '* Identify land for development in close proximity to these * These industrial locations should be invariably linked to attractions taking into consideration the carrying the National transport and communication network. capacity. * Adequate measures should be adopted to the disposal of * Monitor development throughout to ensure that the waste and effluents. development does not exceed the carrying capacity. * Adequate physical infrastructural and other facilities * Ecologically sensitive areas should be totally avoided and declared as protected areas. should be provided along with access to markets. * Future urban growth should be absorbed into regional 11 Energy centres/capitals. * The regional capitals should be linked to the other urban * Consider the possibility of installing mini-hydral plants centres in the District. by harnessing the existing water falls. * In view of the low man-land ratio and the limited * Use of agricultural residues such as paddy husks, straw, availability of new lands and also the small extent of the saw dust etc to supplement fuel wood should be encouraged. present holdings, the job opportunities in the * Conserving energy by increasing the efficiency of improved agricultural sector for the growing second generation are domestic cooking stoves should be popularized. extremely limited Although the District is not excessively * Improvements in the fuel-wood supply through farmers'' blessed with industrial resources, some form of industrial woodlots, agro-forestry, social-forestry and block fuel- development should be encouraged. wood plantations should be planned and implemented. * To relieve the rural sector "of surplus labour, an urban * Solar energy - for lighting could be a possibility. centre should be developed in each AGA Division with a * Dry battery energy - to light houses should be made view to establish industries and to absorb the excess farm popular. labour. * Biogas - for cooking & industrial, purposes could be a * Since the employment opportunities in t^he agricultural possibility. sector is very bleak, there is a case for concentration of * Non-forest fuel wood, by rubber (25%) coconut (24%) trees population in urban centres with provision of industrial & home gardens (11%) , should be maintained at the same jobs, trade and commercial activities. level. * Infrastructural facilities should be provided at least in * Energy planning should be an integral part of settlement one centre, in each AGA Division. planning. Hence, co-ordination between settlements, energy and forestry at all levels should be the key note in environment conservation. - 211 - - 212 -

5.12 Archaeological Sites * Where land is alienated, cluster type settlements should be formulated in order to supply adequate facilities. * A sample set of rules for AGA1 s Surveyors, Land * Expansion of urban centres should be controlled 'to arrest Development Officers, Agricultural Officers, -Grama spatial expansion or horizontal expansion; instead Niladharies etc should be formulated to identify sites circular development and vertical development should be that could be archaeologically valuable. encouraged. * A simple mechanism should be established to reclaim such * The Kegalle town should be developed into a fully fledged lands already occupied by public or private activities. district capital. * Location of new industries and expansion of existing 5.13 Population industries should be judiciously planned not to interfere with the natural environmental setting and landscape. * Intensification of educating the newly married young- * Pollution from industries should be given special couples in respect to family planning. attention before it reaches unweidly proportions.- --• * Incentives should be given for having small families. * A District/Provincial landuse plan should be formulated * Expansion of job _ opportunities for females could be, an for about 2 5 years as a rolling plan within the framework encouragement to have smaller families. of the National Landuse Plan. * Reduction of infant motality rates which will give > * Utilization of land should depend on the current demand confidence to have planned families. taking into consideration the sustainability and * Increase the level of nutrition among children under 05 posterity. years. * Multidisciplinary planning of landuse should' be done at * Encourage non-governmental organizations to have a the initial stage to maintain a balance between needs and meaningful role to family planning. conservation. * Delineation of areas within the District for various NGOs * Peoples'participation should be an essential ingredient in to cover adequately the pheripheral areas of the District taking decision with regard to landuse. should be considered. * Expansion of programmes over mass-media to educate the 5.15 Steps that could be followed to formulate an efficient public on family planning, personal health, nutrition etc. landuse plan

5.14 Landuse (A) Land capability

* Further clearance of rain forests for settlement purposes 1. Obtain a detailed information on inherent should be totally stopped in the District. characteristics of the available land. * Land with slopes over 45° "angle should be avoided for 2. Formulate a land capability classification based on settlement purposes. limiting factors and considering the - possible land * Existing extent of plantation and other crops should be uses. maintained. No extensions should be done to the area, but 3. Examine in detail the environmental impact of land productivity of land yield/per ha should be increased. uses based on the inherent characteristics of the Crop rotation and crop diversification with animal land. husbandry should be the strategy. 4. Designate appropriate landuses based on inherent land * Land capability should be undertaken on marginal and use capability for sustainable uses. abandoned land and alternative landuse should be identified. - 214 - (B) Landuse Suitability

Assess the responses of a landscape unit to a particular 5.18 Housing use to find out whether the use or uses could cause site degradation or soil erosion. (Wooldrige1990). * Housing should be considered as an important human,need. Facilities should be provided with the available 16 Settlements resources. * Supply of water and sewerage to the houses in first level * In each AGA Division one settlement should be upgraded and second level townships should be a priority. into a urban township which in turn would act as a * The present Environment Impact Assessment developed by the catalyst for development as a first level centre. Central Environment Authority should be extended to cover * These growth centres should act as collecting and all development projects and activities . which will be marketing centres, communication and service centres, undertaken in future by State and private sector within the District. health and education centres in order to facilitate both economic and social well-being of each AGA Division. * An organisation should be setup to prepare guidelines for rural settlements. * Second level service centres should be improved wherever possible depending on the demand for such services'. * Standards should be, developed to resolve, conflicts in utilization of land particularly for industrial activities * This would help to keep the youths in the villages and housing. simultaneously helping them to find employment in these centres. * Identification of land for housing should be carried out * Generation of jobs for the rural youths should underlie at village level. These future identifications should be based on the potentiality to provide basic social and all human settlement plans. physical infrastructure. * These first level and second level centres should be invariably inter-linked through appropriate * The transformation of the construction material from traditional to modern is not a basic shelter need in terms infrastructural facilities. of health and safety conditions. Hence, the demand to change into a new material should be encouraged but not 17 Kegalle Town subsidized.

* Population densities should be kept below a critical 5.19 Drinking Water level. * Feasibility of a sewerage scheme should be explored. * A major constraint to rural settlement development is the * Programms of sewerage and garbage disposal should take high priority. inadequate provision of safe drinking water. Some settlement locations do not have safe drinking water * Relationship between water supply and water disposal sources, which has resulted in the exploitation of system should be recognised. unhygenic sources leading to bowel diseases and poor * Urban commercial development housing and roads and their health conditions. The agro-chemicals also get into the impacts on water pollution from sources such as surface sources of drinking water thereby creating a health run-off and ground water seepage must be taken into hazard. consideration by the local authority when approving such development. * The Provincial Government should take immediate steps to undertake the responsibility of providing safe drinking * Environment management plan for polluted river is a major water to all the settlements within the District through essential activity. better planning, coupled with monitoring. This will * Impact from the informal sector is also an important necessary call for capability building. aspect to consider in environment protection. * Provision of clorinated water for all settlements should * Industrial water pollution should be controlled. be the ultimate goal. * Disposal of toxic industrial chemicals and industrial' waste treatment should be priorities. - 215 - 5.20 Sanitation - 216 -

* Low cost sanitation needs of rural communities is an 22 Infrastructure Facilities important issue. Improving sanitary conditions in the rural context will certainly reduce waterborne diseases, among the rural communities. * Improve road network depending on the.number and frequency of users. * Awareness and education programmes in rural communities on * Work-out a practical road network based on both agro- improved sanitation practices and the cultivation of the distance and socio-distance. hab0it of drinking boiled water are essential. Village * community groups, farmer organisations and the mass media Access roads to each village should have minimum standard. * are means to achieve this goal. However, this will create Access roads to the villages should be linked to the regional road network in the District. • more demand for fuelwood. * Regional road network should be effectively linked to the national network. 5.21 Education, Health and Social Welfare * Mass communication should be -^expanded.

During the last 50 years Sri Lanka has been investing a good These suggestions to the existing issues in the District part of the resources in the food subsidy and food stamps. comply with the stated policies of the Government. Through this means although the overall social indicators have risen, still there are pockets where education and 23 Government Policies health levels are much below average.

Some of the stated policies of the Government, which have Within the District of Kegalle there are tremendous spatial relevance to land use planning activities and the environment disparities in terms of level of services. Although the can be listed as: services are continued to be provided free; and easily (a) Industry to develop at several levels - P 21 accessible by all categories of the community, there is Country wide industrial development - P 33 evidence to the degraded level in quality of service. This has resulted through the neglect of service personnel (b) Raising productivity and income of small producers in the training., maintenance of buildings and equipment and agriculture, forestry and fisheries sector - P 26. provision of consumables. Agriculture * Agricultural policy to increase the incomes' of the small farmers - P 26. * In the light of the 13th Amendment to the Constitution .the * Improvements in rainfed cultivation - devolution of these services and the sharing of P 26. responsibility for managing them effectively lies with the Forestry * Reforestation to be expanded and Provincial Council: intensified to a level to offset the * The narrowing of the disparities in quality and funding of imbalance between extraction and services, regeneration. * Adaptation of these services to changing economic demands * More efficient management of existing and circumstances; forests (especially forest reserves * The improvement of participation rate in existing and catchment areas) - P 27. services; Plantations * Improvements to the productive base by * The improvement of accessibility to these services; replanting, new planting and soil * The provision of protection to vulnerable groups; improvement measures. < * Development of manpower for these services in terms of * Diversification technological changes; * Development of plantation worker * The assessment of emerging social problems and settlements - P 29. identification of preventive actions can be considered as pre-fequisites. - 218 - - 217 -

Livestock * Livestock to be developed as an * Regularizing out standing encroachments. effective means of income generation * Review land policy without impairment to productivity to alleviate the problem of acute landlessness. P 30. * Implement a unified land and human settlements development policy for landless villagers and Habitat plantation workers - P 55. Housing and Shelter : Housing for 1.5 million families (meeting the U.N. Global Sheltor target of Shelter for all by the (g) Health : Malaria to be effectively controlled - P 58. year 2000) - P 11, 42, 43.' (h) Social Service : Effective capability for disaster Urban Development : Inter-related development of the total hierarchy of urban centres. preparedness to be built-up - P 60. Complement and strengthen the hierarchy of rural centres - P 44.. (i) Human Resources: Reach out for technological literacy Environment : National Conservation Strategy - while retaining national identify - P 44. P 46. (The page references are from the UNP election manifesto, 1988) . Infrastructure/Services : Electricity : Provide electricity for every 5.24 KEGALLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECT village by the year 2000 - P 50. (International fund for Agricultural Development) Roads : Development of highways connecting up growth centres. More hew The Kegalle Integrated Rural Development Project had been roads, and upgrading of foot paths planned for a seven-year period (1986-92). Rural Development in villages - P 51. in the District are to be achieved through funding on Telecommunication : Expand to cover all parts of the production activities, infrastructural facilities and credit. country - P 51. A. Production

Irrigation : Minor Export Crops Development * Impact of irrigation on environment and land quality will be assessed and monitored. fey planting nearly 2,000 ha with high quality crops such^ * Systems prone to floods will be harnessed for as coffee, pepper, cloves in homesteads and upland irrigation - P 53. farms, (under existing smallholder assistance programms); provision of facilities for extension work Land : through increasing the number of field staff and *' Implementation of the recommendation of the Land vehicles,* giving financial assistance and easing the loan Commission 1987. payment; and encouraging and maintaining the private * Provincial Land Banks : Land identified for each of plant nurseries for these crops. the main uses : Village and Town expansion Forests and open spaces Industry Agriculture - P 18. - 220 - - 219 -

B. Rural Credit Smallholder Tea Development By provision of refinance facilities for an „expanded By replanting 175 ha and in-filling 400 ha. of tea, using' volume of credit to rural smallholders and entrepreneurs, vegetative propergating plants and introducing soil and artisans. conservation measures under existing smallholder assistance programs; Intercropping of smallholder tea C. Rural Infrastructure lands with pepper; regularizing the smallholders tea land ownership; and providing extension facilities; and the Rural Roads and Water Supply expansion of the existing Hinguloya nursery and establishment of a new nursery at Dehiowita to provide Rehabilitation, construction, and maintenance of about about 400,000 seedl'ings a year to smallholders.. 125 km of rural roads ,linking remote villages with market centres; and Construction of five piped water supply Irrigation Extension and Input Supply schemes and 200 wells in villages lacking reliable and safe drinking water. . " By Rehabilitation/construction of about 200 minor irrigation schemes with a total command area of about Education 1,200 ha; providing facilities for extension staff. Renovation of the Wagolla Training Centre and provision By upgrading of primary school facilities in remote of additional training funds; and Construction of 20 ten- areas, through construction of science classrooms, ton fertilizer stores in remote areas and provision of teachers' quarters and sanitary facilities, and provision vehicles to facilitate fertilizer distribution. of science equipment and teaching aids.

Small Scale Industries Development 5 Rural Poverty and Environment

By upgrading or construct^ion of. training centres for There is a close relationship between the environment and the carpentry (9) and light engineering (3); Establishment of rural poverty in the District of Kegalle. An intimate a white coir fiber demonstration unit; Refurbishing and correlation between the utilization of the natural resources equipping a pilot handloom silk cloth manufacturing to the extent which leads to a degradation of the environment center; and Restructuring and strengthening the Kegalle and the existence of rural poverty can be identified in the office of the Department of Small Industries. District. The landlessness, the acute land fragmentation and the resultant small extent of land insufficient to provide a Rural Women's Enterprises reasonable livelihood, the increase of population, the increase of rural unemployment, and the low income, have By training of about 1,200 rural women in the technical invariably forced the people to exploit the environment, in and managerial aspects of small enterprises; and the form of encroachment on watersheds and forest reserves, Provision of grant and loan funds for initial capital for clearance of steep slopes for chena and other cultivations women to start such income-generating activities. leading to soil erosion, landslides, rockfalls, floods, • droughts and also health hazards. Thus, there is a mutual relationship between the environmental degradation and poverty. Therefore, one positive way of protecting and conserving the environment is to find solutions to ameliorate the intensity of rural poverty. - 221 -

- 222 -

This section examines some practical possibilities of The physical conditions of the District are exceptionally alleviating rural poverty in the District. One approach favourable for many varieties of tree crops, minor exports would be to find measures to generate the income, and another vegetables, flowers and fruits. Qn the other hand the approach would be to identify measures to generate District is extremely poor in mineral - and-other industrial employment • The following discussion deals with a few resources. Even with the available industrial resources possibilities which would help to alleviate rural poverty in market prospects for rural industrial products and the the District. necessary skills in Sri Lanka remain uncertain. In addition, within the District, technical and managerial resources are 5.25.1 Income Generation Potentialities limited. It" at all in the industrial sector some hope of financial and economic viability can be expected only in Kegalle is one of the poorest Districts of Sri Lanka. 2 main fields where skills and also demands are known such as categories of farmers in the District are the paddy farmers carpentry and light engineering (electrical and mechanical and the tree crop cultivators, out of which the latter repairs). category is poorer. In both these categories the extent of the farm plot is extremely small. Most of the farm families However, to reduce the incidence of poverty among the rural currently, have an annual per capita income below islands population in the District there are agro-based activities poverty threshold of US$140, although the average for the which can be tried out as income generation projects. District is estimated at US$220. Table 49 gives the average farm incomes of the farmers in the Kegalle District; Fresh Water Fish Farming

Table 49 Average Farm Income in the District of Kegalle There is a tremendous potentiality in extending fresh water fish farming which should be • encouraged for more than one Size Income(Rs Farm Type reason within the District. It had been proved that breeding of fresh water fish such as Thilapia, Carp and Prawn could be Irrigated paddy 0. 4 18,855 successfully undertaken in the District. Rainfed paddy 0.4 18,479 Tea Infilling 0.4 10,025 The presence of marshes and swamps especially in Divisions 8,809 Tea Replanting 0.4 such as Yatiyantota and also the availability of already Minor Export Crops (Home Garden) 0.1 9 , 200 constructed mud ponds (Table 50) provide the necessary Minor Export Crops (Mixed stan ds) 0.2 12,500 physical environment. The presence of a perennial fresh, water supply is a major advantage.

The cropping intensities of both irrigated paddy and.rainfed Another important reason to popularise fresh water fisheries paddy in the District are high and also the paddy yields are in the District is the prevalent acute malnutrition one of the highest in the island. Paddy demands modest especially among children under 5 years. (Table 51) Since investments and commands low risks. Hence the paddy farmers the District is located away from the coastal zone, the are little better than the others. Yet, off-farm income is availability of sea fish is limited and the prices are important to all farm families in the District accounting for forbidden for poor farmers. By expanding and popularising 20% to 50% of total rural household income. fresh water fisheries, much needed animal protein can be found. There could be a possibility of selling these fish even in Greater Colombo area. Prawns have a ready market in Colombo hotels. This would be also a contribution to the national income in the form of foreign exchange. - 223 -

Table 50 Availability of Mud Ponds in the District - 224 -

Fresh Water Bodies AGA Division Name of the Tank Extent 59 Species of local freshwater fishes are found in Sri Lanka, Derniyagala Lassegama 2.5 acre among which 16 endemic species are, found mostly in the wet Mahayaya " " " 2 0 perch zone, out of which about 20 are edible species. By improving Nooriya 20 " and developing the fresh water fisheries in the District it Maliboda 10 " Polgaswatta 10 " will not only create jobs for the unemployed and underemployed, but also while supplementing the farm family Dehiowita Walpola 10 " budget it will make a noteworthy contribution to the local as '- Deloluwa " 10 " Yatiyantota Kendal Oya ^Estate 80 well as national diet. This is an activity which is more , Ing Oya 10 congenial with the topography and the climate of the Nelkaduwa/Ampagala 10 - District. — Udayatideriya/Udugoda 10 Batahenkanda 10 Hapgammana 10 Ornamental fish farming RuwanweUa Waharake 10 Walagampana 10 There is a potentiality to popularise ornamental fish farming Dannoruwa (2)- 2 0 Aranayake n.a using the already existing mud ponds. This may be an Mawanella n.a additional field to provide off-farm employment to school Rambukkana Siyabalagamuwa 02 acres. dropouts and women. If scientifically carried out this could Gangodadeniya wewa 0.5 " Kudagama Wewa 01 11 be a source of foreign exchange as well. Gotudenikanda 01 11 Kuruduwatta wewa 0.5 " Ornamental fish farming also would create a demand for making Kegalle n.a Galigamuwa n.a of cement and glass tanks, carpentry works, electrical Warakapola n.a artifices etc. which would provide additional income to people who are already engaged in these activities.

Table 51 Malnutrition (percentage) by Age

Years Years Years 0-1 1-2 2-5 Deraniyagala acute acute acute Dehiowita acute acute acute Yatiyantota 26.0 25.0 24 . 0 RuwanweUa n.a n.a n. a Aranayake n.a n.a n. a Mawanella 29.4 45.3 24 . 0 Rambukkana n.a n.a n. a Kegalle 39. 6 45.4 44 .1 Galigamuwa 47 . 5 46.8 68 . 2 Warakapola 35.71 38.91 35.6 - 225 -

- 226 - Kitul based industries

Bee Keeping Kitul palm is abundant in the District of Kegalle. This grows almost wild every^where in Kegalle District without'any Bee-keeping can be considered as another agro-based activity inputs going into the cultivation. Kitul is abundant which could provide supplementary income to the farm family especially, in the Divisions of Deraniyagala and Yatiyantota. budget. Bees honey has a ready market among the health This palm. had been over looked in the past due to the caicious urban population in Colombo. This' is an activity emphasis on major tree crops such as tea, rubber, and which can be carried out with a very small investment and coconut. without much time and other - inputs going, into it. Deraniyagala , Yatiyantota and Dehiowita are ideal Divisions Kitul palm can be utilized and exploited for agro-industry in as they contain a relatively large extents of natural the District. Kitul palm is as fast growing tree species forests. ' which grows to a fairly good height and reaches the flowering stage in about 15 years, This palm is mainly Anthurim and Orchid Cultivation and ornamental foliage associated with the catchment areas in the wet zone. One kitul flower is supposed to produce from 2 to 10 liters of Cut-flowers of'good quality have a ready market in'Colombo. sap per day. Kitul sap contains 13.6% sucrose in addition to Hotels, offices and houses are the chief buyers. In addition, small quantities of sugars, ash, protein, pectin and gums. there is a great potentallty in anthuriums and orchids as foreign exchange earners. Cultivation of these flowers do In addition to the normal trecle and jaggery which have a not demand large extents of land. Yet, they demand great ready market in urban areas, there is a possibility of making intensive care. This activity with proper scientific and use of this wildly grown kitul palm for many agro-based technical guidence could be a money spinner for e educated, industrial products. Kitul sugar cubes, added with natural unemployed women. However , proper handling, packing ingredients is one possibility. It- had been pointed out that transporting 'and marketing are essential and they should be kitul-sugar cubes could be market in the sophisticated West meticulpusly organized if expected benefits to be achieved for health conscious people who are shying away from refined Hence, upgrading of existing infrastructure should go hand in sugar. hand along with the introduction of new income generating ventures. The manufacture . of kitul beer is another possibility. The average alcohol content of kitul today is supposed to be If the narrow-guage rail extention is reintroduced and about 5% which is almost equivalent to the alcohol content of extended to the District and upgraded it will facilitate the beer. If quality beer can be produced, it could be a foreign transport of these delicate perishables to Colombo. exchange earner for the country, of course, only if proper marketing can be done in- beer drinking countries such as Mushroom Cultivation Germany.

This could be a very hucrative job for housewives to The pulp from a. single kitul trunk is supposed to produce supplement the family budget. The climate of the District is about 125kg of flour. It is said that kitul flour is equal ideally suited for mushroom cultivation. Land is not a to the best sago produced in other parts of the world. At decisive factor and investment-wise it demands much less. present 500g of kitul flour fetche between Rs. 85 to Rs. Mushroom cultivation would not only help the farmers to raise 100/= in the local market. Thus, kitual palm can be income but also would help to reduce the malnutrition and considered as a very valuable resource potential for the under-nourishment among the population. agro-based industries in the District of Kegalle. - 227 - - 228 -

Fruit farming At present graphite is exported as a raw material and hence, its a very low foreign exchange earner. IDB has taken steps The District of Kegalle is naturally endowed with ideal^ to develop graphite-based industries in the country by climate which is suitable for a variety of fruits. , Bananas,' providing the know-how. IDB has experimented in producing Pineapples and papaw can be grown without much effort. In graphite crucibles and it is believed that manufacture of addition, a whole range of fruits from citrus to graphite crucible could develop as a small scale industry in the District. IDB is prepared to provide with information durian,magoesteens, rambutttan and guava can be grown for manufacture of graphite crucible and if small scale successfully. This is another aspect which should be given an industries can be started in the District it may be helpful impetus. Fruit cultivation will also help to reduce the not only to generate additional income to existing artisans malmutrition while supplementing the farm income. There is a but also would help to reduce the acute unemployment problem ready market for these fruits in Colombo Area if proper in the District, especially among middle-grade educated handling and transporting is available. youths.

Other Agricultural Possibilities .2 Employment Generation Potentialities The climate of the District of Kegalle is ' suitable for many varieties of bamboo, and for trees such as mahogany and In the context of open economic policy of Sri Lanka, its now ginisapu. These are in high demand at the moment due to the accepted that a policy of diversification of export oriented growth is the most suitable and effective of achieving expansion of the construction industry, especially in the economic progress. Over the last decade,' the motivation for Colombo District. Bamboo can be cultivated in river banks exports has gathered significant momentum and it is now and abandoned fields. This tree do not need any inputs or becoming the most attractive area out of new economic effort to grow. Bamboo wood also can be made use of to pursuits. However, the entrepreneurial attraction into new manufacture ornaments and other household items. This could production ventures depends on the relative profitability provide additional income to farm families if know how is conditions that could be provided by the system. These introduced.. Bamboo is also an ideal plant species to arrest conditions are affected by a host of variables including the soil erosion. availability of infrastructural facilities and a garunteed market. Mahogany and ginisapu can be planted on edges of fields and in land not suitable for crop cultivation. Non-traditional perishable Products

Mulberry is another trees species which could provide Under the category of non-traditional products fresh additional farm income. Already there is a silk factory at vegetables, fruits, flowers, and foliage have entered the Mawanella, in Galig.amuwa AGA Division under IRDP. There is export market recently. the possibility of sericulture in an organized basis to supply raw material for the si°lk industry. Sri Lanka appears to have three major competitive advantages against other potential competitors for fresh vegetables and Graphite Based industries fruits (Daines and Pawar 1988) .

The Industrial Development Board (IDB) has conducted a survey Firstly, the major opportunity to producing countries in regarding the graphite-based industries in the country. IDB tropics are presented .by the off-season markets in Japan and says that graphite industry could be started on a small Europe. The geographic location and the tropical climate scale. provides, Sri Lanka in general, and the District of Kegalle specifically, with year round temperatures which permit growth of a variety of perennial fruits and vegetable. - 229 - - 230 - Secondly, farm labour in Sri Lanka is very much cheaper in compared to other similar countries. This advantage is remarkable where labour represents a dominant factor in the Table 52 cost structure of the production of fruits and vegetables. EXPORTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES (1988) FROM SRI LANKA The District of Kegalle has a high proportion of unemployed youths both male and female.

Thirdly, the geographical location of the island itself Destination Kuwait Bahrain U.A.E. Saudi Oman Qatar Maldive provides an advantage of transport costs. The countries of Products island Arabia Island Western Europe, the Pacific countries centered round Japan, and West Asia are currently the World's major importers of expensive fresh fruits and vegetables. The somewhat central 07.01A Potatoes 0.012" 0.004 ' location of the island in relation to these regions, places 0.011 07.01B Tomatoes Sri Lanka in an advantageous position of developing an export 07.01C Onions, Shallots industry for these major markets on- fresh fruits and Garlic etc. 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.011 ' 0.103 vegetables. The location of the District of Kegalle adjacent 0.118 to the Greater Colombo Area gives, to the District an easy 07.01D Vegetable other 12.50 5.778 9.612 8.909 4.615 2.450 22.59 access to commercial establishments, port and airport. 07.06 Manioc, Arrowroot 0.002 0.010 0.192 0.292 0.183 0.009 07.02 Vegetables 0.020 0.087 Export potential of the District 08.01 Bananas 0.036 0.001 0.012 08.01E Pineapples 0.044 0.189 1.214 1.124 0.018 1.064 It is worthwhile to examine the possibility and the 08.01F Avacados, Mangoes 0.014 0.013 .0.091 appropriateness of establishing within the District an agency 08.02C Lemon & Limes 0,171 0-294 similar to that of Employment Investment and Enterprise 08.02E Citrus Fruit 0.075 0.110 Development Division (EIED) of the Mahaweli Authority with 08.09 Other Fruit Fresh 1.396 1.459 3.241 2.775 0.688 0.989 5.923 the objective of aiming at diversifying agriculture, expand 09.10 Ginger 0.074 0.043 0.002 0.713 employment, raise farm income and increase foreign exchange earnings for the country. Total . 14.188 7.485 14.298 13.168 5.579 3.441 32.149

This agency could explore the possibilities of growing high value vegetables and fruits for foreign markets and of using Source : Sri Lanka Customs Returns the water bodies for breeding ornamental fish and fresh water prawns for export.

Table 52 gives the details of exports of fruits and vegetables to various destinations in from Sri Lanka in 1988. Out of this list of exports, tomatoes, vegetables, bananas, pineapples, avocadoes, mangoes, lemon, and limes, citrus fruits and variety of other fresh fruits and ginger in addition to manioc and arrow root, can be successfully grown in the District of Kegalle. Currently there are 13,761 ha of arable land not cultivated in the District (Table 28) which can be made use of for this purpose. - 231 - - 232 -

generated in connection with freight forwarders, packers, At present some 5, 000 metric tons of fresh fruit and store-keepers, transporters security personnel etc. The vegetables are exported to the West Asian countries from Sri commercial aspect of banking, insurace and customs also would Lanka. There is a great demand for green chilies, aubergines, create a certain degree of employment. okra, and gourds of various kinds in these countries. All these vegetables can be successfully grown in Kegalle However, before committing to any of these new ventures, District. At the moment these vegetables are produced by serious research should be undertaken to identity the scattered independent farmers. This is not favourable to possibilities and constraints and to understand clearly the maintain the quality. One way of maintaining the quality positive as well as negative effects. Export Development would be " orchard type" larger-scale farming. Yet, the Board ' which is the state agency that promotes the export limited availability of large expanse of land does not permit trade should be consulted at the very beginning. this. The large-scale farmer also need heavy capital and good managerial skills which are "again scarce resources in Development of an Export Promotion Zone within the District the District. An alternative to orchard type farming is the of Kegalle concept of 'nucleus out-grower1 production.- A central nucleus farm would make available quality seeds and other agricultural inputs to the small scale out-grower farmers, It is worth examining the possibility of establishing a thereby ensuring a standardised quality product. export promotion zone (EPZ) within the District of Kegalle in order to create employment and to absorb the soring numbers as unemployed youths. Greater Colombo Economic Commission Under the given conditions in the District, the nucleus out- (GCEC) has been more than successful in attracting many 'grower system could be more suitable for promoting private foreign investors. For example, Phase I of the Katunayake sector investments. This would also help to overcome the EPZ extends over and area of 150 acres and accommodates 50 constraints of quality seeds and level of commercial factories. 25% of these are garment factories while the rest production. are light engineering industries. Phase II accomodates 25 factories within an extent of 120 acres which produce largely The second area which has a potential for the export market light engineering products, shoes, pet-food etc. Phase III would be the breeding of fresh water prawns and ornamental is fast developing . The achievements of the GCEC in fish in mund-ponds. Gold fish, angels, comets, shubunkins, attracting foreign investors are due to many factors, among barbs, gouramies and platies from the main groups of mud-pond which promotion campaign is the most prominent. The -grown fish which can be propergated within the District". competitive wages of a highly literate labour force and a The physical factors are in favour of both these ventures. package of attractive tax incentives are among other factors, A similar possibility is prevailing with regard to cut- Despite the civil disturbances within the country, the GCEC, flowers and foliage plants. Currently there is a great demand in 1988, signed contracts for 26 projects. External forces for these in South-East Asia, Japan and Australia. It can be also are in favour with Sri Lanka in attracting foreign hoped that these possibilities could build upto an entirely investors. Increasing wage rates and rising Yen (Japan) Won new area of business in the District. (S.Korea) and Deutsche Mark (Germany),, in addition to labour unrest in some countries, are some of these external factors. These export oriented ventures can generate employment not Further-more, the rising costs of production in countries only with regard to production , but also in relation to such as Japan, South Korea and Hongkong have forced the packing, and transportation, in addition to many and varied industrialists to move their labour intensive industries to ancillary activities. For example, with regard to countries in Asia where labour is plentiful and cheap. The production there' would be employment created in relation to GCEC incentive package permits an investor with opportunities collecting, trucking and warehousing, in addition to to produce a variety of export products such as agricultural production. In the service sector, employment would be machinery, electrical appliances, electronic items, machine tools, toys, sports goods, jewellery, pharmaceuticals, beauty care products, plastic-ware, ornaments and computer-ware. All these are labour intensive industries. - 233 - - 234 -

The District of Kegalle has a surplus labour from the farms. Unemployed population constitutes mainly educated youths. . 3 Regional Boundaries Hence, there is possibility of creating Jobs for these youths by establishing an EPZ within the District. Limitations of the existing regional boundaries

Map 1 shows that the District of Kegalle is constituted of The Land can be found within the District in abandoned area segments of 3 river basins and also that there are estates belonging to JEDB. For example, already there is a sections of these river basins which are located outside the plan to start an industrial complex in Peterhill estate in District boundary. Ruwanwella AGA Division. There.is a high tension hydro

electricity transmission network passing through the This report has discussed in detail the physical setting and District (Map 16) There are several waterfalls (Table 3) the environmental issues faced by the District. Among the which can be harnessed as mini, hydral power plants to environmental issues soil erosion, land slides, rockfalls, generate any additional power necessary. Main road system deforestation, water pollution, land .degradation and floods which joins Colombo is reasonably of high standard (Map 17) . are severe. Almost all these environmental issues are The proximitly of the District to the commercial hub of the interconnected not only in terms of physical elements but also in terms of space or area. island is in favour of an EPZ. This could be a positive action in creating employment, without drawing the resource It had been pointed out in many instances that a watershed of the District. For example, GCEC has estimated that the could be' a more promising criterion to delineate .the sub- entire complex of EPZ has upto 1988, created direct national territorial units in Sri Lanka. Thus, instead of employment to 45,728 people and indirect employment to present arbitary administrative boundaries, a drainage basin 100,000 people. However, detail studies should be carried demarcated by the watershed could be a more meaningful out before taking a decision and also precautions such as administrative division. The first Interim Report of the environmental Impact Assessments are essential pre­ Land Commission (1986) highlighted the importance of the requisites. preservation of watershed areas as a major strategy, for the conservation and development of natural resources.

Advantages of Watershed Boundaries

It had been argued that the delineation of regions based on watershed facilitates the planning and implementation of all activities relating to resource management. Among these there are specific activities which derive a distinct advantage in in decision making and implementation within an entity of a drainage basin. Some of these specific activities are Land - 235 - - 236 -

Management, Landuse Planning, Agriculture, Soil Conservation, Provision of relief to areas and population who are Forestry, Irrigation, Water Supply and Swerage, Surface subjected to environmental hazards such as floods or Drainage, Hydro-electricity Generation,-^Fisheries and ,Water landslides and also carrying.out of mitigative measures are Transport. In Sri Lanka water resources constitute the most extremely difficult where there are interferences by valuable resource for sustainable growth. The topographic district/provincia1 boundaries. 'A river basin region' features capture and guide the surface waters, while the facilitates the natural desaster preparedness and prevention slopes and the gravity distribute the water for multiple use by helping the co-ordination of a wide range and variety of irrespective of administrative boundaries. Hence, co­ actions that are essential and feasible to reduce the risk and damage. ordination of water-management and conservation is crucial for the development, especially under devolution of powers. Regulatory administration and law enforcement is more

As the devolution gathers more monemtum -over time and the effective and easy if territorial units are based on communities within separate Provinces become more ambitious, watersheds. Jurisdiction divisions based on the existing there could be inter-district or inter-provincial desputs and district boundaries are often used as a reason for inaction conflicts between upstream and down stream users of water. To by government authorities. This is highly relevant to avoid such possible conflicts it is essential to manage the illicit logging and timber transportation from the district of Kegalle to industrialists in Colombo. There is also an river water rationally. Technically it is meaningful to anomalous situation created due to present provincial treat the whole river basin as a system, in order to meet the boundaries in relation to the District of Kegalle. The town specific requirements of water for domestic, agricultural, of Ratnapura, the capital of Sabaragamuwa province, is less industrial and recreation purposes. centrally situated for the population of the District of Kegalle. • The result is less communication and less The interference of district/provincial boundaries impede the interaction with the capital town in terms of decision making effective implementation of any scheme on pollution control. and implementation. This may lead to isolation of the people A drainage basin on the other-hand facilitates the planning, from the decision makers, which could have long-term designing and controlling of any river pollution. The detrimental effects. population living in Colombo district have to bear with the waters polluted by the population in the Kegalle District. This seems to be rather unjustifiable. As mentioned earlier, the misuse of upper watersheds of the Kelani Ganga invariably causes environmental hazards not only with in the District but also in the Colombo District. Deforestation and the encroachment in the upper reaches have lead to severe soil erosion which has resulted siltation in the lower reaches, with consequent flooding in and around Colombo Sand mining in the upper reaches have caused the sea-water intrusion at the river mouth. These factors can be better managed by treating the river basin as one unit. - 240 - - 237 -

u 6. THE ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY AND THE ENVIRONMENT 4-> 4-1 U w > a) -H reserved at the centre and List III, which is the concurrent u u a (0 o 4-> 1 m -H development units at the District level. (in relation to U) 4-1 s: u ui Devolved subjects AGA is the secretary to PS) . Each u a> u o a) m -p 73 w •p to ID Division is divided into several Grama ui c c u u o Niladhari Divisions (Map 19 and Annex IV) . Each GN Division ' u~ -H •H a> ui 4-1 < •H w ai ta is under a Grama Niladhari-. Each GN Division is composed of 4-1 c o •H ui -H several villages. Gramodaya Mandalas at the village level a) ai c u •H (0 •H o (1) 73 ai (and town council level) operate as grass root level units. s: 0 >i -H M h 0) I o o ^ ui O O 4J Thus, in the District of Kegalle there are 10 Pradeshiya m 1 4-1 > U) Sabhas, 573 Gramodaya Mandalas and 01 Municipal Council. u u .4 D i-H < a) 4-i c < However, AGA Division is the chief administrative unit in ui o — Q) til »J) o •H — relation to Reserved subjects. The Figures 17/)18A& 19 -n- Ul Ul c o •P 73 -H •H a) Ul lO illustrate the devolution of powers at the District level in w U) s relation to the- District of Kegalle and the District Level •H Q and Local level organisational structures of the Administrative machinery (Fig.20)

Thus, the Assistant Government Agent (AGA) has in fact three ui c a) u c o a) 0) roles to fulfil as: (1) the Secretary to the Pradeshiya Sabha o c •H c M ui •H responsible to the elected Pradeshiya Sabhas. (2) Divisional Ul c -H IT) -H w >1 •P > •rH CP Secretary responsible to the Chief Secretary, who is the head M > •H c a; ID d) -rH •H (0 m L V4 a Q of the Provincial Secretariat (Fig. 19) (Provincial Govt.) ui -P o -c -01 4-J- r-l --H - o -ai- [/) OS O —(0- o •r-l (3) Assistant Government Agent responsible to the District H u u c Ul c tt) U) •r-l > -H Government Agent (Central Govt.). w +J 73 C o > Ul IC O u •H ui ai Q Provincial Council Secretariate Organisational Structure

Chief Secretory

Deputy Secretary Deputy Secretary Deputy Secretary Deputy Secretary Dy. Director Dy. Director Planning Finance Personnel & Training Provincial Internal Engineering Administration Audit M !—1 Director Director Director Director Di rector Di rector Di rector D i rector Asst. Secretary Asst. Secretary Audi t Execut ive Projects Progress, Data and Planning Finance Accounts & Revenue Budget Personnel Training & Management Officers Engineers Control and Statistical Payments Evaluation Information

Figure 19

Divisional Level Organisation

Sub-Provincial Support Services Divisional •Divisional Coordinating Secretary Committee

•— Pradeshiya Sabha Engineering Education Health Agriculture & Development Officers Animal Husbandry Land Rural Development Community Development Planning Accounts Administration Industries unit unit unit Fisheries Animal Husbandry

.Service Officers ro Social services IV) Cultural Sports Youth Affairs

Grama Niladhari

\

Figure-20 - 243 - - 244 -

6.2 Institutional Machinery in Relation to Environment Gramodaya Mandalas

The constitution of Sri Lanka enacted in 1978 enjoins the Each AGA Division has several Gramodaya ^Mandalas (GM) which state and all its citizens to protect, preserve and improve consisted of chairman of 'non-political'1 voluntary the environment for the benefit of the community and to associations, List of voluntary organisations that are protect nature and conserve it riches. qualified to send their chairpersons as members of GMs are given in the Annex VII. Thus, GMs are not elected but more Pradeshiya Sabhas (PS) or less designed as genuine grass-roots level bodies which could voice village opinion GMs are also vested with Pradeshiya Sabhas are elected by the voters of each AGA ; functions which could strengthen the economy of the village. division based on the\ list system on proportional representation. As one would expect, these PSs to be the The critics are of the view that the role of GMs should be basic operative unit in the decentralised system, they should defined as "vehicles for the expression of opinion at village be closer to the average community or citizen. But in level" rather than as executive agencies which are ill- practice the list system creates a distance between the equipped to perform functions in relation to village-level representative to the PS and the community. Thus the list I development (Leitan 1990) system tends to alienate the PS member from the villagers and their problems. 6.3 Planning and Local level participation

The political science scholars on local government are with Creation of provincial Councils' is the result of the need for the opinion that the former 'ward' system in relation to decentralisation of powers and functions with the view to local bodies made the- rural voters to have a close obtain meaningful local level participation to the relationship with his ward members. This close relationship development process. However, without subsequent structural or interaction helped the villagers to get the attention of arrangements to integrate localities into the process of the local body to ful-fil his needs such as repairing village • planning and implementation, the decentralisation of powers road, or culvert, construction of a public amenity etc. The' is meaningless. attributes such as , village leadership, integrity, sense of belonging, and a record of social service had a greater It is worth in this respect to note the observation made by influence on selecting the 'ideal member' than the partyi the Presidential Commission on Youth (1990) with regard to politics. causes of youth unrest in the country:

The Pradeshiya Sabhas, could be as effective as former! "there was widespread consensus that devolution is a village councils if greater popular participation is ensured.' necessary and important aspect of any future political 'Ward-based elections in respect of these institutions coul< framework; and that the process of devolution should not only be one way of bringing these institutions closer to th< include Provincial Councils, but also should go beyond it to people in each locality' (Leitan 1990) j ensure meaningful participation at the local level". i - 246 - - 245 -

Through this means the chief Minister and the Board of Hence Commission recommends; Ministers would make decisions on broader issues of regional development while specif ic^ projects and their "It is therefore, important to devise democratic'structures implementations would be the responsibility,' of Pradeshiya at the local level to ensure a cohesive sense of village Sabhas. community, with the emphasis on collective decision making and the emergence of a new youthful leadership committed to The Administrative Reform Committee also states in democratic values"(Youth Commission Report 1990) relation to Pradeshiya Sabha; " should be conducted in such a manner as would permit full public It is accepted that the rural masses should be made to feel a participation in them with the right for the public, sense of- involvement in the State process. This can be made through their NGOs, both to be heard and to hear". effective only through structural arrangements where the community can have a specific role to play in the process of 6.4 Departmental Structures planning and implementation.

The Government Departments are the chief instruments for.the Effective environmental management and conservation can be execution of government policy. . Over the years in Sri Lanka

achieved, by removing the subservience and non-participatory 1 a 'deconcentrated structure had been evolved on'which almost attitude from the local community. Feeling of responsibility each and every field department set up its own vertical line should be cultivated in the minds of the villager. organisation in the District Level with'authority extending downwards from its head-office located in Colombo. If there In 'this respect adequate attention should be paid to the is a gemine concern to devolve power and functions in recommendations of the Administrative Reform Committee (1988) relation to regional development, it is essential that 'the regarding structures and strategies for planning. They decentralised units in the present context need to be free of recommend: strangle-hold of departmental vertical structures, for their effective .operation 1 (Leitan 1990). 1. A National Planning Council at "the Centre as the apex . political unit which would be responsible for policy 5.5 Decentralisation in Practice issues.

It is worth noting seriously the views of the members of the 2. A Planning Council, which would be a specialist body Provincials Councils to understand the practical problems acting in an advisory capacity to the National Planning faced by PCs in delivering the goods to the people while Council. protecting the environment.

3. Provincial Planning Councils at the Level of the "Decentralisation of the administration had many practical Province. advantages but it was doubtful if any such decentralisation could succeed in reaching the targets without sufficient At the level of the Pradeshiya sabha the entire Council devolution of power, and the provision of personnel, of the Pradeshiya sabha convening itself into a Planning resources, equipment and vehicle facilities. The Council, which would hold special planning sessions for decentralisation of administration in the country had offered appraising the annual development plan and projects quick relief to the affected and solutions to urgent within it. It would also monitor the implementation of problems. But it should not. be limited to the lip-service these projects. and to the name board alone". (Governor Sabaragamuwa I Province DN 29th October 1991). - 247 -

6.6 Legislation on Environmental Protection and Management

Review of legislation currently in force shows the existence of a vast number of laws governing the use, management and conservation of land, water and other environmental resources (Table 53) . There are a large number of Acts and Ordinances along with a vast array of agencies holding responsibility for implementation of laws and regulations. Therefore, it is needless to say that there are conflicts between agencies in addition to weak co-ordination. There is possibility for each agency to interpret and implement the law within its limited scope to fulfil its own isolated interest.

Hence, there is urgent need to develop and frame policies that will allow any agency to interpret laws and regulations in such manner that, basic principles and objectives that underlie the policies are not ' violated. It is also a pre­ requisite for all relevant agencies to agree upon a set of policies so that resource management and conservation could be undertaken without prejudice and conflicts.

Any legislation dealing with environment should be aimed at protecting and properly managing the eco-system as whole. The laws should not be confined to statutory book only, the law must deal with the protection and the proper management of every aspect of the eco-system.

6.7 Some existing laws

Soil Conservation Act contains adequate safeguards regarding the conservation of soil. However, the implementation and the enforcement of this Act is rather difficult. Appropriate policy decisions may help to overcome these difficulties. Incentives should be given to encourage effective soil . conservation measures.

Special attention should be paid in relation to land alienation in order to prevent alienation for cultivation of unsuitable land with steep gradients, in watersheds and stream reservations. Legal provision should be made to declare certain specific lands as "environmentally inviolable". Legislation S Agencies water Air Hoise Waste Marine Visual Research Soil Water Forest Land narine Lar. Use Conservation Preservation Education Research Licensing Pities' ftppea ^search Eco S Soci Heritage Culture Registrn.

16. Lend Development Ordinance (Chop 464) 17. Paddy Lands Act (1958) x 18. Lond Reform Law (1972) 19. Agrarian Services Act (1979) x 20. Land Acquisition Act x

21. Land Settlement Ordinance

22. Land Grants (special provi) Law

23. Export Development Board Act 24. Town & Country Planning Ordinance

25. Tourist Development Act (1968)

26. Irrigation Ordinance (1990) o 27. National Planning Council Act. 28. lyrveda Act 29. Ceylon Tourist Board Act 30. Ceylon Electricity Board Act

I l&$i$tarion £ Agencies — Air Hoise waste Harine Visua. Nearer. Soi, wocer Forcst Land Mar

r.";:tr-"°" ~- ;rr — i;;:;;;;- —•

31. Atomic Energy Authority Act x 32. Mahaweli Authority Act x

33. State Gem-Co-operation Act 34. Coconut Development Act 35. Agrarian research & Training Institute Act 36. Agricultural Productivity Low

37. Sri Lanka Fruit Board

38. Agricultural lends law

39. National Water supply & O Drainage Board 40. National Science Council Law

41. National Environmental Act x (1930) XXX 42. Central Environmental Authori ty Act * X x 43. National Heri tage & Wilderness Act (1988) 44. National Aquatic Resources £ Development Agency (1981)

f 1 - 251 - - 252 -

Forest Ordinance also has implementation difficulties. Legal provision should be made with regard to control, use, Provision should be made in the Forest and Wild Life storage and transport of agro-chemicals. Ordinance for automatic forfeiture of implements and vehicles that are used for illicit logging. The law also should Agriculture should be integrated with .forestry while provide for a simplified method of eviction of encroachers watersheds and catchments should be scientifically managed from State land. and preserved.

There should be a close inter-link between policies relating The aesthetic value of the urban and built environment should to forestry and soil conservation at the district level. be preserved through adequate legal and institutional devices. Quarries, Mines and Minerals xOrdinance. and other related enactments should be up-dated to ensure that sand, gem and The ill effects of tourism, if there is any.as regards social graphite mining and granite quarrging do not lead to total and cultural values of Sri Lanka, demand examination, and degradation 'of the environment. Any mine pit should be appropriate remedies should be taken. closed up to be restored to their original condition. Areas such as scenic areas, holiday resorts, religious and As common to other laws pertaining to the environment the cultural areas, should be preserved for recreation and resort existing legislation for protection of catchment areas, and should be under a separate Authority to control haphazard watersheds, stream and river reservation are sufficient but development. Care should be taken not to change completely there are drawbacks in implementation. the outlook of the area.

The laws regarding Air pollution should be strictly Jail term should be made mandatory in respect to offences implemented before it is too late. Exhaust gases from committed under various Acts and Ordinances which could lead vehicles and factories in the Kegalle town and in other urban to serious environmental damage. settlements should be controlled. Land use planning should include wild life and it should be included in land 6.8 Peoples Participation and Environment Management development laws. Special attention should be paid to protect aquatic flora and fauna associated with the rivers The recognition of Voluntary Organisations or non and .streams in the District. Governmental Organisations (NGOs) as change agents and suitable environmental managers is reflected in the Existing laws with regard to national reserves and wild life formulation of Gramodaya Mandalas at the village level. conservations should be strictly enforced and buffer zones There are 3 6 types of voluntary societies which are listed -as should be established around- these natural reserves. being eligible to have "their chairperson as members of Gramodaya Mandalas. (Annex VII) The laws pertaining to human settlements are adequate. However, local bodies should be compell.ed to act in As much as the Local, community has a great potentiality to consultation with the Medical Officers of Health in all damage and destroy the environment, the NGOs at village level matters pertaining to the Housing Ordinance. Village and could be considered as pressure groups which have an immense rural planning should be entrusted to a Rural Development potentiality in protecting and managing the village Authority, similar to Urban Development Authority. environment. Apart from the listed NGOs there could be r - 253 -

- 254 - several others as individuals or organised bodies in the village, whose services can be., harnessed for assistance in Role of Officials the implementation of .the objectives of environment management. Question of environment is one that affects each Officials should be made more sensitive to,village problems and every citizen of the country, and as such every effort since it is through the official that any environmental plans should be made to mobilise all relevant individuals, are implemented. He should have a better understanding of voluntary organisations and non-governmental bodies to the area under his purview, with a clear vision about the protect and safeguard the natural environment. aspirations of the average villager, in addition to a very clear knowledge about the legislative framework. He should be a dedicated person who is readily willing to help out the Role of Voluntary Organisations villager from his problems.

In implementing" any project on the environment, public awareness is the most crucial criterion. The voluntary organisations are the best agents to bring about, the appropriate public awareness, motivation and commitment with regard to environmental projects. Voluntary organisations have a role to play as primary, secondary and tertiary educators, in addition to adult education, to create environmental public awareness. Facilities should be made available for these voluntary organisations to make use of the press, radio and television.

Training of volunteers in these organisations is a pre­ requisite which can be fulfilled with the help and assistance of the relevant governmental agencies and also Universities. However, at the very beginning in all cases bona fides should be established and a continuous rapport among the government departments agencies and voluntary organisation should be maintained.

The Central Environment Authority in collaboration with the Provincial Council should hold seminars with all NGOs operating with the District with the objective of ascertaining and establishing more precisely what they role should be.

Regular workshops and seminars should be held at District level to arrest the prevalent and possible environmental hazards and causes of environmental degradation. This type of dialogue will in turn help the authorities to identify the .problems, issues and also remedies to protect and manage the environment. - 255 - - 256 -

CONCLUSION The percentage of poverty in the district is between 51% and 'The district of Kegalle is blessed with adequate natural 67%. Still a fair number of fafnilies do not have housing resources to improve and sustain the life supporting system facilities. As much as 62% do not have toilets and 52% need of the district. The district at present faces several safe drinking water. The combined result of these are the challenges which demand careful thinking and judicious high incidence of malnutrition (nearly 40% among children planning not only on the part of the authorities but vis-a­ under 5 years), malaria, and bowel diseases. vis of the users. Some of the activities which further damage the environment The district having only 2.6% of the total land area, are the sand mining and quarrying using high explosives. supported 4.6% of the total population of the island in 1985. River sand, and granite are 2 major natural resources The population density per hectare of agricultural land was available within the district; High percentage of 4.12 with 0.17 ha of land per capita. Thus the crucial unemployment, as much as 54%, and the limited possibilities challenge is the population pressure and the inadequacy of of alternate job opportunities, in addition to the labour land. It may not be possible to satisfy the prevailing and saturation on the land, force the community to resort to the also growing land hunger within the district by simply sub­ use of whatever the resources that are available, without dividing the existing plots. The solution would a rational paying much heed to the environmental impacts, since it use of land by returning to the traditional skills of land involves a question of existence. utilisation with greater application of modern scientific methods. However, the situation in the District is not without hope. Careful planning, expansion of job opportunities within as The inter-relationship between the population and the well as outside the present natural resources base, environment in the district is reflected in many forms on the diversification of the present economic activities, creating natural environment itself, which affects their own destiny. environmental awareness among the community, harnessing the Although the District is located within the fertile wet zone potentialities of women as resource users and conservators, of Sri Lanka, only 6.9% of the land in the district is under stabilisation of population are among other steps which would forest cover. Very soon this could be below the minimum arrest the present downward trend of the existing socio­ extent required for ecological stability and fulfilling the economic conditions and also degradation of the environment. human need of water, fuel.and timber. The district faces the challenges of soil erosion, siltation of river beds and .1 Recommendations & Suggestions associated floods, landslides, in addition to inadequate natural water supply in certain parts of the district. The chapter on suggestions to 'Ameliorate Environmental Issues' has dealt in detail under various aspects some of the 17.9% of the families within the district do not own land at actions that can be taken to protect and conserve the all and 3 0% has less than 1 acre. Hence, encroachments on environment for sustainable development. The proposed marginal lands, steep slopes, watersheds, stream and road suggestions in that chapter should be viewed incrementally reservations are at a higher rate, causing landslides with and at the same time recognising the truth that human and serious repercussions on the economic and social environment. physical environment is inter-related and hence it is an eco­ Increasing incidence of malaria and water borne diseases are system which cannot be discrete into water-tight common not only among the encroachers but also among people compartments. Moreover, the incorporation of these living in areas down-streams. suggestions in a'District Environmental Action Plan1 has to be reinforced and supported by facilitative action bringing about necessary changes in legislation and the institutions both at the centre and at the Provincial and district levels. - 257 - - 258 -

7.1.1 Short Term Suggestions Improve the accessibility to remote areas within the district. Revise existing regulations with regard, to reservations, especially forests, watersheds and river banks. Establish off-farm job opportunities, to absorb educated Revise the present system of regularising of encroached unemployed youths within the District without damaging the environment. Set-up a fully equipped a central laboratory, lands. and several regional laboratories, to monitor the Enforce strictly the existing laws on encroachments, environmental impact of human activities. illicit felling, illicit mining etc.. Encourage community participation by establishing Gramodaya Stop regularising encroached land on steep .slopes and Mandala level environmental organisations to protect and conserve the environment. forest reservations.

Introduce cover crops to all bear steep slopes and other Set-up institutional framework to up-grade the present environment profile of the district. Enforce the vulnerable areas and intensify other soil conservation environment Impact Assessment suggested by the environment . methods. authority,•where appropriate, before granting permision to start new ventures. Encourage scientific market gardening as there is ready market in the near—by Greater Colombo Area. Encourage industrial sector expansion, taking into consideration the level of creation of job opportunities Supervise and guide the proper use of agro-chemicals. and at the same time evaluating the carrying capacity of the environment. Provide housing and basic amenities such as safe drinking water and reasonable toilets to the village community. 7.1.3 Long Term Suggestions

Improve the access roads to the interior villages. Recognise the importance of the bio-diversity of the district and draw up an Action Plan to conserve and 7.1.2 Medium term suggestions preserve this diversity, at the same time ensuring sustainable development of the life-support system taking Initiate a complete and comprehensive resource survey of into consideration the holding capacity of the the district. environmental to improve the quality of life of the people of the district. Establish an environmental- data-base in the district.

Delimit and identify all State lands within the district. Allocate more funds for the environment protection and •conservation activities. This should include all used and unused land.

Examine alternative uses in relation to unused land with Establish training centres in each AGA division'to create environmental awareness not only among the general the objective of creating job opportunities for the community but also among the officials. Create a positive unemployed youths. attitude towards the responsibility of protecting the Provide extension facilities to increase the agricultural environment among the officials.

yield. - 259 -

Establish and strengthen a single Institution to oversee, References supervise and guide the human activities in order to protect the physical environment. . Nanayakkara v.R. 1982 - Forests Policies and strategies for Conservation and Development Sri Lanka Forester Draw-up a long term natural disaster preparedness strategy Vol XV No.3&4 1982. to deal with landslides, rockfalls and floods in the district. FINNIDA (1986) Forestry Master Plan for S.L. Joako Poyry, Helisnki. Draw up a practical population policy for the district by assessing and evaluating the resource-base. Ridgeway R.B. (1986) Landuse Planning in S.L, Land Use Policy Planning Division of the Ministry of Lands & Land Establish an Agency-inter-Departmental to capture day to Development. day data in the district to protect and manage the environmentj for example, an Agency named as 'District Department of Census & Statistics - Statistical Abstract Environmental Information Council'. of the Democratic Socialist Republic of S.L. 1989. Cbo.

Strengthen the state policies and plans to protect the Central Bank of S.L. Review of the Economy 1989 Cbo. environment. Department of Census .& Statistics 1986, Census of The environment planning objectives of the district of Property & Housing 1981. Kegalle should be based on planned use of the available General Report Vol 3 Colombo. land and other resources, proper management of watersheds and the adoption of proven methods to prevent any Report of the Land Commission - 1987 degradation of land. These objectives are basic in view of S.P. Ill 1990. the general physiography and the climate of the district, the low man/land ratio, the high proportion of the Wijayadasa K.H.J. & Ilapperuma W.D. Survey of the population living on agriculture, the high demand on land, Environmental Legislation and Institutions in the SAOEP the occupation of steep lands with settlements and countries SL, CEA. agriculture, the high incidence of encroachments, use of marginal land for livelihood, the high incidence of poverty Navaratne N.M.G (1985) Hydraulic Networks in some Aspects and the need to create more family income for existence, of the Water Resources of S.L. ed Madduma Banda C.M, high proportion of youth unemployment, lack of resources Navaratne N.M.G. Irrigation Department, Colombo. for conservation activities, the prevalent disregard for Acts, Ordinances, laws and regulations with regard to the Aramugam S. (1968) Water Resources of S.L. . Water environment and the lack of close co-ordination among Resources Board Colombo. agencies. ARTI (1975)' Research Study Series No.13 Tab

Kandyan Rehabilitation Commission (1953)

Madduma Banda (1986) Land Policy and Land slides in the Hill Country - Seminar Landslides Census & Prevention NARESA 12/7/86. Hand book on Environmental Impact Assessment (1987) CEA, Hudson N.W. (1981) A Research Project on Hydrology & Soil Sri Lanka. Erosion in Mountain Watersheds in S.L. in Tropical

Agricultural Hydrology - Land R &'Rural" E.W. (Eds) John Sri Lanka Census of Population and Housing (1981) Kegalle Willey & Sons. District Report. Department of Census & Statistics.

West H.W. (1979) S.L. Natural Resource Management Wattson Landslide Hazards in S.L. Some High Risk Areas, Vol 1 College Cambridge. 1986 NBRO.

Sirinanda K.U. (1983) Rainfall variability Patterns and The quest for an Appropriate Territorial Unit for Agricultural Production in Sri Lanka in Climate, Water Democratic Decentralization (1986) Nanayakkara V.K, and Agriculture in S.L. ed. M.M. Yashino, I Kayane & CM. Establishments Division, Ministry of Public Madduma Banda University of Tskuba, Japan. Administration.

Domrose M. (1974). The Agro-climate of Ceylon. Franz Government of Sri Lanka. First Interim Report of the Steiner Verlay, Wiesbaden. Land Commission (1985) sessional paper No.l 1986.

Environmental Management in S.L. Report of a Sub­ Environmental Protection and Management (1978) Sri Lanka committee 1973, National Science Council, S.L. foundation Institute. Ministry of Local Government Housing and Construction. Report of the Presidential Commission on youth.

Sessional Paper 1 of 1990. Natural Resources of Sri Lanka. Conditions and Trends (1991) . The Natural Resources Energy and Science Sri Lanka National Conservation strategy (1988), National Authority of Sri Lanka. Environmental Authority. Daines S.R. and Pawar J.R. (1988) 'Production Leitan G.R.T. (1990) Political Integration through Infrastructure Potentials and constraints for Fruit, Decentralization & Devolution of Power. All Sri Lankan Vegetable and Flower Exports from the Mahaweli Region of. Experience, University of Colombo. Sri Lanka.

A Report on a Survey of the Resources of The Kelani Aruvi Administration Report 1983^ Ministry of Lands and r Land Aru Area, Ceylon (1963) Hunting Survey Corporation Ltd, Development. toronto Canada in co-operation with the Survey General of Ceylon. Ponnadurai D.K. (1982) Effect of selective filling on the Hydrological Parameters of a Wet Zone forest National Environmental Act. No.47 of 1980 (incorporating catchment. The Sri Lanka Forester, Vol 15 Nos 3&4 Amendment Act. No.56 of 1988) Consolidated by CEA for January -.December 1982. easy- reference) . Penman H.E. (1973) Vegetation and Hydrology. National Conservation Strategy Action Plan (1990) Central Environmental Authority, Ministry of Environment and Abernathy C.L. (1979) Report on a visit in Sri Lanka. Parliamentary Affairs. Perera H.C (1973) Landuse and Water Resources.

Report of the Administration Reform Commission (1988) A.l

Annex I Mean Monthly rainfall for 10 recording stations in the District of Kegalle from 1960-1990.

Station : Aranayaka District : Kegalle Type of data : Rainfall Location of Rainfall station : La 7 10' 40" Lo 80° 27" 45-

Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Augu Sept Oct Nov Dec Total

mm 1960 32.63 37.64 73.16 124.56 76.89 109.97 04 46.34 59.06 137.24 128.01 68.9 978.40 Inch 3.72 1961 2.33. 4.2 6.66 11.21 5.61 5.35 8.59 5.64 12.24 6.12 4.86 1873.45 0.65 1962 1.0' - ' 9.51 4:55 ' 384.58 1.25 1963 2.7 7.2 6.77 7.47 10.51 4.75 8.39 9.35 16.50 7.98 2015.19 4.7 1964 2.78 7.2 6.3 6.96 8.36 888.62 1965 1966 1.0 24.48 1967 4 .25 5.55 4 .50 9.75 5.30 14 .55 9.0 6 .25 1.5 0 - '- - 1484 .71 1968 - 0.39 1.3 8 0.45 2.11 5 .86 8.41 1. 7 4. 2 9.97 4 .41 0 .59 965 .25 1969 • ------6 .48 14.05 1.2 1 8 .26 734 .40 1970 3 .5 1. 6 10.15 4.55 ------484 70 1971 1972 - 1 2 9.0 5.95 - - - 3 75 - _ 487 15 1973 0 0 1.56 8 05 4.98 1.56 8 77 11.27 7 04 1 74 9.47 7 96 10 78 1791 45 1974 0 10.5 8 5 10.54 13.63 10 08 19.54 6 96 13 51 2.94 6 91 0 24 2530 01 1975 0 21 0.11 5 42 10.41 8.93 18 22 6.83 10 96 14 18 13.67 33 04 3 61 2951 31 1976 1 82 0.0 2 33 10.08 0.49 3 83 8.45 74 27 0 34 15.48 14 22 3 38 1657 05 1977 0. 0 0 5. 61 10.31 19.31 19. 18 4.22 6 93 1. 55 17.35 10 70 0. 95 2352. 77 1978 0. 46 5.95 8. 19 5.7 21.58 5. 35 5.45 7. 91 4. 8 4.5 23. 67 5. 78 2426. 95 mm 1979 0 56.4 - 210 - 287 231.6 68. 6 272. 8 388.9 _ _ 1510. 30 1980 1981* 1982 1983 1984 29.9 217 99.7 215.9 8.4 570.00 1985 1986 1987 1988 131 40.4 274.5 214 282.4 198.8 383.3 255.9 101.1 225.3 mm 2057.20 1989 44 66.9 187.2 167.8 90.6 127.4 132.6 14.6 831.10 1990 31.0 3.5 196.7 47.7 139.7 147.6 86.4 53.6 12.1 268.1 355.1 - 1341.50 "ear, Monthly Rainfal I in urn 36.4 62.55 120.64 167.62 186.49 232.48 178.26 267.99 146.78 243.22 279.18 92.45

Mean Annual Rainfall for the Station in mm 5463.4

Source : Department of Heterology. A.2

Mean Monthly rainfall for 10 recording stations in the District of Kegalle from 1960-1990. A.3

Station :Ambanpitiya Mean Monthly rainfall for 10 recording stations in the District of Kegalle-from 1960-1990. ' District :Kegalle Type of Data :Rainfall Station :Chesterford Location of the District :Kegalle Station : Lat-7° 14' 15" Type of Data : Rainfall Lon -80° 19'. 35" Location of Rainfll Station

Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total

1960" 5.2 5.63 2.67 23.39 8.56 13.83 12.55 2.69 6.17 19.63 14 .21 1.3 1 2835.76 1961 2.44 6.3 9.01 10.22 17.1 8.77 7.59 "12.49 12.74 14.18 10 .73 5 .41 2863.67 1960 2 .01 12 .91 4 .36 28 .13 13 .5 12 .23 20 .24 3.26 9 .19 13 .58 13 .32 .71 3315 1962 1.77 1.97 7.57 19.10 13.47 4.09 6.24 5.39 12.18 24.21 9 .26 0 .53 2589.49 .6 1961 3 .65 2 .1 9 .31 15.1 8 18.42 9 .59 13.7 5 15.9 15 .09 15 .22 23 .7 4 .50 3535 .2 1963 5.62 3.63 4.52 10.17 9.26 10.36 14.39 6.08 14.31 14.12 12 .15 7 .22 2742.49 1962 2 .73 6 .74 11 .11 17.7 0 19.80 7.99 6 .37 11.51 18 .77 18 .98 21 .76 6 .60 3673 .5 1964 2.11 1.29 11.0 9.64 10.63 10.47 13.46 4.67 9.63 11.07 14 .33 2 .38 2465.38 1963 8 .22 8 .52 8 .96 14 .25 17 .18 15 .43 22 .65 7.93 24 .64 19 .21 33 .46 13.6 2 4756 1965 0.8 ' 5.0 7.84 7.85 21.51 4.8 3.14 10.06 6.09 12.58 11 .63 5 .29 2354.73 .0 1964 1.8 5 6 .32 15.4 2 170 29 .84 19.3 6 22 .43 6'. 3 7 16 .8 15.1 4 11 .60 6 .00 4114 .4 1966 1.17 7.92 9.0 17.36 3.20 5.79 4.10 4.52 28.97 24.2 12 .83 6 .61 2978.48 1965 1.2 1 7.9 2 8 .2 12 .6 23 .75 5 .06 5 .54 22.21 12 .31 21 .59 7 .88 11.1 6 3413 .2 1967 2.15 4.0 10.16 7.42 7.55 16.73 6.97 4.50 3.51 18.46 21 .06 7 .0 2680.80 1966 4 .46 2 .92 7.1 2 27.9 2 6 .92 8 .16 5.5 1 6.43 29 .68 18.4 8 10.6 1 8 .86 3555 .5 1968 0.16 1.04 9.17 7.99 4.75 19.65 11.96 2.9 12.89 21.72 8 .48 9 .81 2705.52 1967 4 .45 5 .27 8 .47 9 .87 13.3 0 20 .64 9 .53 8.39 3 52 23 .15 17.1 0 9 .86 3414 .7 1969 2.42 3.02 2.68 17.14 26.77 7.07 0.19 4.95 6.45 20.11 5 45 12 .42 2660.24 1968 0 0 66 9 55 9 06 11 .05 22 .24 15 60 2.48 16 93 15 .86 10 .78 5 .71 2935 .6 1970 2.52 7.84 3.36 22.33 9.49 7.89 10.65 3.99 10.24 16.53 14 .26 5 04 2794.15 1969 4 61 4 55 3 45 29 68 34 .73 8 28 0 97 11.25 5 64 24 60 11 .85 18.0 3 3859 .0 1971 4.15 -3.28 3.47 25.48 9.64 17.74 7.7 9.9 21.81* 14.08 3 84 8 77 3178.97 1970 4 99 8 49 7 88 29 01 15 21 10 19 13 72 2.83 10 08 21 17 11 38 4 31 3409 1 1972 0.28 0 3.74 12.73 20.37 5.43 6.98 4.7 10 26.36 13 50 3 75 2639.92 1971 3 19 6 65 5 02 17 68 16 65 11 24 8 7 16.33 20 63 14 7 4 90 9 53 3310 0 1973 0 1.62 10.56 11.78 4.62 4.71 5.57 4.59' 0.39 7.66 14 0 16 5 2016.91 1972 2 2 6 11 75 16. 21 22 61 10 55 6 62 6.4 114 13 24 53 18 93 9 30 3560 3 1974 0 9.3 9.5 14.0 9 8 18.7 6.4 15.5 5 4 5 2 7 2533.68 1973 0. 6 2. 79 13. 54 18. 23 15 64 13. 70 14. 57 4.20 2. 57 16 36 15 81 16 0 3330 0 1975 0.5 6.3 10 • 9.3 5.6 10 6.0 11.5 10.0 15.0 21 5 4 6 2700.14 1974 0 7. 77 15. 37 26. 42 12. 68 11. 6 16. 77 6.96 28. 81 9. 48 3. 81 14 07 3764. 0 1976 0.7 0 4.5 19'. 2 0.5 3.5 6.2 9.5 5.0 22 15 5 5 5 2254.61 1975 1. 85 3. 27 9. 3 22. 38 21. 37 14. 03 8. 62 9.6V 20. 18 14. 38 38. 88 5. 93 4157. 0 1977 0 3.8 8.9 18.2 25.09 12.06 2.73 5.66 4.01 18.71 11 75 1 33 2770.40 1976 0. 78 0 8. 8 14. 30 2. 87 4. 51 6. 86 9.38 2. 92 15. 12 19. 93 5. 91 2237. 0 1978 0.11 1.93 4.29 2.35 8.35 6.95 2.48 3.11 8.31 11.35 14 22 2 11 1604.91 1977 0 4. 47 7. 87 13. 33 37. 4 9. 47 0. 73 9.66 2. 71 31. 00 23 1. 96 3466. 4 1979 0.11 4.06 3.17 2.0 4.03 5.17 3.81 1.74 12.55 12.34 12 49 11 36 1782.88 1978 0. 70 7 10. 43 4. 40 20. 83 6. 06 3. 33 2.77 9. 5 11. 27 25. 12 7. 17 2658. 0 1980 0.10 0 6.76 12.16 6.77 5.09 9.23 6.49 7.34 11.78 13 16 1 71 1972.84 mm 1979 3 .80 239 .4 105 .2 nm 149 .9 139. 5 580.6 259 .6 36 .8 592 .6 264 .7 448 .3 2815.4 114.3 28.7 . 141.0 211.3 175.2 276.3 189.7 123.7 356.3 255.02 518 3 24 1 2413.92 1980 0 0 87 .1 479 .8 254 .2 154.9 198 .4 134 .6 524 .3 1981 ! 336 .7" 432 .3 161 2757.3 1982 0 0 167.6 149.3 408.8 362.0 225.9 287.7 97.2 414.6 382 5 84 7 2580.36 1981 89 .7 39 .4. 154 .7 165. 6 299 .7 317.8 150 .9 148 .3 410 .7 262 .4 294 .6 95 .2 2429.0 1983 0 10.9 10.2 57.2 211.1 278.1 103.3 162.7 198.2 132.6 313. 4 226 2 1704.00' 1982 0 0 193 .6 276 .9 550 .7 545.6 255 .7 269 .6 200 .5 647 .4 553 .2 66 .8 3559.4 1984 175.0 122 359.3 536.6 161.1 233.5 343.6 7.5 272.6 174.5 357. 5 105 5 2849.20 1983 0 0 0 28. 9 306 .1 177.4 125 .4 319 .3 421 .1 130 .3 287 .7 418 .6 2214.8 1985 100.3 99.3 68.8 123.9 59.5 442.2 236.9 106.3 227.1 414.9 364. 4 170. 5 2114.10 1984 281 5 133 .9 389 .7 384 435 .2 285.4 425 .7 22 .4 192 .8 269 2 399 .3 64 3 3278.4" 1986 371.8 139.9 88.9 233.1 102.6 55.7 58.6 80.4 290.4 334.1 195. 1 110. 1 2060.70 1985 95 8 319 .8 280 .4 235 .2 491 7 665.5 1275 205 166 1 676 4 522 282 2 4070.6 1987 51.9 0 79.1 380.4 203.1 200.4 0 254.7 200.7 563 95. 4 12. 6 2041.30 1986 165 4 183 4 120 4 405 1 209 96.5 " 84 3 154 2 254 8 246 9 225 3 190 5 2335.8 1988 0 195.9 129.5 441.0 265.4 437.1 591.3 429.4 562.8 132.6 385. 5 67. 0 3637.50 1987 46 1 0 45 7 319 7 281 4 302.2 4 1 280 6 334 719 1 348 7 818 3493.6 1989 54.0 0 91.6 175.7 259.6 354.7 295 90.5 137.8 196.6 155. 7 0 1847.40 1988 00 360 9 214 5 470 4 212 4 416.4 303 3 391 1 460 6 100. 6 534 9 41. 9 3507.0 1990 167.2 38.2 123.5 64.5 252.4 40.2 103.1 27.4 18.7 281.3 146. 4 - 1267.90 1989 20. 1 0 164 6 166 1 325. 6 570.5 443. 0 103. 6 245. 9 376. 1 437 9 157. 5 3010.9 1990 141 70. 6 457. 2 157. 5 342. 1 195.6 284. 5 13. 2 37. 6 536.9 590. 5 - 2776.7 Mean"Monthly Rainfall in mm 61.85 81.76 162.09 316.00 261.53 248.59 207.59 158.88 263.38 384.58 316. 29 129. 43 Mean Monthly RainfalI Mean Annual Ranfall for the Station in mm 1378.12 in (mi 68. 33 133. 26 222. 70 528. 21 127. 76 330.15 298.45 208. 03 436. 30 443. 32 443. 32 228.37 Q. Source : Deprtment of Heterology. Mean Annual Rainfall for the Station in rrxn 3483.8

Source : Department of Meterology. A.4 A.5

Mean Monthly rainfall for 10 recording stations in the District of Kegalle from

Station :Dumedin Estate Station :Eraminigolla District : Kegalle District : Kegalle Type of Data ' :Rainfall Type of data : Rainfall Location of Location of Rainfall Station : Lat -7° 2' 20" Rainfall Station La -7 18" 00" Lon -80° 16' 50" Lo -80° 22' 55"

Feb Mar Apr Hay Jun July Aug Sep Year Jan Feb Mar Apr "ay Jun July Aug Sep . Oct Nov Dec Total

20 2 6 8 11 7 17 4 14 8 1 4 3407 86 1960 2 41 15 3 4 5 19 5 3 12 2 1960 2.53 5 .65 2.66 >.18 t>.3 6 7'.3 6 1''.2 4 .28 6 .16 12 .19 11 .99 0 .84 228"'.4 1 1961 3 6 4 8 10 .8 21 5 18 4 11 5 14 1 17 8 22 9 15 9 18 7 12 8 4230 14 1961 3.94 .15 i .89 >.21 1c>.1 0 7.6 t>.3 2 1 .08 S.0 4 13 .5 1C.0 7 9 .10 249c->.96 1962 2 .3 8 3 9 5 23 8 23 9 9 6 7 8 11 9 19 4 22 4 21 2 4 0 4017 17 1962 0.44 3 .15 4 .54 ?M O Yc.8 3 5 .05 it.0 3 4.0 7 7 .6 16 .66 . 6 .62 6 .48 1972 .35 1963 11 .8 8 4 8 9 15 1 18 1 16 1 23 9 11 2 21 9 19 1 29 72 12 09 4805 67 1963. .4.46 2 .51 £ .86 1.9 4 11 .08 4 .87 5 .43 4.•1 4 8 .48 13 .74 13 .81 7 .68 2425 .52 1964 1 9 4 17 12 90 14 54 18 58 14 0 28 38 7 71 14 31 19 0 13 91 5 3 3787 06 1964 4.57 3 .10 7.33 5 .2 £ .49 6 .89 10 .19 3.6 1 5 .23 10 .38 13 .43 3 .61 2105 .04 1965 1 52 4 92 7 01 • 15 85 32 74 6 68 7 57 23 95 16 60 23 48 11 79 12 98 4016 92 1965 2.28 7 .24 5 .24 8 .74 13 .71 3 .77 2 .64 11.5 8 . 5.4 7 11 .77 5 .85 6 .25 1947 .14 1966 5 52 3 96 9 41 21 05 9 03 8 42 5 93 9 37 29 22 16 34 12 71 8 22 3407 13 1966 • 1.88 0 .73 12 .28 9 .22 1.7 9 3 .08 2 .65 2.5 6 18.6 3 18.4 9 9 .55 3 .04 • 2052 .40 1967 3 09 4 95 9 65 11 72 10 99 26 99 9 79 9 56 9 55 21 89 17 22 11 58 3598 07 1967 6.55 5 .77 7.0 0 11 .82 4 .64 11 .82 3 .67 3.1 8 3 .46 17.2 7 22 .69 6 .19 2547 .39 1968 1 54 2 20 16 36 10 9 16 30 25 56 17 74 5 09 19 74 15 98 11 88 3 84 3601 74 1968 NI I 1.9 2 6 .45 7 .25 4 .57 10 .99 10.1 0 1.5 6 9 .74 21 .01 8 .56 4 .77 2360 .36 1969 5 48 3 49 2 45 23 53 34 67 11 21 1 15 11 35 13 67 23 53 11 27 21 23 3990 48 1969 2.44 2 .1 2 .81 11 .32 15 .17 3 .86 0 .08 5.7 6 3 .47 14 .74 8 .31 6 .93 1910 .42 1970 9 09 7 18 10 43 17 6 12 6 16 98 18 83 5 44 15 90 21 16 10 83 4 25 3679 09 1970 1.27 9 .7 5 .2 21 .3 10 .16 4 .35 7.8 5 1. 7 5.6 1 16 .38 14 .77 3 .56 2493 .29 1971 5 12 5 42 4 14 17 25 12 9 13 88 11 67 21 25 28 38 15 28 6 98 9 69 3841 40 1971 3.6 4 .71 2 .83 18.3 5 7 .69 9 .99 4 .58 11.2 4 15.5 8 10 .94 4 .19 4 .45 2397 .82 1972 1 51 0 47 8 28 16 10 20 0 12 47 8 63 8 09 23 51 30 76 13 71 7 15 4912 65 1972 0.21 • 0 .0 6 .88 12 .29 19.2 1 4 .39 5.4 4 2.5 3 8 .19 22 .77 15 .63 6 13 2539 .56 1973 1 37 4 51 17 62 10 24 13 03 9 84 17 02 11 3 5 65 14 58 21 48 55 95 3490 60 1973 0.43 1.2 6 5 .38 5 .99 3 .82 4 .89 5.7 2 3.2 2 1 31 12 .20 12 .82 10 41 1652 .64 1974 0 02 7 71 9 86 22 73 17 23 17 27 24 33 9 83 31 06 10 06 6 95 10 80 4108 97 1974 0 7 68 7.1 5 10. 6 8 .2 6 10 12.5 9 4.7 9 8 24 5 67 5 .38 3 70 2009 .81 1975 0 84 6 4 11 44 22 47 23 12 13 27 13 01 12 4 18 56 13 91 41. 32 10 11 4566 25 1975 0.55 1 02 5 .45 16 .95 6 .41 7 74 3 .16 9 39 11 72 10 35 22 .91 7 42 2498 .68 1976 0 66. 0 0 7 84 15 27 4 99 7 46 9 78 13 09 4 27 17 05 24 91 11 94 2943 96 1976 1.34 1 15 4 .5 13.1 1 0 .70 1 63 2 35 4 01 3 71 13 59 10 .93 5 96 1540 .28 1977 1 99 5 15 12 8 12 09 34 08 14 92 3 68 9 35 8 1 38 25 24 03 1 84 4070 04 1977 0 15 8 7 84 11 58 13 14 8 12 4 01 3 96 1 65 19 78 10 22 0 2499 41 1978 4 15 8 63 6 7 13 36 27 69 17 71 7 88 6 32 12 68 14 85 22 17 4 25 3582 40 1978 0 0 138 4 69 13 38 8 21 5 81 2 31 2 70 11 46 15 46 3 45 1989 49 1979 1 33 5 19 8 7 10 8 7 4 19 1 10 54 2 28 30 02 18 03 22 53 11 76 3470 77 1979 1 145 5 129 8 190 8 81 6 240 6 110 2 11 2 213 6 312 9 403 6 171 7 1947 5 1980 0 1 0 0 ' 10 46 19 96 13 02 8 35 10 5 9 54 9 05 15 9 18 8 2 16 2884 72 1980 0 0 148 3 257 3 132 8 166 9 113 5 84 3 177 294. 4 338 8 77 2 1790 5 1981 130 7 131 6 213 4 380 7 406 8 373 0 207 7 299 7 478 3 286 2 570 8 166 3 3545 2 1981 96.5 0 92 0 174 2 160 202 4 134 1 579 560 1 232. 2 446 5 72. 6 2749 5 1982 21 3 0 293 4 539 2 578 2 769 7 319 1 300 4 232 4 971 6 997 2 110 4832 1982 0 0 81 8 315 7 427 9 265 191 3 155 7 50. 6 578. 4 374 9 111 2552 3 1983 5 6 9 4 4 2 181 6 244 353 300 2 342 4 444 5 256 3 367 4 554 9 3063 6 1983 0 29. 5 15 7 64 0 151 6 226. 8 ------487 6 1984 381 7 199 9 675 3 632 4 470 7 454 0 718 42 4 455 2 219 1 956 1 63 1 5277 9 1984 - - - 597 7 78. 6 186. 6 391. 1 8. 5 207. 1 104. 6 216. 8 7. 1 1798. 1 1985 264 8 285 7 401 6 257 8 458 7 753 9 209 4 446 6 261 4 660 5 505 208 6 4714 0 1985 77.1 136. 2 170. 8 197. 8 358. 3 327. 3 219. 3 72. 8 13. 3 509. 9 460. 1 115. 1 2688 1986 215 4 251 9 188 7 328 6 238 8 169 1 100' 3 209 6 201 4 464 289 4 253 4 3110 9 1986 345 304. 0 109. 7 315. 8 53. 6 51. 4 94. 8 67. 8 180. 6 241. 4 146. 0 00 1904. 1 1987- 41 8 0 3 2 511 0 512 7 390 3 13 4 464 8 336 3 957 3 365 7 115 6 3782 1 1987 109.9 0 163. 1 334 302. 5 140. 1. 5 161. 3 231. 2 661. 5 246 86. 6 2437. 5 1988 61 0 23 9 . 260 3 342 8 391 0 507 6 565 6 652 7 443 6 104 9 400 1 105 2 3947 1 1988 0 107. 8 162. 3 371. 4 97. 7 256. 0 296. 7 361. 8 138. 7 124. 5 405. 1 93 2356 1989 25 4 0. 0 84 2 279 9 464 3 797 7 381 2 378 3 310 4 512 1 458 3 - 3691 8 1989 48.8 0 74. 2 169. 9 86. 3 413. 3 281. 9 126. 8 161. 8 374. 7 410. 1 56. 3 2204. 1 1990 142 0 7. 1 262 5 52 5 481 1 256 0 326 1 41 10 45 1 446 2 539 3 - 2599 0 1990 188.6 38. 6 262. 4 99. 7 279. 6 47. 7 134. 9 82. 1 47. 0 370. 8 319. 5 - 1810. 9 Mean Honthly Rainfal I Mean Monthly Rainfall in rim 61.82 92. 51 258. 21 315. 56 223. 92 186. 33 171. 13 139.42 190. 37 370. 23 325. 39 118. ?2 in mm 98.31 124.42 248.68 418.6 464.77 409.31 335.36 295.26 416.94 505.37 500.76 501.88 Mean Annual Rainfall for the Station in mm 2214.98 Mean Annual Rainfall for the Station in mm 3665.82 Source : Dep'rtment of Heterology. Source : Department of Meterology. A.9

A.6 Mean Monthly rainfall for 10 recording stations in the District of Kegalle from 1960-1990.

Station :Vincit District Kegalle Type of data Rainfall ilngoya Station Location of :Kegalle district the station La -7° 5' 25" Type of data rRainfall Lo - 80° 12' 30' Location of Rainfall Station : La- 7° 00' 40" Ln -80° 25' 50" Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total

• ~ n-f Nov Dec Total — ZT^Tr Hay ^ W Aug Sep Oct Year Jan Feb Mar »H 1960 1.3 1 11 .07 S. 18 21..8 7 12 .48 (r.4 5 17.3 1 5.79 ;'.7 12 .94 10.94 25.5 9 299().7 5 13.;> 3-3 2 3999.54 24.45 9.1 5 28.1 15.2 7 1961 .18 2 .63 i5.7 2 U .37 16 .75 9>.0 7 11.4 6 12.2 1 15 .96 1£ .41 Q 1 _t,3 19.:5 5 17.30 16.9i 9 Xh.t> 4 4745.20 21 .80 1(1.7 7 3582 .25 1962 2 .12 4 .07 t .96 16>.5 7 16 .88 '.9 <5.1 7 1:5.1 5 13 .67 19 1960 6."5 6 o.t o 10. 90 18. 25 30.75 16.7 4 17.46 28.2 9 22.{5 9 17. t> o. i 7.1 4595.14 .45 19 4 .3 309£ .5 •X1 - IA cI Ci \ot 1963 9 .77 6 .91 .99 " 19.5 9 10 .51 13 .61 2;?. 9 t>.9 9 22 .83 15 1961 7. •2 5 4. 52 13. ?3 33.64 11."' 1 14.22 18.3 1 23. 8 y. )c 14.i , 2478.13 .88 27 .23 7.9 4 4303 .75 1 n I 1964 2 .25 ' 6 .58 14 .38 12 .67 28 .84 11.8 5 2C.3 4 4.5 4 13.8 4 1962 7. 07 lU.i z. 1ft A"; 16.91 20.83 18.;? 3 32.18 24.9> 6 24. 51 25. du.on Cl ^ ;?5 69 4399.54 13.7 4 11.9 6 4 .03 3520 .35 . 1965 0 .54 8 .32 a .39 12.4 5 •23.1 2 5 .38 .39 19 .25 10 .21 1963 3. 49 3 J4 0 9 07 12. 16 21.99 17.09 36.88 14.;> 3 21. 92 21. 19 15 -^/ ~T/ J • St 2 5191.23 7 .75 6 .36 10 .40 •3500 1964 2. 54 3. Jo 38.08 20. *1 7.87 • 31. i5 8 25. 98 28. 46 14. •)doQ 1I c.? 1966 3 .31 3 .15 7.9 8 21.1 9 7.7 5 9 .41 3.8 9 5.8 5 28 .69 17 .53 9 .18 6 .24 3404 .2 o 24 16. 69 47 4418.64 / a 8. : 1967 37 .1 43 .0 13.4 6 7.4 1 13.0 9 18. 2 S.0 8 7.7 7 8 .81 1965 0. 66 5. 59 v. 16. 19. 83 10.55 14. 33 10.16 21. 51 43. 32 25. 3 11. HO 11. B5 4384.86 26 .21 14 .93 6 .82 3808 .9 -J tV 9 1\ c..o 7f l 1968 0 .57 0 .27 • 10 .41 11.2 9 7 .99 24 .2 14. 6 1.9 9 17. 0 14 .32 1966 3. 86 c. 12 93 6. 97 13.07 38. 16 15.72 17. 16 11. 11 34. 61 f U 10. 36 5780.46 12.0 2 5 .75 3550 .2 7fl 1 A 1969 3 .25 2 .4 4 .89 26 .54 31 .85 7. 9 0. 8 10.7 9 5 1967 3. 06 1 .f O -j 58 11. 09 29.42 43. 39 31.8 15. 59 39. 78 23. 83 IO .un yo 1 7'0 5 4738.10 .63 26 .52 10 .48 22 .13 3591 .0 8. 1970 6 .51 8 .22 6 .75 27.9 5 13.1 2 10 .29 12.0 4 2. 4 5.3 7 1968 2. 98 4. A7 86 21. 86 40.85 23. 29 8.21 11. 13 21. 64 24. 39 H/ OA I / 7-1 4785.35 21 .63 12 .98 4 .38 3671 .4 y OJ 1 / / c. 5 _ 1971 2 .85 5 .4 6 .14 19.6 8 15 .58 9 .94 7.9 1 13.1 9 19.6 8 14 .1969 2 18 I . 36 21 86 15.56 25. 87 23.46 18. 99 22. 72 26. 01 1H .» + J 7, 5 9510.72 .85 4 .68 11 .34 3706 .75 o z y07 / 1972 3 .08 0 9 .85 15.1 5 22 79 0 .85 6 .87 6 .34 12.4 9 32 .80 .48 1970 5 28 y. c. 1 5 78 14 92 26.9" 21. 47 197.76 34. 01 44. 93 17. 46 O . 6. 5 4991.23 21 9 .3 3427 .35 1 J / n 1973 0 .41 3 7 15.0 7 19.3 4 14 38 13.4 6 13.2 2 4.3 9 2.8 7 12 .95 11 94 17 1971 5 59 Jc .1 ^ 68 17 36 24.791 22. 12 • 25.6 14. 35 30 91 33 02 T1O A. H U 14. 48 3990.48 .32 3155 .75 D^O A oyun 1974 0 .0 11 .26 12.0 8 28.4 7 9 76 11 .61 12.7 7 4.2 8 1.9.2 1 9 67 5 06 11 .59 1972 1 60 U. 10 .43 7 75 19.3 23 49 20.75 19. 85 8 56 19 91 \o 11. 66 ' 5536.89 3068 .25 01 oo 1975 1 01 6 88 10 91 16 87 23 53 13 05 8.6 9 8.5 1 19 10 15 13 39 1973 0 67 0 y i .96 30 31 43.613 27 45 19.71 17 83 39 61 15 53 O yy 2 79 6836.04 52 8 28 3267 45 HU 1976 0 95 0 5 03 18 96 3 75 L 83 7.4 2 9 3 2 58 20 87 27 95 7 80 1974 0 8 4/ Jc 8 .71 12 .59 29.3 . 32 8 54.9 29 07 29 92 35 24 / n JO 9 84 3358.66 3159 05 2 / c 19 no 1977 1 03 8 24 9 97 16 8 39 16 9 74 1 72 11 15 5 14 31 09 23 22 1 14 1975 1.0 8 1 c 10 .54 16 .23 13.1 2 11 03 14.82 17 03 8 61 15 .21 uy o 55 4569.68 3205 45 i i / A? 1978 0 7 7 15 11 31 7 84 27. 31 7 03 3 06 2 92 8 16 9 45 23 15 6 48 3447 8 1976 0 .53 1 i J 9 .33 14 .62 27.6 3 27 4 21.12 15 37 10 .29 41 .69 1 H 164 4757.50 "I 1979 0 56 6 95 5 7 7 24 7. 29 20 9 6 17 1 91 26 94 16 95 18 69 16 14 3698 1 1977 0 .23 _>. OL 198 . i 249 J- 1063.8 297 .9 576.6 507 5 610 .1 333 .5 528 . o 306 .8 5069.5 1IV O 1l a u n /on / 1980 0. 14 0 7 16 20 2 15. 61 10 9 8 72 ' 6 68 15 54 11. 09 19. 3 4. 34 3439 1 1978 35 .80. - » 192 .9 114 .1 528.5 734 .9 424.2 85 .7 1101 .0 773 .3 ode. *+ 77 .0 3804.7 1 Q/ o 1 1981 102 43. 4 187 5 - 389 349 161 5 178 6 422 343. 2 340 78 3410 74 1979 0 .80 . y 135 .8 651 .1 356.7 342 .5 618.8 451 .0 327 .5 364 .9 4/V . i* 1 M. 6 4953.6 1980 0 .0 0 766.1 309 .0 811 .5 356 . 1 619 . -J( i -> i 1982 1. 3 0 161. 1 •- 566 559 238 2 264 230 646 554. 5 83. 3 3279. 42 235 .9 289 .1 430.9 724 .2 .6 4387.5 1981 16£ .8 YO. t 768 .7 508 173 .7 251 .1 656 .3 596 . c. 51 1983 0 32. 3 0. 5 74. 7 283. 2 183 4 155 5 304 3 476. 8 160 373. 5 502. 4 3215. 94 239-. 8 594 499.e o 5 3806.2 1982 35.u 1 "-7. x J 526 .1 270.3 592 .4 461 .4 306 427 . o 1984 374. 9 170. 7 507. 2 545 494. 8 111. 4 414 8 28. 7 190. 3 377. 2 491 95. 3 3047. 5 n C 589.2 o 12 . 1 5378.1. 1 c n C A 1 1985 94. 5 359. 9 310. 1 256. 3 576. 8 766. 1 170. 07 278. 6 209. 0 683. 5 481. 6 305. 6 3347. 64 1983 38.3 IV . c. 437 60c>. 2 925.9> 536 .1 877.4 134 .8 491 .7 333 .7 bl J . y 275 .9 5561.6 c 1l oolr tic "7 1986 225. 3 201. 7 152. 9 445. 8 188. 5 134. 6 91. 9 177. 3 290 326 248. 7 278. 6 , 3383. 06 1984 82l.i. . I 20 ?.2 16:5. 9 921.:! 1014 .1 619..7 465 .8 405 659 1 /LC. f 122 .6 4173.5 1 y. . J 1987 51. 8 0 66. 3 408. 7 321. 6 347. 2 5. 10 418. 6 439. 4 363 401 75. 2 3301.. 96 1985 20 3.7 \fc •z 55. 9 45<,. 5 304 387.6 327.6 409 .4 87£S. 8 66" .y 16S . J .2 4233.1 I O 1988 1. 3 366. 8 211. 1 515. 6 298. 2 473. 2 364 475 1986 12 7 ' . 7 1A) 9 45 5.2 401. I 589.4 38.3 696 .7 389-. 6 70rj. y / T/ . Qo 1/ y A 5499.8 607.6 122. 2 363. 4 24. 6 3557. 24 1989 107 0 137. 7 147. 8 315. 1 624. 4 431. 5 69. 6 297.9 405. 1 444 173. 1 3427. 6 1987 144. 5 9 I o7. 1 59 5.7 751. ? 59:5. 8 665.7 842 .3 83"7 25 5.9 35i„ Q Hi 3 5710.6 l'c 1990 164. 1 79. 0 459. 5 185. 2' 363. 7 207. 5 304 10. 7 63. 0 - 683. 3 - 3031. 18 1988 D "1 21567. 4 23 1058. i 113"5. 8 790.5 512 69 5.1 69 1.9 30 3 . O 1989 47. 2 J Mean Monthly Rainfal I in mm 104.i3 4 165. 58 230.)3 9 423. S2 432..;> 7 319. 56 244. 53 206. 78 345. 3 442. 42 443.

A.10 List of . Zone Tree Species

Mean Monthly rainfall for 10 record stations in the District of ,e9aUe fro. 1960-1990.

Local Name Botanical Name Station : Wewellthalawa Estate District : Kegalle Type of Data : Rainfall Alubo Syzygium makul Location of Andunwenna Llex zeylanica Rainfall Station : La -7° 3' 10" Lo - 80 ° 23' 5" Angana Timonuis Jambosella Ankenda Acronychia Pedunculate Aridda Campnosperma Zeylanica Atuketiya 15 4.04 4384.1 Xylopia sp. 23.;2 8 13.() 9 33.88 20. 73 24.( in 4. 37 23.41 18. t> 8 18. 1 1 o nc SRAA 4 1960 3. 5125.4 Nothopegia Beddomei / / 77 1963 5. 92 **.4 1 14. 72 9.84 26. 45 20. 98 45. 04 14. 67 22.31 23. 03 21'. 43 k . I I 5145.9 Balalhulla / t 11 /.n See Wanaidala 1964 2. 34. 18 4. 18 17.99 35. 88 20. 59 10. 30 34. 12 22.39 29. 47 19. 39 I l .HU 4176.5 £0 Bata-Domba Syzygium operculatum 1965 0. DC 3. 02 12. 32 18.38 8. 59 15. 40 9. 31 16. 34 41.03 21. 89 11. 75 1I un. unoA 5736 Bedi-Del 1966 ^. 5cUn 69 14. 44 10.12 10. 82 39. 55 18. 45 16. 69 10.75 41. 03 21. B4 M14. 1Tk J See Del 1967 36. 2 C . 26 33. 19 11. 48 30.25 29. 73 11. 60 Cb .bCyO 91 12 21 20.39 20. 89 42. CP07 n Beraliya -Dun Doona sp. 1968 6. 32 cJ - 25. 92 12. 46 14. 56 25.48 41. 35- 12. 44 14 / .y0 JL7 f • yJ is 7 2 14.44 36. 23 Beru oc 7 9327.7 Agrostistachys coriacea 1969 4. 1AA ~> 7 08 26.27 28. 88 28. 16 7. 91 10. 45 27.35 40 67 22. 28 y 6138 IOO. 1970 6. 7 8 05 21.42 23. 7 27. 23 24. 83 32. 27 48.62 22 73 12. 45 13 .ol AfKS U A. Hooker.i 1971 9 34 oA. 15 54 15 56 32.54 47 81 42. 74 9. if OUJJ • *• 46 5 65 20.52 36. 6 .19. 43 Borkera Ochina wightiana 1 i o 110A. i1y0 5002.0 1972 o 1 22 12 .85 7.22 26 29 35 96 28 32 69 12.5? 14 09 14 99 5983 n & 1 A Bomi Litsea gultinosa 1973 U y 37 16.12 25 79 36 78 43 94 16 01 42.26> 19 29 8 96 0. 10 1 n 16 .07 / 77 AOS. 7 1974 0 05 I u 10 34 28 18 19 25 33 25 36.3?) 49 .68 50 55 k.(( Bomeriya See Bomi 1 03 7 .69 16.12 AAA1 1975 6 nc 15 24.77 10 06 9 03 22 7 22 89 6.015 32 .3 28 8 12.14 OOO i Bombu n 8 .39 i / o See Walbombu 1976 1 u 14 18.39 51 39 31 67 5 .80 15 95 5.3!2 58 .27 33 22 d.bd S07A c 59 .19 77n^ Bu-Hora Dipterocapus hispidus 1977 1 J 12 6 .46 9.16 36 .7£ 10 .12 12 .61 10 .60 14.3 1 10 .63 23 .53 9.94 sn?A 1 . 0 Bu-Kenda 1978 1 o .7 175 .10 284.8 26 .77' 572 .5 329 .4 79 .3 919.7 916 .8 708 .2 424.2 JKJC.O . I Mallotus albus on 1 1979 c>. 7f. vu 296Q 156 .50 667.8 275 .1 97 .0 486 .7 441 .2 384.3 593 .3 579 .90 cod..~n."y *1. 6305.1 A1 L8 A 1980 0 . 1 .4 433 362 .1 - - - - 358 .9 207.5 I O I H . O 1 / pA 23 281 c 1 1 Calamander. See Kalumediriya 1981 . o 613.4 698 .6 1106 .7 557 .9 464 .8 321.2 752 737 5590.9 n 1. 2 286-8 / OD 1 3337.9 Damba 1982 I A 1C. 6 33.3 397 .2 590 .4 285 .9 558 .3 399.8 220 .2 359 .9 Udd. I 7 A 7L 7 Syzygium assimile .O ' 41 *• • J 1983 C jy 2 35? .4 1320.1 1593 1214 .4 875 .9 221 453.6 228 .8 482 .7 42.1 Dambu Syzygium gardenri 1 7A1 cfiAR 7 1984 345 . 1 JO 1.4 641 .5 301 745 .2 964 .3 453 .1 275 .5 266 47£ 277 306 DUOO.f Dathketiya 1 77/ o 164 3779.5 Xylopia championii 1985 If /c . V 2 .77 7"'. 1 376 345 304 .1 225 378 .8 590 551 .5 184 281 /. 1AS n Daulkurundu Neolisea cassia 1986 185 . nu 16 .0 643 • 593 45C 5 .6. 526 403 87E\ 33S 152 *+ I OJ . u 1987 5] . nU 313 56Z 50S 776 30* 471 360 /HOOJ.. AAR un Dawata 29( 670 292 •jc// n Carakkua brachiata 1988 103 . nU 53?> 41 489 3181) 315 57 • .0 10 175.0 1041 -liTC n Del Artocapus nobilis 1989 9" 6nr1 36* 42!> 10() 70 58' 671 DOfj.U Divikaduru Rejoua dichotoma Diyabombu Symplocos sp. Mean nonui i y r\a 51 4.06 46 ..38 607.15 1 80 3.77 58'..9 9 255.14 26 .22 265.9 6 470.2 3 64 2.2 9 64 7.02 Diya-Na Mesua thwaitesii in rr m 13 1.65 Diyapara Wormia triquetra Mean Annual Rainfall for the. Station in m 5463.4 Diyatliya Masitixia tetrandra Source : Department of Meterology. Dodanpana Glycosms pentaphylla Dodankaha Memecylon grande Dodanwenna. See Dodankaha A.12 A.13 Calophyllum inophyllum Domba Kahapetta Calophyllum soulattri Not known Domba- Kina Kalugodapara Dipterocarpus galandulosus Brysophyllum ellipticum Dorana Kalubediriya Doona shorea & Hopea sp. Diospyros quaesita Dun kampotta See pepaliya Kanagonna See Elpedde Atrocarpus lakoocha Elbedde Kankumbala Pygeum zeylanicum Meliosma simplicifolia Elpedde Kankumbalketiya See kankunbala See Pelen Etaheraliya Kapumiriya See Tolol Mangifera zeylanica Etamba karanda Humboldtia laurifolia karauw See panu-nedun See Del Gandel Kataboda(sm.leaaf) Cullenia ceylonica Psidium sp. Galpera (l.leaf) C. rosayroana Elaeocafpus' subuillosus Galveralu Katu-Imbul Salmalia malavarica Trema orientale Gedumba Katu-Kenda Scolopia acuminata Symplocos cuneata Gerieta Katu-Kurundu Scolopia schreberi Dillenia retusa Godapara Kekala See Ipetha Garcinia morella Gokatu Kekiriwara Schumacheria castaneifolia Pseudocarapa championii Gonapana Kekuna . Canarium zeylanicum Ficus callosa Gonna Kenda Macaradga peltata See Na-imbul Gota-Imbul Ketakela Bridelia retusa Garcinia cambogia Goraka Kirihembiliya Palaquium petiolare Cryptocarya^ membranacea Gulumora Kiripedda Palaquium grande See Uguduhal Guluhal Kitul Caryota urens . See Palikura Gurupatiya Kirilla Sonneratia caseolaris Calophyllum calaba Gurukina Kobomella Vernonea arborea Kokatiya Garcinia terpnophylia Veteria copallifera Hal Kokun Kokoona zeylanica Vatica affinis Halmendora • Kontha See Kenda ' Terminalia parviflora Hampalanda Kos Artocarpus heterophyllus Chaetocaepus castanocarpus Hedawaka Kosgonna Ficusaltissima var.fergusonii C. pubescens Kotala See Ipetha C. coriaceus Kudumirissa Desmos elegans Diospyros sp. Hompenella Kududaula See Daulkurundu Doona macrophylla Hondaberaliya Kukuluman Turpinia malabarica Dipterocarpus zeylanicus Hora Kurundu Cinnamomum zeylanicum Shorea stipularis Hulanidda Kurman See Kudumirissa Glochiden zeylanicum Hunukerilla Laulu Chrysophyllum roxburghii Lameria See Molpedda Cyathocalyx zeylanicus Ipetha Lemawara See malaboda Horsfieldia irya Iriya Liyan Homalium zeylanicum See Kos Jak Lunu-ankenda Euodia lunu-ankenda Aporosa lindlyana kabella Lunumidella Melia dubia Diospyros racemosa Kahakela Lunuwarana • Crataeva religlosa See Kahakela Kahakeliya Madol Garcinia echinocarpa A.14 A.15

Madatiya Adenanthera pavonina Titta-Eta See Tolol Mahabulumora Scutinanthe brunnea Titta Weralu Elaeocarpus amoenus Malaboda Myristica dactyloides Tolol Trichadenia zeylanica Malolu Enicosanthum acuminatum Ubberiya Carallia calycina Masmora Adenanthera aglacosperma Ululu Machilus-macrantha Matawara See diyatalia Uguduhal Symplocos coronata Mendora Vatica chinensis Uguressa Flacourtia indica Milla Vitex pinnata Uruhonda Urandra apicalis Molpedda Isonandra lanceolata Urukanu See Uruhonda Mudunmahana Buichanania angustifolia Walla Gyrinops walla Munamal Mimusops elengi Wal-biling Meliosma arnottiana Muruta Lagerstroemia speciosa Wal-Bombu Symplocos loha Molamba Strombosia ceylanica Wal-Divul Hydnocarpus octandra Na Mesua ferrea Wal-Jambu Syzygium aqueum Nambul Harpullia arborea Wal-Kaduru See Divikadura Namendora Cotylolobium scabriusculum Wal-Kopi Lasianthus strigosus Nawada See Hulanidda Wal-Kos Litsea deccanensis Nedum Pericopsis mooniana Wal-Kurundu Cinnamonum mujltiflorum Metauw Xylopia parvifolia Wal-Rambuttan Euphoria sp. Nikadaula Litsea sp Walu-Kina Calophyllum bracteatum Nuga Ficus sp Wanaidala Wendlandia bicuspidata Otha Macaranga digyna Wana-Mi Madhuca fulva Palikura Shorea sp Welikaha Memecylon ovatum Panamora Doona oblonga Welipenna Anisoplyllea cinnamomoides Panudan Syzygium neesianum Welipienna See Welipenna Panunedum Syzygium sp Weralu Elaeocarpus serratus Panukera See Panudan Yakahalu-Dun Doona or Shorea sp. Pathkela Bridelia moonii Pepaliya Aporosa cardiosperma Source : A report on a survey of the respurces of the Kelani P'elen Kurrimia ceylanica amvi Aru, Vo. II Hunting Srvey Croporation Ltd 19 63 Pihimbiya Filicium dicipiens Pinbaru Memecylon arnottianum Pinibaru-dun Hopea jucunda var modesta Pini-beraliya Doona ovalifolia Polhunna Syzygium spissum Porowamara Diospyros insignis Ratkeliya Litsea longifolia Ratatiya Palaquium thwaitsii Ruk Horsfieldia iryaghedi Rukattana Alstonia scholaris Samadara Samadera indica Talang Litsea gardneri Tawenna Palaquium rubiginosum Tiniya Dun Doona congestiflora A. 16 A.17

Annex IV The Kegalle District - Grama Niladhari Division and Population

Deraniyagala A.G.A Division Appendix III 110 Ballehela 1000 110A Nilwala 1500 HOB Polgaswatta 1200 Biological names of some of the wild-life species found in HOC Behenella 1400 the 2 sanctuaries of 'Kurulu-Kele' and" Welhilla-Keta Killa in HOD Dodawatta 2400 111 Udabage 2500 the district of Kegalle. 111A Anhettigama 1400 111B Kirihena 1100 111C Basnagala 2300 112 Maliboda 1. Redwented bul bul 2500 112A Nakkawita 1600 2. Blackhited Oriole 112B Pandaha 1300 3. Yellow headed barber 112C Poddenikanda 1500 112D . 4. Little Minivet Panakoora 1300 112E Dickellakanda 700 5. Orange Minivet 113 Magala 1100 6. Brown-headed barber 113A Kosgahakanda 2400 7. Small mammals 113B Yatiwala 1600 114 Udapola 1700 8. Pangolian 114A Deraniyagala 2000 9. Pole cat 114B Rasnakkanda 1700 10. Mouse-deer 114C Lassegama 1600 114D Wattegedara 2400 11. Mangoose 114E Egodagama 2400 12. Toque Monkey 114F Demeda 600 114G Miyanawita 2300

Dehiowita A.G.A Division

115 Walpola 4210 115A Kahanawita 874 115B Boralankada 3340 119 Algoda 1721 119A Dickella ' 3256 119B Dehiowita 2466 116 Magammana 13 2 5 A. 18 A.19

116A Kurupeththa 1620 107C Kiriporuwa 116B Atulugama 1808 1276 107D Panapitiya 116C Kanangama 2541 2028 108 Mattamagoda 116D Debegama 1338 3651 108A Haloluwa 116E Eluwana 990 . 1898 115C Pahala Garagoda 116F Atalugamwela 849 2015 115D Ehala Garagoda 117 Daygala 922 2031 115E Meegastenna 117A Kelagama 956 1894 115 Pallegama 117B Napawila 2067 2455 128 Punehela 118 Apalapitiya 2031 1388 128D Ambamalla 1255 118A Ehalathalduwa 1812 128B Wegalle 2757 118B Pahalathalduwa " 2610 128A Kendawa 1981 118C Uduwila 1436 128C Narangala 1787 118D Thimbiripola 2188 128E Udapotha 2929 119 Algoda 1721 129 Rangalla 1697 120 Hinguralakanda East 1392 129D Neesinire Ehala 3077 120A Higuralakanda West 1505 129A Lawila 3274 121 Imbulpitiya 1470 129B Bulathkohupitiya 1887 121A Pannila 1505 129C Urumeewala 1481 121B Elaulla 1447 130 Uduwa 2741 121C Godagampola 2159 131 Neluwatta 795 121D Ambalampitiya 13 3 3 131C Dedugala 820 122 Pariawala 2261 131A Amanawala 1249 122A Rangegama 2263 131D Berannawa 1255 122B Medagammana 744 131E Seepoth 1943 122C Batangala 2844 131B Palampitiya 2155 124 Maniyangama 1244 132 Dombepola 2087 124A Bomaluwa 995 132A Malalpola 1948 124B Viharakanda 1221 132B Jayamindagama 3091 124C Galabalanakanda 1405 133 Gonagamuwa 1433 125 Madola 1286 133A Theligama 1015 125A Welangalla 2275 133B Neluwathukanda 891 134 Kitulgala North 1359 134D Kalukohutenna 1051 Yatiyantota A.G.A Division 134B Kitulgala South 142 5 134A Mahabage 1146 106 Yatiyantota 1927 134E Dunukedeniya 1506 106A Parussella 2952 134C Malwatta 2528 106B Kabulumulla 2197 134F Kirikohutenna 1524 106C Mahawila 1374 135 Ganepalla 1877 107 Telkumuduwala 951 135C Weeragalla 1101 107A Ampagala 2156 135D Nawata 1379 107B Galpatha 2118 135E Hakbellawaka 1573 135A Welihela tenna 1775 135B Polpitiya 1931 A.20 A.21

Aranayaka A.G.A Division 42C Dippitiya 1256 42D Narangammana 1652 1296 47A Uduwewala 44B Pahinipaddara 714 977 47B Galathara 44A Wilpola 1718 1102 47E Kandewatta 44 Hathgampola 845 554 47C Apalawa 44C Moragammana 1288 901 Gevilipitiya 43A Nikapitiya 1448 1157 48A Asmadala 43D Godigamuva 1243 1250 48 Wakirigala 43E Debatgama (A) 1170 1033 58D Deewela Udagama 43A Debatagama (B) 2881 872 58 Kanda Mulla 43 Kumarapura 881 -1510 58F Watte gedara 43C Elangipitiya 1315 1022 59 Labundoowa 45 Kalugala 1081 1064 45B Ussapitiya 45D Kehekwatta 887 651 15A Waharagoda 45C Dampelgoda 775 15C kariyagama 810 46E Gantuna Udagama 1395 15B Katugaha 1035 47 Jambugasmada 625 15S . Gairvmannagoda 620 47C Narangala- 932 4 5A Talgamuwa 1290 46 Gantuna Medagama 1018 ' 16D Attapitiya 839 46A Gevilipitiya Town 761 16A Dewanagala 862 76B Ruwandeniya 1259 16E Arama 598 Ruwanella A.G.A. Division 16P Selawa East 662 16C Rahala 1832 98 Walgampana 941 17 Selawa West 708 98A Lenagala 1272 Deiyanwela 1033 98B Mahakanda 1478 17C Dooldeniya 1188 99 Lewangama North 1083 17A Randiligama 1088 99A Lewangama South 1417 17B Theleka 914 99B Galapitamada 1158 17D Hakurugammana 1600 99C Dunumala 1661 33 Kiriapane 1075 99D Kadigamuwa 1720 33A Pannala 789 100 Imbulana 2795 33B Yodagama 6i3 100A Niwunhella 1538 3-3 C Habalakkawa 1197 100B Siyambalawala 975 41 Talgaspitiya 931 100C Pethangoda 1601 Talgaspitiya Muslim 1500 101 Waharaka 2752 41B Ambalakanda 891 101A Daluwalana 12 2 0 41C Podape 813 101B Moratota 1048 42A Udagama 831 101C Wahakula 1503 41B Aranayaka 843 101D Indurana 1712 42B Getaberikanda 1299 102 Amithirigala North 1354 42 Galbokka 1955 102A Amithirigala South 1280 A.22 A.23

Pallekanugala 1634 102B 04A Puwakmote 756 102C Udakanugala 1005 04B Thismaipola 522 102D Puranpotta 1105 04C Udugama 590 102E Batuwita 644 04D Yatagama , . 642 102F Wahadeniya 735 04E Meeduma 668 103 Medagoda 1510 05 Deliwala 1204 103A Moraliya 1517 05A Padawigampola 1044 103B Manpitigama 1470 06 Weligamuwa 705 103C Gonagala North 1191 06A Thaldewa 791 103D Gonagala West 829 06B Ihala Walpola 496 104 Morawatta 2302. 06C Sangawala 583 104A Bopetta 1065 06D Wahawa 77 3 104B Mahalla 1706 07 Hinabowa 678 104C Dannoruwa 1433 07A Walalgoda 917 105 Wendala 2016 07B Kansalagamuwa 1228 105A Ruwanwella 1991 07C Kossinna 581 105B Doranuwa 1598 08 Godagandeniya 577 109 Kannantota » 1399 08A Diyasunnatha 642 109A Gonaramba 1205 08B Surimaluwa 1405 08C Werellapana 560 Rambukkana A.G.A Division 08D Ariyawa 760 08E Beligodapitiya 450 01 Udanwita 662 08F Kiriwallapitiya 689 01A Dombemada West 428 08G Eriagolla 851 01B Dombemada East 587 08H Rambukkana Town 597 02 Udagaladeniya 443 081 Madawala 550 02A Kudagama 527 08J Daluggala 479 02B Medagaladeniya 468 08K Mottappuliya 1175 02C 618 09 Kiriwandeniya 1417 02D Kudagama South 628 09A Kotagama 92 6 03 Naththambura 625 09B Yodagama 1052 03A Gabbala South 1387 09C Muwapitiya 731 03B Parape North 1668 09D Thoththanawaththa 747 03C Allugolla 922 10 783 03D Hewadiwela 1546 10A Bakamure 827 03F parape South 988 10B Kurempola 981 03G Kotawella 960 11 Pitiyegama 899 03h Gabbala North 504 HA Halpitiya 831 031 Kunugolla 572 11B Dunukewala 564 03J Maligathenna 715 11C Naranbedda West 757 03K Mahagama 816 11D Natanbedda East 482 03L Halwaththa 483 HE Hiriwadunna 860 04 Walgama 939 11F Deldeniya 614 A.24 A.25

11G Waduwadeniya 600 12A kiulpana 97 0 49A Avunugalla 1037 12B Minwana 684 49B Minuwangamuwa 1489 13 Galpola 564 50 Ekiriyagala 1063 13A Mangalagamada 984 50A Nilmalgoda "... .. 1046 13B Molagoda 1474 50B Dikkohupitiya 917 13C Kumbaloluwa 1005 51 Siyambalapitiya 1229 13D Kavudamulla 766 51A Olagankanda 1978 13E Kumbaldiwela 760 51B Pussella 1422 13F Waragoda . 769 51C Wewaladeniya 1181 21 Kadigamuwa 1468 51D Ranwala 3430 21A Halagiriya 761 51E Golahela 2364 21B Udugama -Gondewala 1011 51F Kegalla 1429 21C Netiyapana 487 51G Meepitiya 4164 21D Kempitiya. 376 52 Ambanpitiya 1223 22 Baddewela 730 52A Beragala 1229 22A Gangoda 1114 52B Uraulla 1246 22B Yatiwaldeniya 863 52C Paranagampala 1986 22D '• Deeganakanda 632 53 Makura 1366 22E Henepola 969 53A Kaudugama 1252 22F Paththampiti.ya 608 53B Buluruppa 1009 75A • Keselwathugoda 1365 53C Waldeniya 1302 75B Ambuwangala 761 53D Dikkelia 1718 75C Imbulgasdeniya 1528 53E Paragammana 1113 75D Marukwathura 1205 54 Godigamuwa 1163 54A Wathura 1550 Kegalle A.G.A Division 54B Hapuwita 938 55 Talewela 823 12 Kalugalla 824 55A Bulugahadeniya 1481 12A Diyagama 797 55B Malavita 1891 14 Karandupana 1103 55C Meedeniya North 1053 14A Udakarndupana 1229 55D Meedeniya South 1126 14B Pallewela 1289 56 Rotuwa 736 14C Puwakdeniya 1882 56A Moradana 813 14D Kolongalla 1144 56B Hungampola 792 14 E Dibulgamuwa 1225 56C Undugoda 1328 16 Deewela Pallegama 1225 56D Gurullawala • 1039 16A Deewela Medagama " 1337 57 Athurupana 992 48 Alapalawala 1413 57A Areegama 1034 48A Nilapalagammana 899 57 B Bossella 1146 48B Udumagama 904 58 Bogala 1091 48C Wadupola 1022 58A Ganthuna Pallegama South 594 49 Hettimulla 1002 58B Ganthuna Pallegama North 1083 58C Belihulwana 1347 59 Mabopitiya 967 59A Thiyambarahena 931 59B Higgoda 1107 A.26 A.27 Galigamuwa A.G.A Division 70E Mayfield 1067 71 Kobbewella 60 Kabagamuwa 1510 1438 72 Hathnagoda 60A Hikgoda 7Z9 1384 72A - Nawagamuwa 60B Lahupana 1409 „ .. 1423 73 Makuddela 60C Kanangamuwa 1176 1021 73A Weragoda' 60D Puspane 1774 1320 74 Dewalegama 61 Getiymulla 1186 1596 74A Jeewana 61A Alawathura 1597 1014 74B Edurapotha East 61B Pothukoladeniya 1832 1150 74C Edurapotha West 61C Hapudeniya 1253 950 74D Panarawa 62 Arukgammanae ^ 1361 1550 75 Kandegedera 62A Karagala 837 16.50 7 5A Walagama 62B Hathnapitiya 801 1350 76 Godapola 62C Ambuwakke 1179 1100 7 6A Batuwatte 63 Ampe 1024 2000 7 6B Halamada 1650 63A Rukgahatenna 1120 63B Kurunegoda 1241 Warakapola A.G.A Division 63C Atale 2045 64 Kinigama 1224 77 Waddeniya 1421 64A Arandera 2213 77A Weniwelkaduwa 1075 64B Kirindane 1124 77B Kodapaluwa 1730 65 Pindeniya 923 78 Ragalakanda 794 65A' Udugama 921 7 8A Heliyagoda 717 65B Boyagoda 1480 78B Opatha 1106 65C Nadeniya 837 78C Paspolakanda 783 66 Naberiyawe 2724 79 Eegalla 1112 6 6A Bambaragama 1839 79A Kaluganga 896 67 Narangoda 1125 79B Thalgaha 822 67A Alawela 828 79C Metiyagane 866 67B Holombuwe 1066 80 Morawaka 1820 68 Embulgala 1193 8 OA Mampita 1775 68A Dambunupola 1528 81 Akwaththa 704 68B Ranapane 1722 81A Kumbalgama 864 68C Atugoda 1972 81B Pinnagodakanda 73 3 69 Asideniya 1125 82 Mangedara 1507 69A Demat'anpitiya 1599 82A Thulhiriya 1706 69B Galigamuwa 1354 82B • Gasnawa 1438 69C Bisowele 2060 82C Nangalla 2079 70 Peherambe 694 82D Parakramagama 1684 7 OA Palapoluwe 1294 83 Tholangamuwa 2219 70B Yattogoda 1132 83A 2651 70C Ballapana - Pallebage 1248 83B Mahena 1329 70D Ballapane - Udabage 1293 A.28 A.29

83C Mahena Estate 9 60 94C Dummaladeniya 1265 83D Delgamuwa 925 95 Algama 1593 83E Elipangamuw'a 799 95A . Madurupitiya 839 84 Burrunnawa 1009 95B Thalghasdeniya ^ , 770 84A Othanapitiya 1231 95C kandegama 951 84B Nape 927 95D Algama Ihalagama 966 85 Dedigama 1733 96 Godawela 1575 8 5A Thunthota 1273 96A Thambugala . 1141 85B Nelundeniya 1901 96B Puhulegama 604 85C Pithadeniya 1406 96C Panihela 735 85D Imbulowita 583 97 Uduwaka 1799 86 Menikkadawara \ 1510 86A Ihala Lengala 113.1 Mawanella A.G.A Division 87 Mahapallegama 1863 87A Thambadiya 1039 ' 1 Ambulugala 1394 87B Kudapallegama 1045 2 Dehimaduwa ' 1607 87C Kiniwita 1170 3 Attanagoda 2671 88 Malmaduwa 786 4 Panagamuwa 803 88A Polgampala 1003 5 Lewke 998 88B Elamaldeniya 677 6 Daswatta 985 88C Pallepelpita 857 7 Kappagoda 1556 89 Elpitiya 863 8 Dodanthale 1134 89A Welhela 1420 9 Rankoddiwala 1145 89B Kiuldeniya 1313 10 Mahawatta 2103 90 Weragala 1440 11 Mawanella 840 9 OA Dorawakka Uddabage 1361 12 Weligalla 891 91 Pahala Lengala 1369 13 Uthuwankanda 1214 91A Kohombadeniya 988 14 Habuykaduwa 1370 91B Dorawaka Pallebage 1367 15 Weganthale 1337 91C Thaliyedda 935 16 Kondeniya 1700 91D Yakdehimulla 1747 17 Hondiwela 1463 92 Kukulpane 1925 18 Makehelwala 1884 92A Warakapola 2943 19 Ihala Kotte 1038 92B Ganithapura 1987 20 Randiwala 1335 92C Thumba1iyedda 827 21 Owatta 1082 93 Werragoda 1619 22 Keerapane 841 93A Hallawa 814 23 Keppitipola 1614 93B Palamure 1662 24 Yatimahana 857 93C Abidigala 861 25 Anugama/Maliyadda 1621 93D Hapugoda 480 26 Gonetenna 1046 94 Bopitiya 2029 27 Molligoda 1043 94A Ethinawala 2066 28 Mawela 1534 94B Nawatuwa 1432 29 Makadawara 1166 A.30

30 Batawala 1460 31 Udamakadawara 1038 A.31 32 Warakapane 964 33 Heenatipane 1556 34 Kahawandala 753 Annex: V 35 Mahantegama 938 36 Aluthnuwara 1434 Some common archaeological sites indicators 37 Uyanwatta 2035 38 Rukulagama 1501 1.. Stone pillars, dressed stones, rubble heaps 39 Kubalgama 821 2. Brick and title remains and debris 40 Edampitiya 861 3. Stone slabs and cists (from megalithic sites) 41 Kekiragoda v , 1358 4. Potsherd concentrations (more than 20 shards per 42 Hingula 1726 square meter) and remaining of large pots or urns. 43 Beligammana 1187 5. Terra-cotta figurines (folk art), other unusual cl 44 . Muruthawela 1853 fragments 45 Hinguldya 2494 6. Stone tools of quartz or chart 'microliths' 46 Mawane 1268 7. Iron slag heaps 47 Kiringadeniya 2043 8. Unmcriptiohs on natural rock, stone slabs, pillars 48 Edanduwawa 616 stone fragments etc. 49 Nankurugama • 1071 9. Drip-ledged boulders and caves 50 Kongamuwa 1354 10.Earth mounds, earth banks, abandoned tank bunds, 51 Wereke 1788 canals etc. 52 . Balawathgama 83 0 .1-1. Old bo-trees, tamarind trees, na-trees 53 Eriminigammane 1057 12.Abandoned gammandiyas etc. 54 Ebilmeewala 460 55 Thambawita 1150 56 Ambaruppa 688 57 Ginihappitiya East 1283 58 Ginihappititya West 1137 59 Karagala 657 60 Waduwawela • 1081 61 Ambadeniya 867 62 Weragoda 600 63 Palliporuwa 1396 64 946 65 Dumbuluwawa 1938 66 Wadiyatenna 1574 67 Madolbowa 1173 68 Kehelpannala East 731 69 Kehelpannala West 815 70 Balangamuwa 503 71 Ambalawa 784 A.32 A.33 Annexure VI

..Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution .19

NINTH SCHEDULE- , 4 : 3 Local authorities will have the powers. vested in them LIST I *" under existing law. Municipal Councils.and-Urban Coun­ cils wiil have tne power? vested in them" under1 the (Provincial Council List) Municipal <_<,uncils Ord.nance and the Urban- councils L Police and Public order.—Public order and the exercise of Ordinance. Pradeshiya SaDhas will have the powers vested in them under existing law. It will -be'open-to police powers, to the extent set out in Appendix I, within the 1 Piovmce, but not including National Defence, National Security a k rovinc.ai uouncii to comer additional powers on local rmd ihe use of any armed forces or any other forces under the authorities but n-t to lake away their powers;. control of the Government of Sri Lanka in aid of the civil powei 4:4 Gramodaya Mandalayas will have the powers vested in cuid not including the city of Colombo, Sri Jayewardencpura Kctte, Gramodaya Mandalayas i:nder existing law. It will be ttnd their environs the limits of which' shall be specified by open to a Provincial Council to confer additional powers the President by Order, published in the. Gazette. on Gramoaaya Mandal;»yas.

2. Planning.—Implementation of provincial economic plans. 5. Provincial Housing and Construction— 3. Education and Educational Services.—-Education to the extent 5:1 Implementing, co-ordinating, supervising and.monitoring •out: in Appendix III. provincial housing development programmes and projects (other than National Housing Development Authority A. -Local Government.— projects), including aided self-help housing projects, 4 :i'Local authorities for the purpose of local '"-government and housing loans and the provision of building materials; .village.administration, such as Municipal Councils. Urban 5 :2 The. implementation of the Protection of Tenants Act and Councils .and Pradeshiya S:.bhas, except that, the consti­ the Rent Act within a Province ; tution, form and structure of local authorities shall be determined by Jaw: 5 :3 Construction activity in respect of subjects in this List.

:2 Supervision of the administration of local authorities 0. Roads and bridges and fr-rries thereon within the Province, established by lav, including the power of dissolution, other thai',— (subject to such quasi-judicial inquiries into the grounds (c) nritio.nal hisiiway:; ; for dissolution, and Ic.ial remedies in respect thereof, as Co) bridge-;-, a::;! ferries on national highways. may be provided by law, and subject to provisions rela­ ting to audit as may be provided by law) ; ?. Social Services and Rehabilitation— 7:1 Probation ar.d Child Care Services; 7 : 2 The R'.-habiiitation of destitute persons and families ; 7 : 3 Rehabilitation and welfare of physically,'mentally and socially hadicapped persons ;

7 : 4 Relief of the disabled and unemployable.

ft. Regulation of road passenger carriage services and the carriage of goods by motor vehicles within the Province and the provisions of inter-provincial road transport sen-ices. '

* 9." Agriculture: and Agrarian Services— 9 : 1 Agriculture, including agricultural extension, promotion and education for provincial purposes and agricultural services (other than in inicr-prcvincial irrigation and land settlement schemes, State land and plantation agri­ culture) :

9: 2 Rehabilitation and maintenance of minor irrigation works : A.35

A.34

20 Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution ^ . Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution . 21 9 :3 Agricultural research, save and except institutions desig- nated as-national agricultural research institutions. 18. Land.—Land, that is to say, rights in or over land, land tenure transfer and alienation of lanu, land use, land settlement 10. Rural Development and land improvement! to the extent set but in Appendix II.

11. Health—. 19. Irrigation—Planning, • designing, implementation, supervision i] :1 The establishment and maintenance of public hospitals, arid maintenance of ail irrigation works, other than irrigation rural hospitals, maternity homes, dispensaries (ether schemes relating to rivers running through more than one Pro­ . .than teaching hospitals and hospitals, established for vince or inter provincial irrigation and land development schemes. special purposes); . 20. Animal husbandry.—Preservation, protection and improve­ I'l :2 Public' health services. . health' 'education, 'nutrition, ment of stock and prevention of animal diseases within the Pro­ family health, maternity and child care, food and food vince. sanitation, environmental health ; 21 i Subject to the formulati-in and implementation of National U :3 Formulation and implementation of Health Development' Policy in regard to development and plann ng, the power to pro­ • '^larij and of the'Annual Health' Plan for the Province ; mote, osta'o.ish and engage in agricultural, industrial, commercial .11: 4 The provision of facilities for alLins'ituticns referred to end trading enterprises and other income-generating projects, in 1 above-, within the Province, excluding the procure­ within the- Province without prejudice to the - power of the ment of drugs ; - Government and public corporations to have such enterprises and projects. 11 :5 ;Awarding- of Scholarships for Post-Graduate Education within Sri Lanka to personnel attached to the Institutions '('ill's would include the promotion of scientific and industrial specified in 1 above. research within the Province and '.he preparation, co-ordination anil the implementation ci irtciuiitrial development plans lor thf 12. Indigenous Medicine—Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani — Province). 12 : 1 Establishment of Ayurvedic dispensaries and hospitals, 22. Reformatories, Borstal institutions and other institutions of grants to such dispensaries and hospilais ; a like nature and persons detained therein, arrangements with .12:2 Establishment and maintenance of herbaria. other Provinces for the use of such ins:.itu ions.

13 :1 Resthouses maintained by local authorities ; and 23. Possession, transport, purchase and sale of intoxicating 13 : 2 Circuit bungalows presently administered by Government liquors. departments whose functions sre exclusively specified in 24. Burials and burial grounds, cremations and cremation this List. grounds, other than those declared by or under law made by Parliament to be national memorial cemeteries. 14. Pawnbrokers.—Pawnbrokers other than pawnbrokers business carried on by Banks. 25 : 1 Libraries, Museums and other similar institutions con­ 15. Markets fairs. trolled or financed by a Provincial Council ; 16. Food supply and distribution within the Province. 25: 2 Ancient and historical monuments and records other than, those declared by or under law made by Parliament to be of national importance. 17. Co-operatives—. 17 : 1 Co-operative undertakings and the organization, regis­ 26. The regulation of mines and mineral development, to the tration, supervision and audit of co-operative societies extent permitted by or under any law made by Parliament, within within the Province ; the Province. 17: 2 Co-operative development within the Province including co-operative education and propaganda ; 27. Incorporation, regulation and judicial winding up of cor­ porations with objects confined to the Province, excluding trading 17 :3. Provincial Co-operative Employees Commission; corporations, banking, insurance and financial corporations'. I?:4 Matters connected with employment, promotion, retire­ ment and other connected matters of employees of co­ 28. Hegu'ation of unincorporated trading, literary, scientific, operative societies within the Province. religious and other societies ar;.;l associations. A.37 A.36

22 Thirteenth Amendment'to the Constitution Thirteenth AvievAment to the Constitution

,..•29:1 Theatres and dramatic performances, music, cicadas, 36: 12 Fees under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance; r . entertainments and amusements, excluding the sanc­ tioning of cimenatograph films for exhibition and public 36 • 13 Fees or. lands alienated under the Land Developmenl performances. Ordinance and Crown Lands Ordinance ;

., 29: 2 Encouragement and development of sports (other than 36 : 14 Court fees, including stamp fees on documents produced : : in court; national sports associations). 36 : 15 Regulatory charges under the Weights and Measures SO. Betting and gambling, other than imposition of licence Ordinance; fees and taxes. 28 : Id Land revenue, including the assessment and collection 31. Provincial debt. of revenue, and survey and maintenance of land records for revenue purposes ;• 32. Offences against statutes with respect to any of the matters specified in this List. 36 • 17 Taxes en lands and buildings, including the property of the State to the extent permitted by law made by 33. Fees in respect of any of the matters in this List, excluding Parliament ; •tees taken in any court. 3G : 13 Taxes on mineral rights -within such limits and subject 34. Development, conservation and management of sites and to such exemptions as may be prescribed by law made facilities in the Province for the generation and promotion &C electrical energy (other than hydro-electric ,power laid power by Parliament ; .generated to feed the national grid). SC : 19 Licensing f»«s on the possession transport, purchase and 35. The borrowing of money to the extent permitted by ot sole of intoxicating liquors ; under any law made by Parliament ; S6: 20 Other taxation within the Province in order to raist. 36 • 1 Turnover taxes on wholesale and retail sales within revenue for provincial purposes to the extent permitted such limits and subject to such exempt jens as in ay ho by. or under any law made by Parliament. prescribed by law made by Parliament ; 37. Protection of environment within the Province to the extent 35 : 2 Betting taxes, una fixes on prize competitions and permitted by or under any law made by Parliament, lot'cries, other than National Lotteries and lotteries organized by the Government of Sri 'Lanka ;

36 : 3 Licence taxes, arrack, toddy rents, tapping licence fees, APPENDIX I find liquor Licence fees ; Law And Order 36 : 4 Motor vehicle licence fees within such limits and subject to such exemptions as may be prescribed by law made by Parliament ; 3. The subject devolved shall be described aa follows : — Public Order and the exercise of Police powers as set out in tbi> • 36 : 5 Dealership "licence taxes on drugs and other chemical* ; Appendix within the Province, but not including— 36 : 6* Stamp duties on transfer of properties, such as lands (a) national defence ; and motor cars ; (b) national security ; and 36 : 7 Toll collections ; •'•'-') ihe ue o? any armc-rl forces or nny oth;:r -.''is under list 30 • 8 Fines imposed by courts : control of the Government of Sri Lanka in aid of the civij power. 36 : 9 Fees charged under the Medical Ordinance ; ' 2. The I.G.P. shall be the head of the Forcft The Sri Lanka Police Force shall be divided into— 36 : 10 Fees charged under the Motor Traffic Act ; (G) the National Division {including Special Units) ; and 36: 11 Departmental fees in respect of any of the matters specified in' this List ; (b) a Provincial Division for earn Province. A.38 A.39

24 Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution 25

2 : 1 The National Division shall consist of the I.G.P., D.I.GG, 4 : I A Provincial Police Commission shall be responsible for S.S.PP, A.S.PP and other ranks recruited at the national transfers, promotions and disciplinary control over officers level. ' »~ in the Provincial Diviion; for promotion of Officers of 2:2 A Provincial Divrif.n shail consist of I he: D.I.G.. S.S.PP^ the National Divisi m seconded to the Provincial Division S.PP anrl A.S.PP. nil seconded from the National Division up to the rank of S.S.P. ; and fcr transfer and disciplinary and Provincial Assistant Superintendents o! Police, Chief control over officers seconded to the Provincial Division, except the D.I.G.: Inspectors, Inspectors. Sub-Inspectors. Sergeant •• and in Constables recruitrd 'he Province. Members of the. • Provided that any Officer cf the National Division Provincial Division shall be eligible for pronation to the seconded to. any Provincial I>ivi.?ion ig.iiiist whom National Division. di "cipVmary r.ction h?.s been taken by ;•. Provincird Police 2. Recruitment to the National Divi ion :ind promotions of Commission, shall havs the right to appsal to the National Police CHice-s in. the Provincial Divisions to the National Division Police Commission, whore decision on such appeal shall shall be made by a National Police Commission composed of three be final. members, namely— 5. The National Police Commission or 3 Provincial Police Com­ (a) the I.G.P. ; mission shall be entitled to delegate such of its :;owers as may be prescribed to such other person or authority as may be prescribed. (b) a person nominated by the Public Service Commission in •con ultavion with ihc President ; and G. The I.G.P. shall appoint a D.I.G. for each Province with the concurrence of the Chief Minister of the Province. However, where (c) a nominee of the Chief Justice. there is no agreement.between IheTnspeetor-General of Police and 3 : 1 The National Police Commission shall, before promoting the Chief MinisUr. the matter will be referred to the President, who, after due con.ultations with the Chief Minister, shall make any Police Officer serving Ln any Provincial Division tc the appointment. the National Division, call for a Confidential Report on such Officer from the relevant Provincial • Police Com­ 7. The cr-.i-.x-s of Police Officers of all ranks of the National Division shall he !;;:ed by the Government of Sri Lanka. The cadre mission and take line matters specified in such report into •of Officers other ranks of each Provincial Division shall be consideration in deciding whether to promote such Officer fL\e'd by the Provincial Administration with the approval of the or not. President, having regard to—• o : 2 The Commission shall also be responsible for promotions, (a) the ar2a of the Province ; trasnters, and disciplinary control of members of the (b)- population of the Province; and National Division other than the I.G.P. subject to paragraph 4 : 1 below. (c) such other criteria, a; may be agreed to or prescribed. S : 3 It :ha!l hear and determine appeals from officers seconded . These principles shall be uniformly applied to ail Provincial to Provincial Division? against whom disciplinary action Divisions! has been taken bv Provincial Police Commissions. 7: I The cadres of.the Provincial Divisions sha'l be fixed on 3 : 4 It shall set standards for recruitment and promotion of ascertained principles such as prpulation. area, number Police Officer; of all Divisions and su<"h standards shall of Police Stations involved and other relevant considera­ be uniform for all Provincial. Divisions. tions. These principles shall be applied to all Provincial Divisions without distinction. .4. Recruitment to each Provincial Division shall be made by a Provincial Police Commission composed of three members, namely ,7 :\2 The salary scales and perquisite? of office enjoyed by the vario'is ranks in the National arid Provincial Divisions- (a) the D.I.G. of the Province; shall be determined by lhe~'Govern men I of Sri Lanka'1 (b) a person nominated by the Public Service Commission in ufterrconsultation with the Chief Ministers'-.ofc.the. Provinc­ es.'The salary'scales and perquisites'of office as enjoyed by consultation with the President ; and ; 'nieTTiSers of .the Provincial Divisions''shaTl' apply uniformly (c) a nominee of the Chief Minister of the.Province. tc all Provincial Divisions. A.40

Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution

11 : 2 The provisions of paragraph 11 : 1 above are, subject to the- 26 Tkiri>:?-nih Amendment to the Constitution' qualifications that-- •; 8. The nature, type and quantity of fire-arms and ammunition (a) upen the declaration of an emergency in the Pro­ and other equipment for the National Divirion shall be determined vince, the President may assume such powers and by the- National Police Commission. The nature, typo and quantity responsibilities of the Chief Minister and the Pro­ of fire-arms and ammunition and other equipment. tor all Prov;n- vincial Administration in respect of public order cial Divisions shall be determined by the.National Police Com­ within the Province as he may. by regulation, pro­ mission after consultation with the Provincial Police Commission vide : and and uniform standards and principles shall - bs applied for all (b) whore :hi: President is of the opinion th."t She secu­ Provincial Divisions. v rity or or public order in a Province is'threatened by 9. Recruitment to the National Division shall be made at the grave internal disturbance, he may, without the ranks of P.C., SI., and A.S.P, Recruitment 10 the Provincial declaration of an emergency, but in consultation with Division shail be made at the ranks of P.C., S.L, and P.A.S.P. (rank the Chief Minister of such Province, and subject to referred to in paragraph 2: 2 above). the p;civ;'ions of the Public Security Ordinance, by order, deploy in aid of the civil power, any unit of £>: 1 Recruitment to the National Division shall be made by the the National Division, in the Province for the purpose National Police Commission and recruitment to the Pro­ of restoring public order : vincial Division shall be mads by the Provincial Police Provided that every such order shall cease to be in Commi sion having regard to the standards of recruit- force as scon as the President is satisfied that public meni and other criteria prescribed in this behalf: order has hern restored or on the expiry of thirty Provided also that a recruit may. on appointment, set days from the elate of the order, whichever is earlier. out his preferences as to the Division in which he wishes to serve and that ho snail, if possible, be posted to the 12 : 1 The Provinci;:i Division shall.be responsible for the pre­ servation of uuhiic order within the Province and the Division of his choice, with '.he consent of the Division prevention detection and investigation of all offences concerned. 'except the cli'mces specified in the Schedule) and subject 3 : 2 The Government of Sri Lanka shall be responsible for the to the p-:;-.v.--rs o* the Attorney-General in terms of the training of all recruits to and of members of sll Divisions Code of Criminal Procedure Act, the institution of of the Sri Lanka Police Force. pro'eciiticns in the relevant' Courts in respect

2i3 Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution ,

(b) where the I.G.P. is of opinion that an investigation ol such offence by the C.I.D. or any other unit of thi National Division is necessary, in the pubiK- interest Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution 29 ami directs, after consultation with the Chief Minis­ ter, and the approval of the Attorney-General, that APPKiNDLX. ii such offence be investigated Dy the C.f.D. or any other unit of the National Division. Land and Land.Settlement

13. The National Div.sk'n shall perform all L.'ie functions vestec" State land shall continue, to vest in the Republic, and may be in a Provinci'd Division;-- in r.ny Prcivnce. for a period of one disposed of in accordance with Article 33 (d) and written law year or u.-iiii a f sovir.::ial Division is established ir. such Provision governing the matter. whichever is -,.:.-;;-:i«:r. Sublet ;:.-:.?Jevcsii.:. land shall bo a Provincial Council Subject, 1-S. All ^aLTt'.i'ci ci-iccrs of the iv'utio.na) Division and Provincia: subject to the following special provisions: — Divisions s\is':\ \x. ifrsuired tc attain the prcseribvj s«:i»cl::vet! i' Siph v :.J and T.-miU All Ofiic.f.-: of the vr\;:k of A.S.P. .••••A r.vi 3.'ia! 1 iiiso be n:c::;ir;:-:'. to a t;;;n tiic pros"! ibed standard of <:'.n.•;•:;.-::! ;. State ian.i— I :I State Land req::;:v::i :od the p:: roc :::•': of the Government ove-y net:-.. ;o !he Sri '..-•->!'» Pobce :'n:v: ::::::: h--r.\ ii: y :•'.: •••• ;::':•. :.: • '.•:' a •••'••'•I've;; or concurrent ; proficrncy in !>>.; mother tongue. For lb? first pro::;:?;-. •=•> ht: '•>;•: 5U'-;/:- n.ay bo '.;':;i:'o;i by ihe Gr.vciv.meiit in accordance Acquire profkivr.cy in a language other th::.n hi:: moth. :• tonS'.w: v.-ilii the laws rjovcrrnvsg the mr.Uer. The Government for '.he.next p-.vi:wnion he rlv.ul acquire a i-:nsv.-:o'.U:c of V.;:: i'.nv< ;-hai! c;it;f.u:t the rcii-vunt Provincial Council with regard i-r;n.;;ua;:t. The ihr.cc languages :'eco;;r>t~c-.'..' far ihb; pi:":;:*?.': to the utiiiscticn of such land in :cs:;ect of such subject. Sinbaia. Tttn-.rs find Engli -h. .! : 2 Govern>r.s:vit shall make available to every Provincial Co-.i.ncil L:nte {,••-..: within the proviso-'.' required by such SCHEDULE Council for- a Provincial Council subject. The Provincial • '::•••.::- : si:;::! r.Liriiir.i'iter, control -md utilise such Siaie Lis; cf Orl.v.:'; to be investigate::! by ihr: rhv ::n::i! i'o:;;^ !o;:u, in accordance with the laws and statutes governing ••he r.-,;:ttar. • i. OH;:''.ss a::;.'::v;t the State. 2. Offences rc!al;!:5 to the Navy. Army c-:d Air l".-.rcc. 1 : ?• Alienation or disposition of the Stave land within a Pro­ 3." Offences relating to the Elections. vince to any ciliuon or to any organisation shall be by f!yj President, on the advice of the relevant Provincial "4. C:T'-nces relating Coins, Currency and Government Stamps. Council, in accordance with the laws governing the ,•• 5. Any Offence committed agairfst the President. if.attor. 6. Any Offer.ee committed against a Public Officer, a Juclici: Officer, or the Speaker, or the Prime Minister or s. Minister, c 2. Inter-Provincial Irrigation and Land Development Projects. a Ivlember-of .the Judici-rJ Service Commission, or a Memb< of Public Service Com.'iiission or a Deputy J-finister or 2 : 1 S.ich projects would comprise irrigation and land deve­ Member of Parliament or the Secretary General of Parliarr.ei lopment schemes— or a Member of the Presiden's Staff or a Member of the Sia of the Secretary General of Parliament. (;} within the Province initiated by the State and which utilize water from rivers following through' more 7. Any offeme relating to property be'onging to the Stale ••:•<•• than one Province ; a Provincial Council however, State Corporation or Company or Estabi/shmcp.:, 'he who may also initiate irrigation and land development or part cf tb-s ospilal whereof has been provided by the &'.::•! schemes within its province utilizing water from such rivers ; i}- -Any O.'fer.-ee prejudicial to National Security or the m?:ii torvmej e: Yir.eiilial Services, (b) wiihin !he Province which: utilize water through f. Any offence under any law. relating io- any matter in !! diversions from water systems from outside the Reserve List other than such offences nr. She President :va Province ; and by order published in the Gazette, exclude. 10. Any' Offence in respect of which Courts in more UK::I o: (•:) all schemes where ihc command area fa.ils within ':'' Province"have jurisdiction. two or more Provinces such as the Mahaweli Deve­ lopment Project. 11. Intern?i'i.i;

Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution A.45 2: 3 The principles and criteria regarding the size of holdings of agricultural and homestead lands arising out of these projects will be determined by the Government of Sri Lanka in consultation with the Provincial Councils. Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution 31 2: 4 The selection of allotee3 for such lands will be deter­ mined by the Government of Sri Lanka having regard S: 3 National policy on land use will be based on technical to settler selection criteria including degree of landles- aspects (not on political or communal aspects), and the sness, income level, size of family and agricultural back­ Commission will lay down general norms in regard to ground of the applicants. The actual application of these the use of land, having regard to soil, climate, rainfall, principles, selection of allottees and other incidental soil erosion, forest cover, environmental factors, econo­ matters connected thereto will be within the powers P- mic viability, &c. the Provincial Councils. ^ 3 : 4 In the exercise of the powers devolved on them, the 2 : 5 The distribution of all allotments of such land in such pro­ powers shall be exercised by the Provincial Councils jects will be on the basis of national ethnic ratio. In having due regard to the national policy formulated by the National Land Commission. the distribution of rllotments according to such ratios, priority will be given to persons who are displaced by tiie project, landless of the District in which the project APPENDIX 111 is situated and thereafter the landless of the Provinc. Education 2: 0 Where ths members of. any community do :;ct. or -;V: unable to ;-n!-:c their entitlements of i-.lloin-.c-nts iri;m any 1. Provision of facililici for all State Schools other than specified such project, they would be entitled to receive an eo;>:- schools (Specified Schools will be National Schools, Special vaient number of allotments in another inter-pre-vlnci:':! Schools for Service personnel and schools for specified deve­ irrigation or Land Developinsmi Scheme. This uini.--: : lopment, schemes). quota should be utilized within a given time-frame. Supervision of the management of— 2 : 7 The distribution of allotments in such projects on the- basis of the aforesaid principles would be done as far a; (a) all pro-schools ; and possible so as not to disturb very significantly the demo­ graphic pattern of the Province and in accordance with (t>) .-11 State schools other thon specified schools indicated the principle of ensuring community cohesiveness if above. human settlements.

2 : 3 The administration and management of such-project' (In order to ensure standards the Ministry of Education will be done by the Government of Sri Lanka. will retain the right tc inspect and supervise the manage­ ment of schools). 3. National Land Commission.

if. The transfer and disciplinary control of all educational per­ 3 : 1 The Government of Sri Lanka shall establish a Nations Land Commission which would be responsible for tli sonnel, i.e. Teachers, Principals and Education Officers. Officers formulation of national policy with regard to the 115 belonging to a National Service but serving the Provincial of State land. This Commission will include represen authority on secondment will have the right of appeal to the taiives.of all Provincial Councils in the Island. Public Service Commission. Officers belonging to the provin­ cial Public Service, will have a right to appeal- to the Public 3: 2 The National Land Commission will have n Technic; Secretariat representing all the relevant disciplines n Service Commission against dismissal. quired to evaluate the physical as v/oll as the sccioeco.i! mic factors that are relevant to natural rcsoutce; r.wna;. •t. Recruitment into the Teaching Service of those with diplomas 2nd degrees, from Colleges ci Education and Universities, rscognised as teaching qualifications.

5. Until adequate numbers of these categories arc available re­ cruitment into the Teaching Service will be on the results of recruitment examinations conducted by the Public Service A.46 A.47

ihmeenih Amendment toUhe Constitution 3£ 32 Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution. 21. Ptucunng and . distribution of teaching aids, visual aid; and Commission. On the results of these examinations interviews audio visual materia.s, furniture and other equipment. and selection will be conducted together, with the. Provincial 22. Procuring and distribution of science equipment ether than - Authorities. certaiii specified items indicated by the Ministry. 6. Appointment of Principals of all schools other than those in 23. Production and clir.iriL-uiiun of school ?-r rrhee.'-* fsi*fir appruvut 1A, B, C categories. (Criteria will be laid down by the bv the Ministry.' Minister of Education.) 7. Appointment of Principals of 1A,NB, C schools will be by 2';. Ory i.ii.:?.iio.i end dev- -apm-.-nt of school libraries in acccrd- ::iiv-.' -v.-.U s-jic-.-i:.':... ^ivcn by iiie National Library Services the Secretary to the Ministry of ths- Minister in charge of the I. -X. . . . subject of Educstic.t or the Sublic Service Commission. .'Al^-c bvtsou on the roeoni;i;cndatiens of Committee J. of 8. Training of teachers ;.nd other educational personnel will come . tin: Pe.'iiical Parties Conference) wiiiun the porvic-.v of the National Ins!)tu:e of Education. Provinei::! Author:'iv? will indicate their needs to (he Nation?.! LIST U Institute of Ech;.-.:::c-;. (Reserved List) .9. Appointment'oi P.-ovinck- Boards of Education which will National Poixy on all Subjects and functions have the advisory functions, will be the responsibility of iho Defence and National Security : Internal Security ; L-e.w and- order Minister of Edncrdio:1.. However, this will be done with cdi>- and prevent-on and c.-.i ..v.'. :.-•: ciinv.: 'ject io the '.C'lit specifi-rc eu:•!-•.::'.<.•:: of ;ho Chi- f later of the: Provincial Authority. in '.:.-..:.. ... List .(.

10. i',.n A- '.. '..ii: c; tr-.V.-:;}- S;:-".c:o! boards conform­ fiii^ Wi;;i!d include— ing lo the spc-.iaci.'.: JUS Ink! down by i!:o Minis'ry cf ITc-uctUion. (•:;) \'j'-::':T..:-: of S-i I a ,;:a! every pari. r •;,{ inciueLa;'. p 11. Provincial Authorities will supervis*.- the working of School i'l^'iiUv:: f'.rr doi'.v.;:.-'..- ;::ul nil saeh acts as oiay bo eoncltv.-jv-:- lira:;:; ot war to ]}~. •:.rosen:.Uio.i.i e.:ai s'i.-.-..- tormina lac::, Boards. to effective demohili.;ai:on ; 12. Frep::r.:iio:i of plans (educational development plan and nn- nunl implementation pia;;) will be the responsibility of the- Co) .Olavai, military and air forces ; any- other armed force-:: of ihe Government of Sr; Lanka ; Provincial Authority. 13. Implementation of the Annual Education Development Plan. (c) D-\ployment of any armed force of the Government of Sri Lanka cr any ciiier force subject to the control of the 14. Appraisal of the 'performance of Principals, Teachers and Edu­ Government of Sri Lanka or any cor.tinjsnt or unit thereof cation Officers. . in ar\y Province ;n aid of the civi; power ; powers, iurisdic-"; iiori, privileges and liabilities of the members oi such .force? 15. Conducting of In-service training programmes for which prior while on such deployment; approval of the National Institute of Education has been ob­ tained. (d) Delimitation of cantonment areas, local self-government in 16. Conducting cf local examinations approved by the Commis • such areas, the constitution and powers within such areas of cantonment authorities and the regulation of house ac­ signer-General of Examinations. commodation (including the control of rents) in such areas : 17. Implementation c-f non-formal education programmes. (a) Naval, n;Hilary and air force works; IS. ri'c£;j;r: 'icn and supervision or pre-schools. (j) Arms, firearms, ammunition end explosives ; )•). Oc-ialning the approval of the National Institute of Education (g) Atomic energy and mineral resources necessary for its pro­ for !o"a! variations in the priinary curriculum and selected duction ; iiibje?!':; in ike secondary curriculum. 20. Cons'ruction nr.d maintenance of ecti cationnl buildings, (/•) Industries declared by Parliament by law to be• necessary/ libraries and playgrounds. A.48 A.49

34 Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution

for the purpose of defence or for the prosecution of war;

(i) Criminal Investigation Department; (;') Preventive detention for reasons connected • with Defenc Foreign Affairs, or the security of Sri Lanka, persons si:': Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution 35 jected to'such detention; and

\h) Bills of exehange) cheques, promissory notes and other like (a) Participation in international conferences, associations :•. instruments ; other bodies and implementing of decisions made therc.it ii) lnsi.irar.ee ; (c) Entering into treaties and agreements with foreign coun^ (j) Stnck exchanges ;ind futures markois; and implementing treaties, agreements and conventions v: (jc) Audit of the accounts of the Government of Sri Lanka and foreign countries ; of the Provinces ; (;') V.'ar and peo.ee ; and (I) Taxes on income, capital and wealth of individuals, com­ panies and corporations ; (g) Foreign jurisdiction. (rn) Customs duties, including import and export duties, and excise duties ; Posts and Telecommunications ; Broadcasting; Television (n) Turnover taxes and stamp duties, except to the extent speci­ fied in List I; This would include— (o) any other tax or fee not specified in list 1. (a) Posts and telegraphs ; telephones; wireless, broadcastingi other like forms of communications; and Foreign Trade ; Inter-Province Trade and Commerce (b) Sanctioning of cinematograph films for exhibition. This would include—

Justice in so jar as it relates to the judiciary ar.d the courts (a) Trade and commerce with foreign countries; import and export across customs frontiers; definition of customs fron­ structure. tiers ; and

This woidd include— (o) Inter-province trade and commerce. (a)' Constitution, organisation, jurisdiction and powers o' Ports and 'Harbours Supreme Court (including contempt of such Court), •• the fees taken therein : persons entitled to practise bo! This would include— th» Supremo Court, Court of Appeal and other Courts; (a) Ports declared by or under law made by Parliament cr existing law to be major ports, including their delimitation, and the constitution and powers of port authorities therein; and (b) Port quarantine, including hospitals connected therewith; seamen's and marine hospitals. A.50 A.51

36 Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution i'i.iiicciuh Amendment.to the Constitution. 3.7.. Aviation and Airporis Minerals atul Mines ... ;' •'..-'.': This would include— This would include— Airways ; aircraft and air navigation ; provision of 'aerodromes; (a) Regulation and development cf oilfields and mineral oil re­ regulation and organisation of iair traffic and of aerodromes; pro­ vision, for aeronautical education and training and regulation of sources ; petroleum and petroleum products ; other liquids such educuiion and training provided by Provinces and other and subitinc-s deci-ued by Parliament by law to be agencies. c dangerously ifiiismmabhr; and National Transport (b) Kegu:;i>.ion o» ;i;:n-".s and mineral development, to the extent to which Sitcli rcgu.a;io;i and development under the control Tiiis. v.-ouid include— ' ~ ~ of the Co'.i-n:.:'.eni ol Si; Lanka is deciaicd by Parliament (c) Railways; by lav.- !•• Mpt-dii-nt in the public interest.

(b) Highways declared by or under law made by Parliament Immi'jr;'.:ii.n: : r.'.".-::w«ti':?i .:.'id Citizenship to be national highways; and This v.oi.cl i.-.-hui-.-— (c) Carriage of passengers and goods by railway, land, sea or (u) C/.iZc.-.lu;-. ii:::.ir.i;iz-.lion and aliens ; air. or by national waterways in mechanically propelled t vessels. (b) Kxti^C;i.i/:; ; U:KI

mic .:one and Continental Shelf and Internal Waters ; State Lands l Eli:clio>:f lr.r!i'.-l:::rj /•ri--if!ciiti:il, Parliamentary, Prouincial and Foreshore, Except to the Extent Specified in Hem 13 of i •Lis;. I. Co::i!cil.i. c.-'i.' /.'-.::«.' .-iiU/torities

This woul;! include— h\.-. : v:. :. . • P;<;v'.Councils, L--.cal Authorities i:v.! to ;h-.- C .U. .' V-'.vsid'cnl ; ihe Department of Election;. (a) Piracies and crimes committed on the high seas or in the air ; orVencej against the law of nations committed on lane Census a.-id ot;;l;.>::cs or !!•-•? high seas or in the air ; This would i.ne.'iNie — (o) Shipping and navigation on inland waterways, declared by . (n) Census ; and Parliament by law to be national waterways, as regards mechanically propelled vessels; the rule of the road on (b) Inquiries, surveys and statistics for the purpose of any of such waterways; . :.; .the matters in this List.

(c) Morlthr.c shipping and navigation, including shipping and Professional Occupations and Training .navigation on tidal waters; provision of education and This would include— training lor the mercantile marine and regulation of such education and training provided by Provinces and other (a).Institutions, such as Universities, declared by Parliament agencies ; by law to be institutions of national importance ;

(d) Lighthouses, including lightships, beacons and other provi­ (6) Institutions for scientific or technical education by the sion for the safety of shipping and aircraft; Guvcrr.nicnt of Sri Lanka wholly or in part and declared by :\.-r'.i:i;.r.ent by law to be institutions of national ir.-.p-'.rlance ; (e) Regulation and development of inter province rivers ; and river valleys to the extent to which, such regulation a.r.'.i (c) Provi.-.cij! agencies and institutions for— •development under the'control of the Government of Sri (•!•) pri-fessioiinl. vocational or technical training, including Lanka is declared by Parliament by law to be expedient in :':i,! training of police officers ;.or the public interest ; (ii) the |ji-omoticn of special studies or research ; or (/) Fishing and fisheries beyond territorial waters; and (iii) si-:-.-;!:i::c or technical assistance in the investigation or (g) Proper';.' of the Government of Sri Lanka and the revenue

38 Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution

. Thirteenth Amendment :to. the:Constitiitipn 39 National Archives; Archieologicqj. Activities and Sites and Antiquities declared by or under any law made by Parliament to (q) Powers, privileges ond immunities, of Parliament and of the be of National Importance members and the Committees of Parliament; enforcement This would include- of attendance of persons for. giving evidence or producing documents before Committees of Parliament or Commis­ Ancient and historical monuments and records, and archaeo­ sions appointed by Parliament; logical sites and remains declared by or under law made by Parliament to be of national importance. (r) Emoluments, allowances, privileges, and rights in respect of leave of absence, of the President and Governors ; All Subjects and Functions not Specified in Liit I or List HI salaries and allowances of the Ministers of the Government including— of Sri Lanka ; the salaries, allowances and rights in res­ pect of leave of obsence and other conditions of service (a) Pilgrimages to places outside Sri Lanka ; of the Auditor-General; (b) Incorporation, regulation and winding up of trading cor­ porations, including banking, insurance ond financial (s) Inter-Province migration ; inter-provincc quarantine ; corporations but not' including co-operative societies ; (.') Offences against laws with respect to any of the matters • i>) Incorporation, regulation and winding up of corporations, in this List; and whether trading or not, with objects not confined to one (10 Fees in respect of any cf the matters in this List, bet not province, but not including universities ; including fees taken in any Court. (:£) Patents, inventions and designs ; copyright, trade marks and merchandise marks ; LIST III \s'> Establishment of standards of weight and measure; (Concurrent List) (/) Establishment of standards of quality for goods to be exported out of Sri Lanka or transported from one pro­ vince tc another ; l. Planning— 1 : 1 Formulation and appraisal oi plan implementation (;;'.) Industries, the control of which by the Government of Sri Lanka is declared by Parliament by law to bp expedient strategies at the provincial level ; in the public interest ; .1 : 2 Progress control ; (ii) Regulation of labour and safety in mines ; 1 : 3 Monitoring progress of public and private sector invest­ (s) Manufacture, supply and distribution of salt by agencies of ment programmes ; the Government of Sri Lanka ; regulation and control of 1 : 4 The evaluation of the performance of institutions and manufacture, supply and distribution of salt by other.' agencies ; enterprises engaged in economic activities ; (j) Cultivation, manufacture, and sale for export, of opium; 1 : 5 The presentation of relevant data in the achievement of plan targets ; (fc) Industrial disputes concerning employees of the Government of Sri Lanka ; 1 : 6 The dissemination of information concerning achievemen (1) Institutions such as Museums and War Memorials financed by of plan targets ; the Government of Sri Lanka wholly or in part and 1 : 7 Publicity of implementation programmes; declared by Parliament by law to be institutions of (•national importance ; 1 : 8 Manpower planning and employment Data Bank ; (m) The Survey of Sri Lanka, the Geological, Eotanical, * 1 • o Nutritional planning and programmes. Zoological and Anthropological Surveys of Sri Lanka ; 2 and 3. Education and Educational Services.—Education, except Meteorological organizations ; to the extent specified in items 3 and 4 of List 1.

(n) National Public Services; National Public Service Com­ 4. Higher Education— mission ; (o) Pensions, that is to say, pensions payable by the Government 4 : 1 The establishment and maintenance of new Universities cf Sri Lanka or out of the Consolidated Fund ; 4 :2 The establishment of degree awarding institutions under

(p) Salaries and allowances of Members of Parliament, and the the Universities (Amendment) Act) No. 7 of 1985) and Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Parliament ; other institutions for tertiary, technical and post-school education and training. A. 55 A.54

40 Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution Thirteenth Amendment to the.Constitution 4?

5. National Housing and Construction.—The promotion of inte­ 17: 2 Services provided for inter-provincial lancfand irriga­ grated planning and implementation of economic, social- and tion schemes, such as those relating to rural develop­ physical development of urban development areas. ment, health, education, vocational training, co-opera­ tives and other facilities. 6. Acquisition and requisitioning of Property. 18. Social Forestry and protection of wild animals and birds. 7. Social Services and. Rehabilitation— 19. Fisheries.—Other than fishing beyond. territorial waters. 7: 1 Relief, rehabilitation and resettlement of displaced persons ; 20. Animal Husbandry— 7 : 2 Relief of distress due to floods, drouth:?, epidemics or 20:1 Production, processing, distribution and sale of livestock ether exceptional causes and rehabilitation and resettle­ and livestock products; ment of those affected; 7: 3 Restoration, reconstruction and rehabilitation of towns, 20:2 Vetedinary training services and research, inclusive of villages, public institutions and properties, industries, the provision of science laboratories and • science business places, places of worship and other properties 1 destroyed or damaged, grant of compensation or relief > equipment'; to persons or institutions who h?.ve sustained loss or 20 : 3 Animal breeding, care and health , damage and the reorganization of civ:l life. 20 : 4 The establishment of pastures. 21. Employment— 8. Agricultural and Agrarian Services— 21 : 1 Employment planning at Provincial level ; 8 : 1 Establishment and promotion of agro-linked industries, the establishment and maintenance of farms and super­ 21 : 2 Special Employment programmes relating to the Pro­ vision of private nurseries ; vince ; 2i : 3 Promotion of yen in employment activities relating to 3 : 2 Soil conservation ; the Province ; 8 : 3 Plant pests. 21 :4 Technical Manpower Development Programmes in rela­ tion to the Province.

'J. Health— :-:2. Tourism.—Development and control of the Tourist industry in the Province. 9 : 1 Schools for training of Auxiliary Medical Personnel ; 9:2 The supervision of private medical care, control of 23. Tz-ade and commerce in, and the production, supply and nursing homes and cf diagnostic facilities wiihin s distribution of— Province ; (a) the products of any industry where the control of such 9 : 3 Population control and family planning ; industry by the Government is declared by Parliament by law to be expedient in the public interest, and 9:4 Constitution of Provincial Medical Boards. imported goods of the same kind as such products; and 10. Registration of births, marriages and deaths. (b) foodstuffs and cattle fodder. 11. Renaming of Towns and.Villages. 24. Newspapers, books and periodicals and printing presses. 12. Private lotteries within the Province. 25. Offences against statutes with respect to any matters specified 13. Festival and Exhibitions: in this List. 14. Rationing of food and maintenance of food stocks. 26- Fees in respect of any of the matters in this List excluding 15. Co-operatives,—Co-operative Banks. j less taken in any Court. 16. Surveys.—For the purpose of any of the matters enumerated -• in the Provincial or Concurrent List. r 27. Charities and charitable institutions., charitable and religious .17. Irrigation.— -. ; \ .... : endowments and religious institutions. • 17 : I Water storage arid management, drainage and embank­ ments, flood Drotection. nlnnnio^. of water reeo'irces : A.56 A. 57 42 Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution Annex: VII 29: Inquiries and: statistics for the purpose of any of the matters in this List or in the Provincial Council List. Voluntary societies whose chairpersons are eligible to be members of Gramodaya Mandalas 30. Adulteration of foodstuffs and other goods.

31. Drugs and Poisons. 1. Young Farmers' Clubs 2. Branch committees of Multi-purpose Cooperative Societies 32. Extension of electrification within the Province and the promotion and regulation of the use of electricity within the 3. Dayaka Sabhas Provi nee. 4. Buddist Associations 5. Christian Associations 33. Protection of the environment. 6. Hindu Associations 34. Archaeological sites and remains, oiher than those declared 7. Muslim Associations by or under anr law made by Parliament to be of national importance. - . 8. Cultural Societies 9. Arts Societies 35. Prevention of the extension from one Province to another • 10. Schools Development Societies of infectious or contagious diseases or pests affecting human beings, animal or plants. 11. Fisheries Societies 36. Pilgrimages.'". 12. Consumer Societies 13. Hospitals Societies 14. Red Cross Societies 15. Rural Development Societies 16. Handicraft Societies 17. Carpentary Societies 18. Community Societies 19. Sarvodaya Societies 20. Credit Societies 21. Mahila Samithis 22. Sports Clubs 23. Kulangana Samitis 24. Sahanadara Societies 25. Sucharitodaya Societies 26. Social Welfare Societies 27. Mutual Benefit Societies 28. Death Donation Societies 29. Rate Payers' Associations 30. Shramadana Societies 31. Societies for the Prevention of crime 32. Bus Travellers' Associations 33. Lions Clubs 34. Rotary Clubs 35. Jaycees Organisations 36. Apex Clubs A.58

A.59 Annexure VIII

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