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Gambella Regional State in Ethiopia: Territory, Peoples and Identity Politics…………………….104 University of Bradford eThesis This thesis is hosted in Bradford Scholars – The University of Bradford Open Access repository. Visit the repository for full metadata or to contact the repository team © University of Bradford. This work is licenced for reuse under a Creative Commons Licence. LARGE-SCALE LAND ACQUISITIONS AND MINORITIES/INDIGENOUS PEOPLES’ RIGHTS UNDER ETHNIC FEDERALISM IN ETHIOPIA O. M. OJULU PHD 2013 LARGE-SCALE LAND ACQUISITIONS AND MINORITIES/INDIGENOUS PEOPLES’ RIGHTS UNDER ETHNIC FEDERALISM IN ETHIOPIA A Case Study of Gambella Regional State Ojot Miru OJULU Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Peace Studies University of Bradford 2013 Ojot Miru Ojulu Large-Scale Land Acquisitions and Minorities/Indigenous Peoples’ Rights under Ethnic Federalism in Ethiopia: A Case Study of Gambella Regional State Keywords: Large-scale land acquisitions, minorities, indigenous peoples, federalism, Ethiopia, Gambella Abstract The contemporary phenomenon of the global rush for farmland has generated intense debate from different actors. While the proponents embrace it as a ‘development opportunity’, the critics dub it ‘land grabbing’. Others use a neutral term: ‘large-scale land acquisitions’. Whatever terminology is used, one fact remains indisputable – since 2007 vast swathes of farmlands in developing countries have been sold or leased out to large-scale commercial farmers. Ethiopia is one of the leading countries in Africa in this regard and, as a matter of state policy, it promotes these investments in peripheral regions that are predominantly inhabited by pastoralists and other indigenous communities. So far, the focus of most of the studies on this phenomenon has been on its economic, food security and environmental aspects. The questions of land rights and political implications have been to a great extent overlooked. The purpose of this thesis is to contribute to this knowledge gap by drawing upon the experience of the Gambella regional state – the epicentre of large-scale land acquisition in Ethiopia. To this end, this thesis argues that large-scale land acquisitions in Ethiopia is indeed redefining indigenous communities’ right to land, territories and natural resources in fundamental ways. By doing so, it also threatens the post-1991 social contract – i.e. ethnic federalism – between the envisaged new Ethiopian state and its diverse communities, particularly the peripheral minorities and indigenous ethnic groups. i Acknowledgement I first of all thank God for His abundant grace and love that has accompanied me all the way throughout this research period. Although several people have supported me during this journey, I owe a great deal to my supervisor Prof. Donna Pankhurst, for her encouragement and guidance without which this thesis would have never been the way it is. I am immensely grateful for the many hours she has invested in reading and offering feedback on draft chapters and complete version of this thesis. My studies in the United Kingdom in general would have not been possible without the financial support from the then ‘Church Development Service’ (EED) and now ‘Brot für Die Welt’ that provided me with funding to pay my tuition fees and cover my living expenses. I am grateful to all the scholarsk desk staff for their availability whenever I needed their support and advice. In Ethiopia I would like to thank the Bethels Synods Coordination Office for hosting me in their guest house in Addis Ababa during my field research and the East Gambella Bethel Synod for doing the same in Gambella. Most importantly, I would like to thank all my interviewees and focus group discussion participants for taking the time to meet me and patiently expressed their views on my questions. Finally, I must express my fullest gratitude to my friends and family for the multitude of ways in which they have supported and encouraged me while working on this thesis. ii Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………i Acknowledgment……………………………………………………………...ii List of Figures of Tables…………………………………………………......X Acronyms……………………………………………………………………..Xii Chapter One: Introduction………………………………………1 1.1. Research Problem.............................................................................1 1.2. Research Scope and Delimitation…………………………………….10 1.3. Research Questions……………………………………………………12 1.4. Hypothesis…………………..............................................................12 1.5. Research Structure……………………………………………………..13 Chapter Two: Research Methodology: Multiple- Triangulation……………………………………………………..16 2.1. Definition…………………………………………………………………16 2.2. Theoretical Triangulation……………............................................... 17 2.2.1. Critical Agrarian Political Economy……………………......................... 18 2.2.2. Political Ecology……………………………………………… …………… 18 2.2.3. Political Science…………………………………………………………… 20 2.3. Methodological Triangulation………………….................................21 2.3.1. Interviews……………………………………………………………………21 2.3.2. Focus Group Discussions………………………………………………… 24 2.3.3. Observation………………………………………………………………….26 2.3.4. Legal and Policy Documents………………………………………………26 2.3.5. Governmental and Non-Governmental Documents……………………. 27 2.3.6. Media Reports………………………………………………………………28 iii 2.4. Data Triangulation………………………………………………………30 2.5. Fieldwork Constraints and Mitigating Factors……………………….31 Chapter Three: Conceptualizing Large-Scale Land Acquisition, Indigenous Peoples and Federalism in the Global Context…………………………………………………...35 3.1. Introduction….................................................................................. 35 3.2. Large-Scale Land Acquisition (LSLA)………………….................... 35 3.2.1. Drivers of the Contemporary LSLA…………........................................ 37 3.2.2. Competing Claims about LSLA…………………....................................40 3.3. Indigenous Peoples……………………………………………………. 42 3.3.1. Who are Indigenous Peoples?............................................................. 42 3.3.2. Indigenous Peoples as Distinguished from Minorities…………………. 46 3.3.3. Indigenous Peoples’ Right to Land, Territories and Natural Resources…………………………………………………………………………..49 3.4. Federalism……………………………………………………………… 51 3.4.1. Evolution of Federalism………………...................................................51 3.4.2. Defining Federalism………………........................................................54 A. Constitutional Division of Powers……………………………………..57 B. Representation of Federal Sub-units at the Centre…………………58 C. Protection of Minorities…………………………………………………60 D. Constitutionalism and Democracy…………………………………….61 3.5. Conclusion……………………………………………………………… 64 Chapter Four: The History of Land and Politics in Ethiopia……………………………………………………………65 4.1. Introduction……………………………………………………………... 65 4.2. The Imperial Regime (1855-1974)…………………………………… 66 4.2.1. Evolution and Consolidation of the Ethiopian state…………….............66 4.2.2. Land and Politics under the Imperial Regime……………………………69 iv 4.3. The Derg Regime (1974-1991)………………………………………..74 4.3.1. The Derg: Evolution and Consolidation of Power……………………….75 4.3.2. Land and Politics under the Derg…......................................................78 4.4. The EPRDF (1991-present)…………………………………………... 82 4.4.1. The EPRDF: Evolution and Consolidation of Power……………………83 4.4.2. Ethnic Federalism and its Federal Features……………………………..85 4.4.3. Self-determination under Ethiopian Ethnic Federalism….....................88 A. Political Self-Determination……………………………………………90 B. Economic Self-Determination………………………………………….91 C. Socio-Cultural Self-Determination………………………...................93 4.4.4. Land Policy under the EPRDF…….......................................................94 A. The Government Position: State Ownership………………………...96 B. The Critics’ Position: Privatization…………………..........................97 C. Third Option: Community Ownership…………………………………99 4.4.5. Land Registration and Certification Programme……………...............100 4.5. Conclusion…………………………………………………………….. 102 Chapter Five: Gambella Regional State in Ethiopia: Territory, Peoples and Identity Politics…………………….104 5.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………….104 5.2. The Region and its Peoples……………….....................................105 5.2.1. Anywa………………………………………………………………………107 5.2.2. Nuer………………………....................................................................110 5.2.3. Majang……………………………………………………………………...113 5.2.4. Opo and Kumo…………………………………………………………….115 5.3. Incorporation of Gambella into the Ethiopian Empire…………….. 116 5.4. Gambella Regional State under the FDRE………………….......... 123 5.5. Conflicts in the Gambella Region…………………......................... 128 5.5.1. Anywa versus Nuer Conflict……………………...................................128 5.5.2. Indigenous versus Highlanders/Central Government Conflict….........133 5.6. Conclusion……………………………………………………………..137 v Chapter Six: Implementation of Right to Self-Determination in Gambella Regional State under the Federal Constitution of Ethiopia……………………………………………………….139 6.1. Introduction…………………...........................................................139 6.2. Socio-Cultural Self-Determination…………………........................141 6.3. Political Self-Determination……………………...............................145 6.3.1. The Ministry of Federal Affairs………………......................................146 6.3.2. Central Party Structure…………………………………………………...150 6.3.3. The National Army and Federal Security Units……………….............154 6.3.4. Capacity Building Programmes………………….................................156
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