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Italia Bizantina Italia Bizantina Historia De La Segunda Dominación Bizantina en Italia Meridional y Sicilia (867-1071) por Roberto Zapata Rodríguez Italia Bizantina Roberto Zapata Rodríguez NOTA PRELIMINAR: El origen de este trabajo está en las páginas que tuve que dedicar a la situación de Italia en la biografía de Jorge Maniaces para explicar su aventura occidental en el contexto apropiado. Después de haber reflejado los acontecimientos de un momento tan destacado como fue el de la segunda invasión normanda de 1041 me pareció que sería una continuación lógica explorar el antes y el después de aquellos sucesos para obtener así una síntesis de la segunda dominación bizantina en el sur de Italia. Como el periodo ya tratado abarcaba los hechos del periodo 1030-1043, el objetivo inicial fue realizar dos trabajos por separado, uno que comenzase con el reinado de Basilio I y cubriese hasta el final de la gobernación de Basilio Boioannes y un segundo a modo de epílogo que resumiese los acontecimientos y la rápida decadencia de la dominación bizantina desde la rebelión de Maniaces en 1043 hasta la toma de Bari en 1071. Finalmente he optado por presentar el conjunto como un todo y para evitar el salto en la narración he reutilizado (ligeramente modificados) algunos pasajes y mapas que en el trabajo de Maniaces cubrían la historia general, lo que me ha permitido además incluir algunas hermosas ilustraciones del Skylitzés Matritensis a las que no tuve acceso en diciembre de 2003 cuando esa biografía estaba siendo redactada. El atento lector de aquel trabajo queda advertido pues del previsible déjà vu. En segundo lugar un apunte referido a la transcripción de los nombres propios. He experimentado dudas con los correspondientes a los personajes lombardos, habida cuenta de la escasa presencia de éstos en textos en castellano que pudiesen servir de referencia. ¿Es preferible Landulfo o Landolfo? ¿Pandolfo o Pandulfo? ¿Ariquis, Arichis, Aricis, Arequis? Sinceramente en muchos casos es difícil optar por una de las opciones ya que todas ellas parecen aceptables, así que he intentado ser consistente en el uso confiando en la bondad de mi elección. Asimismo respecto a los nombres griegos también he intentado, en la medida de mis escasos conocimientos, realizar una transcripción siguiendo las sabias recomendaciones de Eva Latorre Broto, mi guía para estas ocasiones. Mi más sincero agradecimiento para Eva y desde este momento reclamo, estoica y enteramente para mi persona, la autoría y responsabilidad de cualquier despropósito en el trabajo que a continuación se desarrolla. 2 Italia Bizantina Roberto Zapata Rodríguez Índice Introducción Italia bizantina: 867-983 · La reconquista de la Italia Meridional (880-886) · El asentamiento de la dominación bizantina · La amenaza árabe · La organización administrativa · Años de inestabilidad La lucha por Sicilia · Siracusa capturada · La expedición a Sicilia de 964 El regreso del Imperio Germánico · La campaña de Otón II · Reformas administrativas: la instauración del catepanato Italia bizantina: 983-1030 · Años turbulentos · La aparición de los normandos · La primera invasión normanda · La época del catepán Basilio Boioannes Italia bizantina: 1030-1043 · La expedición a Sicilia · La segunda invasión normanda · Maniaces en Italia El fin de la Italia bizantina: 1043-1071 · Las actividades del príncipe de Salerno · El gobierno de Argyros y la batalla de Civitate · La última resistencia · Bari 1071 Apéndice: Economía y Sociedad en la Italia bizantina · La estructura poblacional · La configuración de la ciudad · La estructura social Bibliografía 3 Italia Bizantina Roberto Zapata Rodríguez Introducción Cuando en 867 la flota del drongario del plöimon imperial Nicetas Ooryfas echaba el ancla ante las costas de Ragusa, hoy en día Dubrovnik, Bizancio estaba preparado de nuevo para reclamar su derecho a decidir en los asuntos de Italia tras la desaparición del exarcado un siglo atrás. En estos momentos los territorios controlados por el Imperio se reducían a algunos reductos en la región de Otranto y muy lejos quedaban ya los días en que en las tierras italianas se escuchaba con acatamiento la voluntad de Constantinopla. De entre los antiguos territorios dependientes el ducado de Nápoles había derivado insensiblemente hacia un estado de autonomía tácita que le llevó a seguir una línea política independiente alejada ya de la colaboración con Bizancio, como se puso de manifiesto en 812 cuando el duque Antemio contestó negativamente a la petición del patricio de Sicilia para que hostigase a los piratas que acababan de saquear Ischia ese mismo año. La ruptura de lazos de los napolitanos con su antigua metrópoli se reflejaba también en planos más simbólicos con la ausencia de consultas con el Imperio a la hora de decidir el relevo de sus líderes o la omisión del nombre del emperador en las monedas acuñadas por el ducado. Más al norte, Venecia seguía respondiendo afirmativamente a las solicitudes de Constantinopla pero ya como una entidad política que seguía su propio camino e intereses. A mediados del siglo IX el principal actor de la política peninsular era Luis II, rey de Italia desde 844 y emperador de los francos en 850. Luis asumió como una de las principales tareas de su reinado, obligación heredada de su cargo como rey de los lombardos, el liderar la lucha contra los piratas árabes que asolaban sistemáticamente el litoral italiano. Ya en 812 tenemos noticias de incursiones piráticas en la región pero su presencia se hace mucho más sentida desde 836 cuando acuden al reclamo del duque Andrés de Nápoles para protegerse de las agresiones lombardas. Empleados como mercenarios a sueldo de todos los estados italianos en el sur pero también sirviendo a sus propios intereses y los de los Aglábidas de Sicilia y norte de África su presencia pasó a ser una amenaza demasiado clara, especialmente a partir de 839 cuando estalló la guerra civil en el principado de Benevento entre Radelquis y Sikenulfo que provocó diez años después la segregación de Salerno sancionada por la famosa Divisio de 849. Los árabes se mostraron infatigables en sus correrías: en 838 Brindisi fue saqueada y en 840 y 841 Tarento y Bari sufrieron la misma suerte. En 846 tuvo lugar la 4 Italia Bizantina Roberto Zapata Rodríguez famosa incursión aguas arriba del Tíber y el saqueo de los suburbios de Roma, incluida la basílica de San Pedro que tanta conmoción provocó en la Cristiandad. Ese mismo año otra fuerza árabe volvió a ocupar Tarento y la convirtió en un emirato autónomo dedicado al comercio, fundamentalmente de esclavos, y al pirateo. Al año siguiente Bari sufrió la misma suerte. La propia Roma fue salvada de nuevo en 849 cuando una flota de napolitanos unida a barcos de Amalfi y Gaeta derrotó ante Ostia a una armada árabe. El victorioso Cesario, hijo del duque Sergio de Nápoles, fue honrado como salvador de Roma por el jubiloso pontífice. En la década de 850 los recién llegados aprovecharon esas bases y el desorden político en las tierras italianas para recorrer el país en profundidad saqueando y sometiendo las poblaciones locales a su voluntad. Los señores lombardos habitualmente no corrían peligro resguardados en sus ciudades, pero carecían de los medios para defender su territorio adecuadamente, sin olvidar el hecho de que casi todos utilizaban los servicios de los mercenarios árabes para saquear las tierras de sus vecinos. Expulsar a los musulmanes de Italia requería de una fuerza mayor que sólo podía estar en manos del emperador carolingio. Desgraciadamente incluso para Luis II la tarea resultó ser mucho más dura de lo esperada, comenzando por la ciudad de Bari contra la que realizó sucesivas campañas en 847, 852, 866-67, 869 hasta tomarla finalmente dos años después. En esos años la mirada de Bizancio volvió a posarse sobre Italia. La pugna sostenida con el Papado sobre el control religioso de la recién convertida Bulgaria había demostrado a Constantinopla que valía la pena presionar en Italia para persuadir al pontífice a inclinarse ante los intereses de Constantinopla. Por ello cuando a finales de la década la flota griega comenzó a mostrar su pabellón en aguas del Adriático, posiblemente poco después del establecimiento del thema naval de Dalmacia, muchas novedades se estaban gestando en el panorama político de la región. Las depredaciones de los piratas sarracenos en las costas dálmatas hicieron por fin inevitable la llamada de socorro a Constantinopla en 867. Una escuadra de casi 400 chelandia, al decir de los fantasiosos historiadores francos y 140 según otras fuentes, se apostó frente a la ciudad de Ragusa y forzó la apresurada huida de los sitiadores que optaron por atravesar el Adriático y dedicarse a saquear las costas de Apulia en lugar de enfrentarse a los poderosos navíos imperiales. Pronto los jefes serbios de la región se apresuraron a acogerse a la protección de la remozada autoridad bizantina, lo cual fue aprovechado por parte del jefe de la expedición para reafirmar la influencia imperial sobre la zona. Al año siguiente, mientras Luis II se preparaba para una nueva tentativa contra Bari, se acordó el envío de apoyo naval bizantino para la empresa, aunque no está claro si la iniciativa partió del monarca franco o fue una sugerencia del emperador Basilio. En marcha estaba por aquel entonces el proyecto 5 Italia Bizantina Roberto Zapata Rodríguez de alianza entre los dos Imperios mediante el compromiso entre el primogénito de Basilio, Constantino, y Ermengarda, la hija de Luis. Lamentablemente la empresa conjunta y la nonata alianza acabaron desastrosamente cuando la flota que había arribado ante las costas de Bari con la misión de ayudar en la campaña y recoger a la joven princesa se encontró con que Luis había hecho regresar a buena parte de sus tropas y sólo mantenía el sitio con algunos centenares de hombres. El propio Luis no estaba ya presente, pues se había retirado a Venosa a conferenciar con su hermano Lotario y no parecía muy dispuesto ahora a concluir el tratado.
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