Land-Use Changes by Large-Scale Plantations and Their Effects on Soil Organic Carbon, Micronutrients and Bulk Density: Empirical Evidence from Ethiopia

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Land-use changes by large-scale plantations and its effects on soil organic carbon, micronutrients and bulk density: Empirical evidence from Ethiopia

Article in Agriculture and Human Values · November 2015

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Land-use changes by large-scale plantations and their effects on soil organic carbon, micronutrients and bulk density: empirical evidence from Ethiopia

1,2 1,3 4 2 Maru Shete • Marcel Rutten • George C. Schoneveld • Eylachew Zewude

Accepted: 3 September 2015 / Published online: 9 November 2015 Ó Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015

Abstract This article examines land-use changes by will pose a serious threat to the long-term economic large-scale plantations in Ethiopia and evaluates the viability and sustainability of plantation agriculture in impacts thereof on soil organic carbon, micronutrients and Ethiopia. This could undermine long-term ecosystem bulk density. Remote sensing analysis and ﬁeld research health and national food security. activities were undertaken at four large-scale plantation projects in Benshanguel Gumuz, Gambella, and Oromia Keywords Land-use change Á Plantations Á Soil carbon Á regional states. Results show that the projects largely Soil micronutrients Á Soil-bulk density Á Ethiopia involved the conversion of both closed and open to closed forests and grasslands, which in turn reduced soil carbon Abbreviations stock and micronutrient levels and increased soil com- AILAA Agricultural Investment and Land paction. We argue that unless appropriate soil manage- Administration Agency ment activities and impact mitigation strategies are AISD Agricultural Investment Support Directorate adopted by plantation proponents, these land-use changes BD Soil-bulk density BGRIO Benshanguel Gumuz Region Investment Ofﬁce BSRS Benshanguel Gumuz Regional State Cmol(?) Centimoles of charge per kilogram of soil CSA Central Statistical Authority EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EPA Environmental Protection Authority & Maru Shete [email protected]; [email protected] FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Marcel Rutten HLPE High Level Panel of Experts [email protected] HoAREC Horn of Africa Regional Environment George C. Schoneveld Centre [email protected] HoARECN Horn of Africa Regional Environment Eylachew Zewude Centre and Network [email protected] ILRI International Livestock Research Institute 1 The African Studies Centre, P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB Leiden, NTFP Non-timber forest products The Netherlands OC Organic carbon 2 St. Mary’s University, P.O.Box 1211, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia PH Power of hydrogen 3 Department of Human Geography, Radbound University, PLC Private Limited Company Nijmegen, The Netherlands SOC Soil organic carbon 4 Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), SOM Soil organic matter P.O.Box 30677-00100, Nairobi, Kenya S & P Shampoorji and Pallonji 123 690 M. Shete et al.

Introduction Balehegn 2015), research to date has focused primarily on the socio-economic dimensions (Lazarus 2014). Relevant Following the 2007/08 food and oil price spikes, many research on the impact of plantation investments on specific public and private actors began to acquire large areas of environmental parameters includes, for example, Rodrigues land in the developing South, where agro-ecologically et al. (2009) on deforestation and regional climate change; suitable lands are comparatively cheap and abundant Gobena (2010) on deforestation; Rulli et al. (2013) on global (Agrarian Justice 2013). Though not a new phenomenon, water availability; Lazarus (2014), on rivers sediment flux; this renewed interest in land had led to the emergence of a and Rabalais et al. (2010) on the effects of fertilizer run-off new discourse on ‘land grabbing’ or, in more neutral terms, on coastal water bodies. However, research on the effects of ‘large scale land acquisitions’. In this discourse, such land use change from large-scale plantations on soil-related investments are typically characterized by the expropria- environmental parameters such as soil carbon stock, soil tion of lands from the rural poor that lack secure property bulk density (porosity), and soil micronutrients is lacking, rights to produce commodities through plantation mono- despite its importance. Lazarus (2014), for example, noted culture for foreign food, feed, and biofuel markets (Borras that an increase in industrial farming practices could result in and Franco 2012). This trend is generally viewed as being soil depletion around the globe. partly driven by favourable commercial prospects as a In order to fill this knowledge gap, this article examines result of recent price hikes, but also by policy initiatives the impact of large-scale plantations on soil-related envi- such as the European Union (EU) Renewable Energy ronmental parameters in Ethiopia. It focuses on micro- Directive that mandates member states to incorporate nutrients such as Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), and renewable energy sources into their energy mix by 2020 Manganese (Mn), which are known to be especially defi- (see European Union 2009) and outwards investment cient in many areas in Ethiopia (Desta 1983; Asgelil et al. incentives in especially food insecure countries to enhance 2007; Abera and Kebede 2013). While soil macronutrients control over extra-territorial resources.1 The Land Matrix such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are (2015) estimates that approximately 29.6 million ha of land essential to crop production since fertilizers containing have been acquired for plantations since 2000, of which these nutrients are often added by commercial farming approximately 55.9 % are located in Africa. In Ethiopia, operations, these were not the objects of analysis. one of the largest investment recipients, Shete and Rutten As contextualization, the article will first examine the (2015a) estimated that close to 2.2 million ha of land has changes in vegetation cover induced by large-scale land been transferred to investors between 1992 and 2013, with acquisition using spatio-temporal remote sensing imagery. the vast majority acquired since 2008. Subsequently, it will estimate the effects of land use These new farm-based investments have become a changes induced by large-scale plantations on soil organic politically contested contentious topic. On the one hand, carbon, soil micronutrients and soil bulk density. Data for many recipient governments have actively promoted these these analyses were collected from four large-scale farms investments through favourable incentive packages, as a in three regional states in Ethiopia (Oromia, Gambella and means to contribute to domestic export earnings, capital Benshanguel Gumuz), which represent different ecosys- formation, and rural development objectives. On the other tems. The article is structured into the following sections; hand, much research has shown that few positive devel- methods, results, discussion and conclusions. opment impacts accrue since the loss of access to land by the rural poor often exacerbates local livelihood and food insecurity and disruptive land use changes for plantation Methods establishment results in numerous negative environmental impacts (see Aklilu and Woldemariam 2009; Shete 2011; Description of study area Margulis et al. 2013; Wolford et al. 2013; Moreda 2015; Shete and Rutten 2014, 2015a, 2015b). Gambella regional state is located in the lowlands of Although a small, but growing, body of literature about Western Ethiopia and is one of Ethiopia’s least populous region, with a mean population density of approximately the environmental effects of large-scale land acquisition is 2 beginning to emerge (Shete 2011; Agrarian Justice 2013; 10 persons/km (HoARECN 2015). Much of its population is comprised of three ethnic minorities: the Anuak, the Nuer and the Majanger. The Anuak are largely subsistence 1 To meet this demand, 20–30 m ha of land will be needed (HLPE farmers, depending on the cultivation of maize, sorghum, 2011). The increased global demand for land to produce biofuel groundnuts and ginger and hunting, fishing, and gathering feedstock was estimated to quadruple in the coming 15–20 years (Fairless 2007) and was projected to require 20 % of the world’s of non-timber forest products (NTFP). The Nuer are agro- agricultural land by 2050 (White and Dasgupta 2010). pastoralists who depend primarily on cattle raising and 123 Land-use changes by large-scale plantations and their effects on soil organic carbon,… 691 practise flood-retreat farming—the practise of growing a population of approximately 14 people/km2. Its Guba and crops on elevated banks of the Baro and Akobo rivers after Dangur districts are inhabited by less than 3 persons/km2 the annual floods retreat. The Majanger depend largely on (CSA 2009). BGRS is home to five different indigenous forestry, especially NTFP’s. Ecologically, Gambella ethnic groups, Berta, Gumuz, Shinasha, Mao and Komo, experiences a humid-tropical climate with a maximum and also migrant settlers from the Highlands of Amhara monthly temperature of 35–40 °C and average annual and Oromo. Indigenous groups constitute 57.47 % of the precipitation of 1290 mm (Woube 1999; Awas et al. 2001). total population in the region. The livelihood of the local It is also known for its unique ecosystem with some of people include small-scale crop production based on Ethiopia’s largest areas of primary and close canopy forests shifting cultivation, hunting and gathering, small-scale to the east and wildlife abundant wetlands and grasslands livestock rearing and gold mining. The region is endowed to the west. The region is, for example, home to the with large cultivable land and different rivers that makes it endangered shoebill stork (Balaeniceps rex), the Nile well-suited for irrigated agriculture. One of the case studies lechwe (Kobu megaceros), and the white-eared kob (Kobus is located in BGRS, which is spread across the Dangur and kob leucotis) and its National Park is the destination of the Guba districts. world’s second largest mammal migration (HoAREC Oromia regional state is the most populated region of 2013). The two large-scale plantations selected for this Ethiopia, accounting for about 32 % (23.7 m) of Ethiopia’s study (Fig. 1) are found in Itang, Makuey and Abobo dis- population (CSA 2007). Oromia regional state, in contrast tricts, which are inhabited by Anuak, Nuer and highland to the two other study states, is located in a mid- to high- settlers, respectively. land ecosystem, with elevation typically exceeding Benshanguel Gumuz Regional State (BGRS) is located 1,500 m above sea level. As the most populous state in in the northwest of Ethiopia, also in the lowland areas, with Ethiopia, with a population density of approximately 77

Fig. 1 Map of study area and case studies 123 692 M. Shete et al. people/km2, much of the natural vegetation has long given Data source and analysis way to integrated crop and livestock production systems, which, in contrast to the lowlands, tends to be sedentary. Soil survey The case study is located in the mid-altitude Bako Tibe district (1550–1670 m above sea level), which is estimated Although the large-scale plantations studied in this to have a population density of 301 persons/km2 in 2001 research acquired lands ranging in size from 10,000 to (Gebremedhin et al. 2007). 111,700 ha, the companies only managed to cultivate a fraction of the total concession area. For example, Karuturi Overview of cases managed to cultivate only 2800 ha each in its Oromia concession and 5235 ha across two different sites at its This study is based on four large-scale plantations, namely Gambella concession, despite having access to a total of Karuturi Agro Products (Gambella), Basen Agricultural 111,700 ha of land. Similarly, Basen farm managed to and Industrial Development (Gambella) and Karuturi Agro cultivate only 3569 ha of land, despite having access to Products (Oromia) and S & P Energy Solutions (Ben- 10,000 ha. In the case of S & P, only 1863 ha out of its shanguel Gumuz). Karuturi Agro Products PLC in Oromia 50,000 ha concession was put under production at the time regional state changed the pre-existing land use of small- of research. Soil analyses were only conducted on the holder farming and pastureland to maize monocropping. In developed areas of land not other unused areas of the its Gambella farm, Karuturi largely cleared forests and concession. pasturelands to cultivate maize and sugarcane. Basen The ﬁrst activities undertaken by the soil survey team converted forests, bushes, and shrublands for cotton culti- were transect walks (where possible with a ﬁeld vehicle) to vation. S & P in BGRS converted primarily forestlands into different areas of the plantations to record variability in soil a pongomia and maize plantation. Detailed descriptions of types, slope gradient, and vegetation. The purpose of the the four cases are presented in Table 1. transect exercise was to determine appropriate sampling

Table 1 Description of case studies Name of the Region Inhabited Land Land Year Lease Land converted Livelihood of large-scale (district) by* size developed land agreement** local people farm (ha) (ha) acquired From To

Karuturi Agro Gambella Anuak 100,000 5235 2008 ETB 20 Forest land Maize and Agro- products PLC (Itang and and (US$ 1.04) sugar pastoralism, Makuey) Nuer per ha per cane small-scale year for cultivation, 50 years ﬁshing, hunting and gathering Karuturi Agro Oromia Oromo 11,700 3000 2008 ETB 135 Grazing land Maize Mixed crop- products PLC (Bako (US$ 7.04) and livestock Tibe) per ha per smallholder farming year for teff/niger 45 years seed cultivation Basen Gambella Highland 10,000 3569 2005 ETB 30 (US Forest, shrub/ Cotton Mixed crop- agricultural (Abobo) settlers $1.6) per bush land livestock and industrial ha per and crop farming development year. land PLC Lease period unknown S & P energy Benshanguel Gumuz 50,000 1863 2010 ETB 143.4 Forest, bush/ Pongomia, Shifting solution Gumuz (US$ 7.5) shrub land maize, cultivation, (Dangur per ha per pigeon hunting and and Guba) year for pea gathering 50 years * Refers to the ethnic groups who are living around the large-scale farm and does not reﬂect the inhabitants of the respective District ** 1UD$ was exchanged for ETB19.179 on 14 February 2014

123 Land-use changes by large-scale plantations and their effects on soil organic carbon,… 693 intervals that would adequately capture ecological varia- By using the GIS coordinate points and the concession tions. Based on this, the survey team agreed that repre- maps, satellite images were collected from NASA sentativeness could only be assured if soil samples were to LANDSAT for two different time periods for each plan- be taken for every 200 ha until the entire developed land tation; one prior to plantation establishment and one for area was captured. This sampling strategy would require at early 2015. This analysis was only conducted for three least nine soil samples for S & P’s plantation, 12 soil (Karuturi, Basen and S & P) plantations. In the case of samples for Karuturi’s Ilia plantation site, 14 soil samples Karuturi, the two plantations located in grass- and pas- for Karuturi’s Jikawo plantation site in Gambella, 14 soil tureland areas (Bako Tibe and one from Gambella) were samples for Karuturi’s Bako Tibe plantation, and 18 soil omitted from this analysis since ex ante land uses could be samples for Basen’s plantation. However, at all sites except pre-established. The data generated from the satellite Basen more samples were collected than required, with one images were used to examine the types of land use changes sampling taken for every 104, 146 and 156 ha for S & P, brought about by plantation establishment. Karuturi’s Gambella, and Karuturi’s Bako plantations, respectively. An equal number of soil samples were then taken from control plots to ensure comparability. Sample Results locations were determined with the help of key informants who know about the ex ante land uses of the plantations. Land-use change caused by large-scale farms and its The soil survey team did a similar transect walks along the environmental impacts in Ethiopia lands adjacent to the plantations that exhibited similar characteristics to the ex ante land use of the plots cultivated Vegetation cover change induced by large-scale farms by the large-scale farms. Soil samples were collected using ring sampler at a Inevitably, agricultural production brings changes to veg- depth of 0–15 cm. Soil bulk samples were also collected at etation cover. The type of land allocated to plantations in a depth of 0–30 cm from all the sites where ring samples Ethiopia typically comprises grasslands, shrub/fallow lands are taken. The soil samples were then air-dried and passed and open to closed forests, which the government presumes through a 2-mm sieve for micronutrient analysis and will protect against adverse socio-economic and environ- through a 0.5 mm sieve for organic carbon analysis. Soil mental impacts. In some cases, farmlands cultivated by organic carbon content was determined following the smallholders, often through customary tenure regimes, and Walkley–Black method (Nelson and Sommer 1996). Fol- lands that were formerly used as state farms are allocated. lowing Lindsay and Norvell (1978), the diethylenetri- Our spatio-temporal satellite image analysis revealed that aminepentaacetic acid method was used to determine soil three of the plantations analysed were established pre- micronutrients content. dominantly through the clearance of closed and open to closed forests. Of the 2435 ha cleared by Karuturi in Spatio-temporal satellite image Gambella, 18.6 and 80.2 % of the lands were previously covered by closed and open to closed forests, respectively During the soil survey, GIS coordinate points were recor- (Table 2 and Fig. 2). Our site visit of Karuturi’s farm in ded using GPS instruments for all the points where soil Ilia village in 2012 and 2013 also conﬁrmed that Karuturi samples were collected. In addition, where available, cleared indigenous trees such as Vitellaria paradoxa (also concession maps were acquired through the government. called sheanuts or shea tree), Anogeissus leiocarpus,

Table 2 Land use and vegetation cover change induced by large-scale farms in Gambella and Benshanguel Gumuz regional state From: previous land To: current land uses (ha) use (ha) Karuturi’s maize Basen’s cotton S & P’s pongomia and annual plantation (Ilia site) plantation crop plantation

Cropland 29.6 107.1 145.0 Open to closed forest 1952.5 1607.5 1026.5 Closed forest 452.8 849.6 630.2 Shrub/fallow 0.0 632.4 61.6 Existing plantation 0.0 372.8 0.0 Total 2434.9 3569.4 1863.3 Source Authors’ analysis based on spatio-temporal satellite images 123 694 M. Shete et al.

Fig. 2 Land use map of Karuturi (Ilia site) in 2008 (map on left) and in 2015 (map on right)

Combretum adenogonium and Grewia tenax with espe- organic matter. The analysis of soil carbon level on the cially important ecological and socioeconomic functions. plantations in Oromia, Benshanguel Gumuz and Gambella The other area cleared by Karuturi in Gambella concerned regional states confirmed the hypothesis that the planta- grassland and seasonal floodplains, which was used pri- tions sequestrated less organic carbon than the control. In marily for pasture for the indigenous Nuer population. In Oromia, for example, the soil carbon-stock at Karuturi’s Bako Tibe, the area cleared by Karuturi concerned exclu- plantation was 17.7 % lower than the control. In BGRS, on sively grasslands, which were used by its highland popu- the other hand, S & P’s plantation where pongomia was lation for grazing and to a lesser extent crop production. intercropped with pigeon pea, the soil’s organic carbon was In the case of Basen, out of the total land planted with 19 % higher than the control samples. This could be cotton (3569 ha), 23.8 and 45 % of the lands involved attributable to the nitrogen fixing characteristics of pon- conversion of closed and open to closed forests, respec- gomia and pigeon pea. On the other hand, at the plot where tively. The company also cleared fallow land, which maize was cultivated, the soil’s organic carbon was 6 % accounts for 17.7 % of the total cultivated land of the lower than the control samples (Table 3). company. Part of the land covered with cotton by Basen The maize and sugarcane at the two Karuturi plantation was previously owned by Abobo state farm and this sites in Gambella were estimated to sequester 61 and 40 % accounts 10.4 % of the total land developed by Basen in less organic carbon than the natural controls, while the 2015. This was also confirmed in our ground truthing field Basen plantation in Gambella sequestered 16 % less visit to Basen’s farm in 2012 and 2013 (Table 2 and organic carbon than the forest control. The changes in soil Fig. 3). carbon-stock due to the land-use changes caused by all the In BGRS, the spatio-temporal satellite data analysis plantations in Oromia, Benshanguel Gumuz and Gambella indicated that S&P developed 1863 ha of land by 2015. regional states are all statistically significant either at Most of converted lands were closed and open to close p \ 0.05 or p \ 0.001 (Table 4). forests cleared by S & P was substantial and accounted 33.8 and 55.1 % of the total land covered by maize and Impact of large-scale farms on soil compaction pongomia in 2015, respectively (Table 2; Fig. 4). The plantations in Gambella, Benshanguel Gumuz and Impact of large-scale farms on soil carbon change Oromia regional states were also found to result in changes to soil-bulk density (BD). In Oromia, the change in land- As discussed in the previous section, the case study plan- use from grassland to maize and the use of heavy tations brought about significant changes to especially tree machinery on Vertisol soils increased the soil’s BD by cover. Conversion of trees has a direct effect on soil’s 9.5 % (significant at p \ 0.001). The intercropping of

123 Land-use changes by large-scale plantations and their effects on soil organic carbon,… 695

Fig. 3 Land use map of Basen farm in 2003 (map on left) and in 2015 (map on right)

Fig. 4 Land use map of S and P farm in 2009 (map on left) and in 2015 (map on right)

pigeon pea with pongomia by S & P significantly improved In Gambella, the conversion of grasslands to maize and the soil’s bulk density in BGRS. This could be caused by sugarcane increased the soil-bulk density by 28.5 and the roots of pigeon pea and pongomia penetrating different 46.7 %, respectively. The increase in soil compaction is zones of the soil and improving soil organic carbon by significant at p \ 0.001 (Table 4). This is due to a loss of fixing atmospheric nitrogen through their root nodules. In organic carbon (OC) and an increase in soil compaction its maize plots, however, its plantation worsened the soil’s because of the use of heavy machinery. The company burnt bulk density by 7 % (Table 3). the sugarcane fields in 2013 when the soil samples for this

123 696 M. Shete et al.

Table 3 Effects of land use change on soil organic carbon and bulk density in Oromia and Benshanguel Gumuz regional states Parameters Land use of Karuturi farm in Oromia region Land use of S & P farm in Benshanguel Gumuz region Karuturi’s Grazing land Pongomia intercropped Maize farm Scattered tree maize farm (Control) with pigeon pea (Control)

Organic Carbon in % Mean ± SEM 2.05 ± 0.022 2.49 ± 0.028 2.22 ± 0.03 1.74 ± 0.02 1.86 ± 0.03 SD 0.09 0.12 0.06 0.05 0.12 Mean difference (%) -0.44 (-17.7 %)*** 0.36 (19.4 %)*** -0.12 (6.4 %)** t statistics (SE) -12.2 (0.04) 9.0 (0.04) -2.8 (0.04) Bulk density in gm/m3 Mean ± SEM 1.39 ± 0.015 1.27 ± 0.007 1.37 ± 0.003 1.49 ± 0.02 1.39 ± 0.01 SD 0.064 0.028 0.01 0.05 0.03 t statistics (SE) 7.2 (0.02) -4.9 (0.01) 5.99 (0.02) Mean difference (%) 0.12 (9.45 %)*** -0.03 (-1.4 %)*** 0.1 (7.2 %)*** Based on survey data in 2013 and 2014 *** p \ 0.001; ** p \ 0.05

Table 4 Effects of land use change on soil organic carbon and bulk density in Gambella regional state Parameters Land use of Basen in Land use of Karuturi at Ilia Land use of Karuturi at Jikawo site Abobo site Basen’s Forest/bush Karuturi’s Forest/bush Karuturi’s Karuturi’s sugar Grazing land cotton farm (Control) maize farm (Control) maize farm cane farm (Control)

Organic carbon in % Overall mean ± SEM 2.35 ± 0.01 2.79 ± 0.01 0.82 ± 0.01 1.04 ± 0.01 1.49 ± 0.01 2.29 ± 0.01 3.82 ± 0.01 SD 0.05 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.017 0.033 0.028 Mean difference (%) -0.44 (-16.1 %)*** 0.22 (-21.2 %)*** -2.3 (-61 %)*** -1.5 (-40.1 %)*** t statistics (SE) -29.11 (0.02) -28.71(0.01) -225.13 (0.01) -119.68 (0.01) Bulk density in gm/m3 Mean ± SEM 2.01 ± 0.03 1.73 ± 0.03 2.09 ± 0.05 1.90 ± 0.01 1.76 ± 0.01 2.01 ± 0.02 1.37 ± 0.01 SD 0.11 0.13 0.22 0.04 0.038 0.07 0.024 Mean difference (%) 0.28 (16.2 %)*** 0.19 (10 %)*** 0.39 (28.5 %)*** 0.64 (46.7 %)*** t statistics (SE) 7.10 (0.04) 3.73(0.52) 32.26 (0.01) 35.38 (0.02) Based on survey data in 2013 *** p \ 0.001 study were being taken. This reduced the soil’s OC and to soil nutrient imbalance. Land conversion from natural increased its BD. Although we observed that agro-pas- vegetation to crop production, as witnessed at the planta- toralists also burn grasslands to encourage re-growth of tions of Oromia, Benshanguel Gumuz and Gambella fresh grass, this does not change the soil’s BD. This might regional states, is anticipated to result in exploitation of soil be because the loss of OC through burning is compensated micronutrients. Sims and Johnson (1991) and Kparmwang by animal dung from grazing cattle. At the Basen planta- et al. (2000) indicated that the critical levels of available Fe tion, the soil’s BD has increased by 16 % when compared and Mn required for plant growth are 2.5–4.5 mg/kg and to the uncleared forest, which was significant at p \ 0.001 1 mg/kg, respectively. Similarly, McKenzie (2001) argued (Table 4). that soils that have more than 1 mg/kg of Cu, 1 mg/kg of Zn, 4.5 mg/kg of Fe and 1 mg/kg of Mn are classified as Impact of large-scale farms on soil micronutrients adequate for these micronutrient. The change in land-use from pasture to maize production in Oromia resulted in the Soil nutrient uptake by plants, unless checked and treated reduction of the soil’s Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn by 38, 36, 66 and through the application of deficient soil nutrients, will lead 63 %, respectively. The declines in these nutrients are

123 Land-use changes by large-scale plantations and their effects on soil organic carbon,… 697

Table 5 Effects of land use change on soil micronutrients in Oromia and Benshanguel Gumuz regional states Soil micronutrients (mg/kg) Land use of Karuturi farm in Oromia Land use of S & P farm in Benshanguel Gumuz Karuturi’s maize Grazing land Pongomia Maize plot Scattered tree farm (Control) intercropped with (Control) pigeon pea

Iron (Fe) Mean ± SEM 10.42 ± 0.09 16.7 4 ± 0.08 8.67 ± 0.19 8.83 ± 0.05 8.89 ± 0.03 SD 0.40 0.33 0.56 0.15 0.11 Mean difference (%) -6.32 (-37.75 %)*** -0.22 (-2.5 %) -0.06 (-0.6) t statistics (SE) -5.2 (0.12) -1.66 (0.13) -1.14(0.05) Copper (Cu) Mean ± SEM 0.28 ± 0.002 0.44 ± 0.008 1.53 ± 0.01 1.55 ± 0.01 1.58 ± 0.01 SD 0.009 0.035 0.03 0.04 0.05 Mean difference (%) -0.16 (-36.36 %)*** -0.06 (-3.2 %)*** -0.04 (-1.9 %)** t statistics (SE) -19.1 (0.01) -3.2 (0.02) -2.24 (0.02) Zinc (Zn) Mean ± SEM 0.26 ± 0.002 0.76 ± 0.008 0.44 ± 0.01 0.45 ± 0.01 0.47 ± 0.01 SD 0.008 0.034 0.01 0.01 0.03 Mean difference (%) -0.05 (-65.8 %)*** -0.025 (-6.3 %)** -0.021 (-4.25 %)* t statistics (SE) -6.5 (0.01) -2.86 (0.01) -1.95 (0.01) Manganese (Mn) Mean ± SEM 4.41 ± 0.003 11.94 ± 0.046 32.45 ± 0.16 32.56 ± 0.13 32.58 ± 0.12 SD 0.01 0.19 0.50 0.39 0.52 Mean difference (%) -7.53 (-63.06 %)*** -0.09 (-0.4 %) -0.006 (-0.01 %) t statistics (SE) -16.1 (0.05) -0.46 (0.2) -0.03 (0.18) Based on survey data in 2012 and 2014 *** p \ 0.001; ** p \ 0.05; * p \ 0.1 statistically significant at p \ 0.001. In absolute figures, we (Table 5). The soils of the S & P plantation have a slight found out that the area was generally deficient in Zn acidic reaction (PH 6.1–6.9) with high content of Ca ions (0.76 mg/kg) and Cu (0.44 mg/kg) compared to the mini- (20.3–24 cmol(?)/kg). Acidic soils are reported to have mum level (1 mg/kg for both Zn and Cu) needed for a high Mn and Fe since these micronutrients are less avail- healthy plant growth. The concentration of Zn and Cu was able with increase in soil acidity (Lindsay 1979). This reduced by 0.26 mg/kg and 0.28 mg/kg, respectively, due explains the insignificant decline of the soil’s Fe and Mn in to land use changes. Although the reductions in Fe and Mn Benshanguel Gumuz region compared to the control plot. due to land use change were statistically significant, the In Gambella, Basen mined an estimated 34 and 74 % of stock of these micronutrients in the soil is well above the Cu and Fe, respectively; both of which significant at minimum amount required for plant growth (Table 5). p \ 0.001. The analysis also showed that Zn and Mn Nevertheless, even though the study did not examine the declined in the Farm, but not with a statistical significance. effects of monocropping on soil’s biodiversity, cultivation Nevertheless, the four micronutrients remain available in of the same crop without rotation for four consecutive adequate amounts for plant growth. Karuturi’s Ilia maize years by Karuturi clearly did result in the mining of farm in Gambella mined 36 % of Fe, 12 % of Cu, 30 % of important soil micronutrients. Zn and 4 % of Mn and the reductions were statistically In BGRS, S & P’s cultivation activities resulted in a significant at p \ 0.001. Similarly, Karuturi’s maize and decline of Cu by 1.9–3 % and Zn by 4–6 %. However, sugarcane plantations in Jikawo significantly reduced all of there was no significant reduction in the soil’s Fe and Mn. the four soil micronutrients (p \ 0.001). Compared to the The area under cultivation by S & P’s farm was generally control, the maize plantation at Jikawo reduced the soil’s deficient in Zn (0.47 mg/kg) compared to the critical Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn by 57, 80, 74 and 41.5 % respectively. minimum needed for plant growth (1 mg/kg), presumably The sugarcane plantation in Jikawo also mined the soil’s Fe even prior to land conversion. The land use change by S & by 75 %, Cu by 76 %, Zn by 71 % and Mn by 5 % P further reduced the soil’s Zn to 0.44–0.45 mg/kg (Table 6). At the Ilia plantation, all but Cu are found in

123 698 M. Shete et al. quantities adequate for crop production. Before the inter- The EIA is prepared to mitigate any possible negative vention of Karuturi, the availability of Cu was, on average, effects of projects on the environment. Evidence to date, 0.5 mg/kg, which is below the critical level (1 mg/kg) however, showed that 63.6 % of large-scale plantation needed for plant growth. This was further declined by 12 % projects in Ethiopia were yet to prepare an EIA report following land conversion. At the other two plantations (Table 7). The other 36.4 % typically prepared EIA reports (Jikawo/Karuturi and Abobo/Basen), all the four after projects had commenced, thereby contravening pro- micronutrients were found in sufficient quantities. visions stipulated under Proclamation No. 299/2002 (FDRE 2002b). Of the three companies included in the sample, only Karuturi prepared an EIA for its Gambella Discussion operations; doing so more than one year following the start of its land development activities. S & P, Basen, and Environmental impact assessment and large-scale Karuturi’s Bako Tibe project had by the end of 2014 farms in Ethiopia neglected to prepare an EIA. Although policies and regulations that aim to reduce the This section discusses the institutional mechanisms avail- environmental costs of agricultural projects are developed able to mitigate the negative effects of large-scale planta- by the EPA, our assessment of EIA report preparation by tions on the environment. The Constitution of Ethiopia (see large-scale plantation projects in Ethiopia reveals that the Articles 43, 44 and 92) includes important provisions majority of companies likely do not have environmental aimed at addressing the negative potential environmental impact mitigation strategies in place since these are typi- impacts of development projects (FDRE 1995). The cally formulated in response to projected impacts identified Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) in Ethiopia, an by the EIA report. On the other hand, those companies that agency mandated to oversee environmental management have prepared an EIA after commencing land development issues, has further developed dedicated policies, laws, activities will likely have developed the EIA for different regulations and administrative frameworks to ensure that ends (see Deininger et al. 2011; Horne 2011; Rahmato environmental issues are adequately accounted for prior to 2011). This could, for example, be a response to civil project commencement (EPA 2012)2 . As with any devel- society critiques or as a condition for accessing credit opment project, the preparation of an Environmental facilities. Regardless, the AILAA has clearly failed to live Impact Assessment (EIA) report is compulsory for all up to the expectations of the Ethiopian government to large-scale plantation projects in Ethiopia. The EPA is monitor the activities of the large-scale plantation to for- mandated to oversee and approve EIA’s under Proclama- mulate and implement appropriate environmental impact tion No. 295/2002 (FDRE 2002a). The EPA, however, mitigation strategies. Rahmato (2011), for example, noted transferred its mandate of monitoring the EIA of large- also that the AILAA lacks the will and capacity to fulfil its scale plantation projects to the Agricultural Investment and duties of monitoring the environmental performance of Land Administration Agency (AILAA) in 2009 (Rahmato large-scale plantations, with its mandate focused largely on 2011)3 . This was done with the justification that the EPA promoting commercial agriculture for macro-economic had less human capacity and resources to monitor large- objectives. scale plantation projects than AILAA. Implications of the loss of soil organic carbon

2 Proclamation No. 299/2002 (the Environmental Impact Assessment As noted in the preceding section, loss of Soil Organic Proclamation), Proclamation No. 541/2007 (the management and Matter (SOM) is one of the detrimental effects of removing utilization of wildlife resources), Proclamation No. 300/2002 (the natural vegetation cover. It is well documented that SOM Environmental Pollution Control Proclamation), Proclamation No. 513/2007 (the Solid Waste Management Proclamation) and Procla- plays an important role in maintaining soil quality and mation No. 197/2000 and Regulation No. 115/2005 (the conservation, functions (Campbell 1989; Baldock and Nelson 2000). utilization and development of water resources in the country), which Among others, it improves soil aggregation and structure, aimed to reduce the negative impact of development projects on enhances absorption and water retention capacity, increases natural resources and the environment, are promulgated following the recognition of environmental issues by the Constitution. soil fertility, improves soil biodiversity, and serves as a 3 The Agricultural Investment Support Directorate (AISD) is re- carbon sink. Because of the high content of organic carbon, structured in late 2013 having a new name called the Agricultural SOM is often used as a proxy indicator for measuring soil Investment and Land Administration Agency (AILAA). The Agency organic carbon (SOC) and an important climate-change is directly accountable to the Minister of Agriculture. In its previous mitigation strategy (FAO 2008). Soil organic carbon structure, the AISD reported to the Deputy Minister of Agriculture and operated with fewer than 35 staff. The Agency is expected to improves overall soil functions such as soil structure, water have about 165 staff in its new form. retention capacity, aeration, and soil’s resistance to 123 aduecagsb ag-cl lnain n hi fet nsi rai carbon, organic soil on effects their and plantations large-scale by changes Land-use

Table 6 Effects of land-use change on soil micronutrient in Gambella regional state, the case of Basen and Karuturi farms Micronutrients (mg/kg) Land use of Basen in Abobo Land use of Karuturi at Ilia site Land use of Karuturi at Jikawo site Basen cotton Forest/bush Karuturi’s Forest/bush Karuturi’s maize Karuturi sugar cane Grazing land farm (Control) maize farm (Control) farm farm (Control)

Iron (Fe) Mean ± SEM 8.42 ± 0.26 32.09 ± 0.11 4.22 ± 0.02 6.60 ± 0.01 8.51 ± 0.01 9.64 ± 0.06 19.7 ± 0.06 SD 1.1 0.46 0.09 0.04 0.02 0.16 0.25 Mean difference (%) -23.7 (-73.8 %)*** -2.37 (-36.1 %)*** -11.2 (-56.8 %)*** -10.1 (-51.2 %)*** t statistics (SE) -8.4 (0.28) -9.69 (0.02) -13.27 (0.08) -10.89 (0.09) Copper (Cu) Mean ± SEM 19.06 ± 0.37 29.03 ± 0.08 0.44 ± 0.01 0.50 ± 0.01 12.51 ± 0.01 14.82 ± 0.05 62.8 ± 0.03 SD 1.6 0.34 0.01 0.01 0.019 0.15 0.11 Mean difference (%) -9.97 (-34.3 %)*** -0.06 (-12 %)*** -50.3 (-80 %)*** -48 (-76.4 %)*** t statistics (SE) -26.36 (0.38) -16.17 (0.01) -13.46 (0.04) -864.07 (0.06) Zinc (Zn) Mean ± SEM 4.81 ± 0.072 4.9 ± 0.034 1.05 ± 0.01 1.5 ± 0.01 2.28 ± 0.01 2.57 ± 0.005 8.81 ± 0.023 SD 0.31 0.15 0.01 0.01 0.028 0.015 0.097 … Mean difference (%) -0.09 (-1.8 %) -0.45 (-30 %)*** -6.54 (-74 %)*** -6.25 (-71 %)*** t statistics (SE) -1.09 (0.08) -110.40 (0.01) -19.9 (0.03) -189.73 (0.03) Manganese (Mn) Mean ± SEM 4.3 ± 0.06 4.36 ± 0.02 10.90 ± 0.01 11.34 ± 0.01 3.3 ± 0.004 5.91 ± 0.023 5.64 ± 0.01 SD 0.23 0.066 0.05 0.04 0.013 0.069 0.044 Mean difference (%) -0.07 (-1.4 %) -0.45 (3.9 %)*** -2.3 (-41.5 %)*** 0.28 (4.8 %)*** t statistics (SE) -1.25 (0.06) -25.84 (0.02) -15.26 (0.02) 12.54 (0.02) Based on survey data in 2012 and 2013 *** p \ 0.001 123 699 700 M. Shete et al.

Table 7 Environmental impact assessment of major large-scale farms in Ethiopia Large-scale farm Land size Date land-deal concluded Date EIA prepared Date project (in ha) (DD/MM/YY) (DD/MM/YY) began operation

Karuturi (Gambella site) 100,000 25/10/10 14/12/11 2010 Karuturi (Oromia site) 11,700 2008 no EIA 2008 S & P Energy Solutions 50,000 01/03/10 no EIA 2010 BHO 27,000 11/05/10 30/11/11 unknown CLC (Spentex) 25,000 25/12/09 no EIA 2009 Ruchi 25,000 05/04/10 no EIA 2010 Hunan Dafengyuan Agric. 25,000 25/11/10 no EIA 2010 Saber Farms PLC 25,000 10/05/11 no EIA 2011 HORIZONE Plantation PLC 20,000 01/09/12 no EIA 2012 Adama 18,516 24/08/10 no EIA 2010 Whiteﬁeld 10,000 01/08/10 30/01/11 2010 Sannati 10,000 01/10/10 03/05/11 2010 Saudi Star Agricultural Development PLC 10,000 25/10/10 31/05/11 2010 Basen Agricultural and Industrial PLC 10,000 2008 no EIA 2008 Toren Agro Industries PLC 6000 18/09/11 no EIA 2011 Access Capital 5000 08/10/10 no EIA 2010 Tracon Trading PLC 5000 18/03/10 28/11/11 2010 Mela Agricultural Development PLC 5000 12/03/10 12/03/12 2010 Daniel Agricultural Development Enterprise 5000 26/08/09 19/03/12 2010 Government-owned Sugar Mills* 175,000 Not Applicable no EIA 2011 Green Valley Agro PLC 5000 25/01/12 no EIA unknown Lucci Agricultural Development PLC 4003 08/11/09 no EIA 2010 Source AILAA and agricultural company’s documents in 2014 * This includes Omo Kuraz, Tendaho, Arjo-Dedessa, Tana Beles, Kessem Sugar Mills. EWCA (2011) mentioned that the effects of Omo Kuraz sugar plantation on wildlife resources of the area was not studied

compaction (Liddicoat et al. 2010). Therefore, a decline in average, by 1.23 °C between 1961 and 2011 (t = 3.66, soil organic carbon implies a decline in the quality of the p \ 0.001) and relative humidity decreased by 1 % every soil (Van Camp et al. 2004). year (t =-2.7, p \ 0.01). Although it is very difﬁcult to The organic carbon that was previously sequestrated in correlate the rise in temperatures and the declines in rela- the soils declined in the study sites by 16–61 % because of tive humidity with plantation-induced land-use changes, land-use changes, which has likely been released into the the local population linked the rise in daily temperature in atmosphere. Farming practises that result in declining soil their village to the land-use changes arising from the organic carbon-stock to below 2 % are considered as establishment of the Karuturi plantation. Gambella is also a unsustainable and pose an environmental threat (Spink region frequently affected by climatic variations such as et al. 2010). The current rate of soil carbon decline due to abnormal ﬂooding (Woube 1999). Unless relevant mitiga- the land-use changes, most importantly in Gambella and tion strategies are adopted, the decline in soil carbon stock Oromia, but also in BGRS, has undermined the sustain- will eventually contribute to the worsening of the impacts ability of large-scale plantations and the functioning of the of climate change. Although climate change has both local natural ecosystem. and global effects, farmers in developing countries, like Land-use changes that deplete the soil carbon pool and Ethiopia, with the lowest capacity to cope with the effects accelerate the release of organic carbon into the atmo- of climate change are especially vulnerable (ILRI 2006; sphere, as in the case of the study plantations, also have Stige et al. 2006). We contend that the absence of strategies wider implications for climate change. Our log-linear developed by the large-scale plantation project to mitigate analysis based on metrological data obtained from Bako negative environmental impacts of their farming operations Agricultural Research Centre for the Bako area revealed will exacerbate the removal of SOM, and therefore also that the maximum mean daily temperature increased, on SOC.

123 Land-use changes by large-scale plantations and their effects on soil organic carbon,… 701

The challenge of soil compaction increases in soil bulk-density at large-sale plantations, which will further hamper the sustainability of large-scale Soil-bulk density is an indicator of soil structure in general plantations. and soil compaction in particular. Land-use change affects soil porosity and compaction, which determines water Soil micronutrient decline and the sustainability infiltration, groundwater movements and surface-water challenge run-off (Conolly 1998). Cultivation with heavy machinery is one of the main reasons for soil compaction (Arvidsson Soil micronutrients are required by plants in small et al. 2000). The analysis results for Gambella and Oromia amounts, but are important in determining plant growth and revealed that the soil’s BD has increased with increasing crop yield (Foth and Ellis 1997) and long-term sustain- soil depth. This was also true for the maize monocropping ability of agricultural production (Srinivasara and Rani activities by S & P in BGRS. Other studies also confirmed 2011). Although large-scale plantations typically involve the inverse relationship between soil BD and infiltration the application of inorganic macronutrients, crop yield will capacity (Osuji et al. 2010; Getachew et al. 2012). Reduced stagnate if the availability of micronutrients falls below a soil infiltration capacity contributes to surface run-off certain threshold level. At present, the available Fe and Mn (Conolly 1998; Alhassoun 2009) and tends to increase the in all the four large-scale farms are above the minimum likelihood of flooding (Sparovek et al. 2002; Alhassoun threshold levels required by plants. But, with the current 2009). Infiltration also determines ground water storage rate of nutrient uptake of these micro-nutrients (greater and the hydraulic cycle (Alhassoun 2009). In the dry sea- than 35 %), the stock of these micronutrients might fall son, groundwater levels will as a result be very low due to below the critical level within a few years. Soil Mn plays the limited amount of water infiltrated during the rainy important roles in photosynthesis and chlorophyll produc- season. Both effects (i.e., flooding and decline of ground- tion, which both are strongly associated with crop yield water level) reduce the productivity of the cultivation (Mousavi et al. 2011). Similarly, soil Fe serves as a catalyst activities and their sustainability. The large-scale planta- in chlorophyll formation and it is an essential element in tions, especially in Gambella and Oromia regional states, the formation of plant protein, plant respiration and pho- frequently experienced abnormal flooding and waterlog- tosynthesis (Uchida 2000). ging, which substantially reduce their crop yields. For The plots of Karuturi at Ilia and Bako farm stations are example, at Karuturi’s Jikawo site, their maize harvest was generally deficient in soil Cu, with the available stock completely abandoned for two consecutive years (2012 and having fallen below the critical minimum for effective 2013) due to flooding. At Bako, Karuturi achieved plant growth and development. The land use change from 15–20 qt/ha of maize yield compared to 60–80 qt/ha by forest- and grassland at Ilia and Bako to a maize monocrop smallholders in the area due to waterlogging. Similarly, the has significantly reduced the stock of Cu in the soil. These cotton yield level of Basen farm, on average, declined by findings are supported by Tilahun (2007), who also iden- 66 % (19.07 qt/ha in 2011 to 6.5 qt/ha in 2012) due to tified declining levels of soil micronutrients when forest- flooding and other related challenges. Normal flooding is and grasslands were converted to agriculture. Uchida common on the floodplains of Gambella and is required by (2000) argued that Cu is an essential micronutrient for the the indigenous people for their agricultural activities since formation of plant enzymes that are important in photo- it brings moist, nutrient-rich soils to their farms. Abnormal synthesis. The absence of adequate amounts of Cu often flooding patterns are experienced when the same amount of results in stunted and bushy plant growth and, therefore, precipitation causes excessive flooding due to land-use reduced plant yield. This could partly explain Karuturi’s changes by human interference (Woube 1999). The key low maize productivity and its resultant bankruptcy in informants of this study also explained that abnormal Gambella. In the other cases, the plots of Basen and S & P flooding has posed a threat to their livelihoods. The find- companies did not exhibit deficiency in soil Cu. However, ings of this study in Gambella are also consistent with the significantly reduced stock of soil Cu was also observed, claim made by Woube (1999) and Getachew et al. (2012). which could indicate that suboptimal Cu concentrations Woube (1999) claimed that due to the clearing of vegeta- may arise in future. tion by the state-sponsored resettlement scheme in 1984 Alloway (2008) reported that Gambella and Ben- and the expansion of mechanized large-scale plantations in shanguel Gumuz regional states are generally mapped for Gambella, the infiltration capacity of the soils had reduced Zn deficiency. But, we did not find sufficient evidence that and flooding had increased. Getachew et al. (2012) also Zn is deficient in the large-scale plantations we examined. documented the negative effects of forest- and grassland However, with the exception of Basen, Karuturi (both in conversion on soil’s physical and chemical properties in Oromia and Gambella) and S & P plantations have reduced South Ethiopia. In sum, this study identified significant soil Zn. Plants need zinc for protein synthesis and plant 123 702 M. Shete et al. metabolism (Uchida 2000). These declines do call for large-scale plantations will unlikely fulfil long-term food large-scale plantation projects to take precautionary mea- security objectives of the Ethiopian government since sures in the future of their farming. investments will fail, ecological functions will be dis- In general, a decline in the availability of micronutrients rupted, and land will become less productive for future below the threshold levels results in a diminishing marginal generations. We therefore argue that environmental pro- returns to additional macro-nutrient application. This holds tection measures should extend beyond environmental true in the short-run until large-scale plantations treat the impact assessments. More specifically, the government soil by applying the deficient micronutrient. Although it is should (1) ensure that large-scale plantations have the right possible to apply micronutrients to soils, there is a widely mix of professionals that can scientifically guide farming held misconception that availability of soil micronutrients operations through appropriate land management, soil- is not a problem. On the other hand, the large-scale farms testing and treatment of deficient soil nutrients; (2) estab- considered in this study operate without the correct mix of lish a land allocation system that accounts for a wider professionals who can take appropriate soil management diversity of environmental parameters such as soil prop- practices by doing soil nutrient analysis. For instance, erties and vegetation; and (3) ensure plantations retain a Karuturi’s farm management is outsourced to Multiplex greater proportion of trees and vegetation on their con- Company that has very little experience in African’s agri- cession and recycle crop-residues so as to improve soil culture. Basen is operated by very few young Ethiopian organic matter and soil organic carbon. The established agronomists with no specialized experience in soil or literature also suggests that increasing the input rates of environmental management. Once the plantations’ pro- organic matter enhances the amount of SOC (see Post and ductivity declines due to nutrient imbalance, they will Kwon 2000). operate below break-even point, which will likely force them to abandon their operations. The local population will Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge the IS Academy of thus be left with unproductive lands and pay the environ- Land Governance (LANDac) and the African Studies Centre, the Netherlands for financing the costs of the field research. We are mental costs of investors’ soil mismanagement. Hence, the grateful to the anonymous reviewers who provided constructive environmental costs associated with the loss of micronu- comments on the original manuscript. Nevertheless, all errors or trients will be externalized to local communities. omissions belong only to the authors.

Conclusion References

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