T HE RELATIONS BETWEEN CHINA AND INDIA AND THE OPENING OF THE SOUTHERN SILK ROAD DURING THE HAN DYNASTY Yang Juping 杨巨平 Nankai University 南开大学 Tianjin, China 中国 天津 hen and how did relations between China and Chinese historical documents. The great historian’s W India begin? This issue has long been debated information came from the report submitted to Han in China.The late Professor Ji Xianlin, a renowned Wudi (汉武帝) by Zhang Qian, who, as an ambassador Chinese scholar of Indian history and culture, pointed of the Han court, had been sent to the West to es- out that “Cina,” the Indian word for China, and the tablish an alliance with the Dayuezhi (大月氏) against silk from “Cina” fi rst appeared in the early period of the Xiongnu (匈奴) in 139–126 BCE. Zhang Qian states the Mauryan dynasty (c.321–185 BCE) (Ji 1982, pp. that he was surprised to have found in Daxia (大夏, 74–78, 114). The implication is that China may have Bactria) bamboo sticks from Qiong (邛) and cloth from been known by the Indians since as early as the fourth Shu (蜀) — both in present-day Sichuan province in century BCE. But when China began to hear of India China. The Bactrians told him that these goods had is another question. Some Chinese Buddhist texts come from a country called Shendu and provided composed after the Han dynasty assumed that some new information about it: Buddhism had been spread into China long ago. But Shendu may be several thousand li2 to the as Professor Tang Yongtong has said, they are too southeast of Daxia.The people there have fi xed boastful and erroneous to be reliable. In order to com- abodes and their customs are very much like pete with Daoism and Confucianism, these Buddhists Daxia; but the country is low, damp, and hot. The created some fi ctitious storie s t o extol the greatness people ride on elephants to fi ght in battle. The of Buddha and claim an earlier arrival of Buddhism country is close to a great river.3 in China.1 In my opinion, the earliest available infor- mation about India should be attributed to Zhang The beginning of this description differs greatly Qian (张骞), the fi rst Chinese to explore the hitherto from the historian’s introduction of other countries, 大宛 大月氏 安息 unknown Western Regions beyond the Tarim Basin. like Dayuan ( ), Dayuezhi ( ), Anxi ( ), 條枝 大夏 After him, the early direct political, commercial and Tiaozhi ( ), and Daxia ( ). First, Zhang Qian’s cultural relations between China and a number of In- information is indirect, as he heard it from the inhab- dian kingdoms and others nearby were established, itants of Daxia. Second, he provides merely an ap- which led to the emergence of the Southern Silk Road proximate location of the country and the life-style that ran through the Pamirs to India and Southeastern and customs of the people. On three points, however, Iran. Meanwhile, the close connection between India his information is quite specifi c: India has a damp and China facilitated trade by sea from Egypt via In- and hot climate; there are many elephants; and dia to the southernmost parts of China and vice versa the great river, which most likely is the Indus, was during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). These rela- the country’s boundary. Since the bamboo sticks and tions are discussed in three early historical books: Shiji cloth originated from Sichuan and got to Daxia via In- (史记, the Records of the Grand Historian), Hanshu (汉书, dia, we can infer that there was a route that began in History of the Former Han Dynasty) and Houhanshu (后 southwest China and ran through India before reach- 汉书, History of the Later Han Dynasty). Unfortunately, ing Daxia. Having accepted Zhang Qian’s suggestion since portions of these accounts are unclear, to explain that he should explore the road from the southwest them we must turn to non-Chinese sources from India of China to India, the Emperor Han Wudi committed and the West. this task to him. But, because hostile barbarian tribes stood in the way, Zhang Qian failed in this mission. I. Shendu (身毒), the fi rst term used for India in China Nonetheless, Wudi continued to try to fi nd a route that led directly to India. During his second mission The name of Shendu appe ars in “the Treatise on Da- (119–115 BCE) to the Western Regions, Zhang Qian yuan” (“大宛列传”) of the Shiji by Sima Qian (司马 sent several vice-envoys to Shendu from Wu sun ( 迁),which is the earliest record about India among 乌孙). Later Han Wudi also sent envoys to Shendu Copyright © 2013 Yang Juping The Silk Road 11 (2013): 82–92 82 Copyright © 2013 The Silkroad Foundation (Shiji, pp. 3169–70). Although we have no record of p. 3885). This record is very important not only for the the reaction of the people in Shendu, it is certain that clues it provides for a comparison with the coins of the some more information about India should have been Indo-Greeks, but for the evidence on the commercial brought back by the Chinese envoys. relations the country enjoyed with China. II. Jibin (罽宾), the fi rst country neighborin g India to estab- Ban Gu’s primary interest, however, centers on the lish diplomatic relations with China political relati ons between China and Jibin. Contact between the two countries began during the reign of Jibin appears in the “Traditions of the Western Re- Emperor Han Wudi (141–87 BCE). Due to ev ents that gions” (“西域传”) of the Hanshu by Ban Gu (班固, CE took place during the Former Han Dynasty, relations 32–92). The book concerns only the history of the For- between the two countries can be divided into four mer Han Dynasty, and thus its “Traditions of the West- stages (for details, see Hanshu 1962, pp. 3885–87). ern Regions” serves as a continuation and supplement to “The Treatise on Dayuan” of the Shiji. Shendu is The fi rst occurred in the reign of king Wutoulao not mentioned in the Hanshu. Instead, a new country, (乌头劳) of Jibin. Although we do not know the ex- Jibin (Kophen?), suddenly appears. Apart from giving act dates of his rule, we are secure in placing it in the a general description, Ban Gu emphasizes the political reigns of the emperors Han Zhaod i (汉昭帝, 86–74 and dipl omatic relations between the rulers of Jibin BCE) and Han Xuandi (汉宣帝, 73–49 BCE). Assum- and China.4 ing that China was too far from his kingdom for the Chinese to exact revenge, Wutoulao cruelly murdered Ban Gu describes the country’s location, its neigh- a number of Chinese envoys on several occasions. bors, and its distance to China: Fortunately for him, he escaped from the revenge of The capital of the kingdom of Jibin is the city of these two emperors because, just as he had expected, Xunxian (循鲜), and it is 12,200 li from Ch’ang-an it proved t oo diffi cult and too distant for a Chinese [长安], [the capital of China in the Former Han army to punish him. Dynasty]. The kingdom is not under the control The second event took p lace during the reign of Wu- of the Protector General (Duhu, 都护). The num- toulao’s son. We do not know what his name was or bers of families, persons, and trained troops a re when he came to the throne, but only t hat he had been very large, for it is a great kingdom. It is 6,840 li the king of Jibin in the reign of Han Yuandi (汉元帝, to the seat of the Protector General in the north- 48–33 BCE). Under the pretense of restoring friendly east, 2,250 li to the kingdom of Wuzha (乌秅国) in ties, he sent envoys with gifts to the Han court. The the eas t, and a nine days› journey to the kingdom emperor accepted the request for pardon of his of Nandou (难兜国) in the north-east. The country father’s actions and sent general Wen Zhong (文忠) borders Dayuezhi (大月氏) in the north-west and to escort those envoys back to Jibin. Upon their arriv- Wuyishanli（乌弋山离）in the south-west. al Wen Zhong learned that the king of Jibin was The seat of the Protector General, in charge of all planning to assassinate him. So Wen Zhong formed affairs in the Western Regions, was in the city of Wu- an alliance with Yinmofu (阴末赴), the prince of lei (乌垒, in present-day Lunta i county of Xinjiang Rongqu ([容屈], a city that may have been under province). Since Jibin was so distant to the southwest Jibin’s authority). Together they attacked Jibin and from Wulei, and its location was to the southeast of killed the king. Yinmofu was then crowned as the the Dayuezhi, there is little doubt that Jibin was in new king of Jibin with the support of Wen Zhong and or bordering the land of Shendu beyond the Pamirs. awarded by the Emperor Han Yuandi a seal and Ban Gu also briefl y mentions the history of Jibin and ribbon as a token of his subjection to China. the race of its inhabitants. We thus learn that a people The third stage of relations transpired during the originally called the Sai in Central Asia were forced reign of Yinmofu, also in the reign of Han Yuandi. to migrate south into India.