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Asia Report, Nr. 27: Myanmar MYANMAR: THE ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY 6 December 2001 Asia Report N° 27 Bangkok/Brussels TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY................................................................................................................... i I. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................1 II. BACKGROUND OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN MYANMAR........................................................3 A. AN EMERGENT CIVIL SOCIETY: 1948-1962....................................................................................... 3 B. CIVIL SOCIETY REPRESSED UNDER MILITARY RULE .......................................................................... 4 III. REGIME CONTROL OVER CIVIL SOCIETY SINCE 1988 ...............................................6 A. LACK OF THE RULE OF LAW............................................................................................................... 6 B. HIGHLY RESTRICTED ACCESS TO COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY .................................................. 8 C. INDEPENDENT ORGANISATIONS STIFLED............................................................................................ 9 D. REGIME-SPONSORED ORGANISATIONS............................................................................................. 10 E. EDUCATIONAL AND CULTURAL LIMITATIONS .................................................................................. 11 F. SIMILAR RESTRICTIONS IN AREAS CONTROLLED BY ARMED ETHNIC NATIONALIST ORGANISATIONS .............................................................................................................................. 12 IV. KEY ACTORS IN CIVIL SOCIETY ......................................................................................13 A. POLITICAL PARTIES ......................................................................................................................... 13 B. STUDENTS........................................................................................................................................ 16 C. RELIGIOUS GROUPS.......................................................................................................................... 17 D. INTELLECTUALS, PERFORMERS, AND ARTISTS ................................................................................. 19 E. INDEPENDENT MEDIA ...................................................................................................................... 20 F. BUSINESS ASSOCIATIONS................................................................................................................. 20 G. TRADE UNIONS ................................................................................................................................ 21 H. THE ROLE OF NGOS ........................................................................................................................ 21 V. ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN RESTORING DEMOCRACY..........................................24 A. THE LINK BETWEEN CIVIL SOCIETY, FORCING OUT THE REGIME, AND DEMOCRATISATION .............. 24 B. THE ROLE OF THE NLD ................................................................................................................... 25 C. ROLE OF OTHER POLITICAL PARTIES ................................................................................................ 26 D. OTHER SECTORS OF CIVIL SOCIETY ................................................................................................. 26 VI. ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN PROMOTING ETHNIC COEXISTENCE AND COOPERATION........................................................................................................................27 VII. CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................28 APPENDICES A. MAP OF MYANMAR.......................................................................................................................... 30 B. ABOUT THE INTERNATIONAL CRISIS GROUP .................................................................................... 31 C. ICG REPORTS AND BRIEFING PAPERS ............................................................................................. 32 D. ICG BOARD MEMBERS.................................................................................................................... 36 ICG Asia Report N° 27 6 December 2001 MYANMAR: THE ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Around the world, much hope has been placed in generals rule by decree and judges are under the the prospect that civil society – the loose groupings influence of the authorities, legal challenges are of non-government actors in political processes – virtually impossible. While individuals can would act as a major force to change or remove complain about economic woes, they cannot undemocratic governments. This has particularly publicly criticise the military, suggest that the NLD been the case in Myanmar where there has been an should be in power, or advocate federalism. expectation that students or monks might force the military government from power. This has not The generals maintain tight control over the media been realised; indeed civil society is at its weakest and are extremely reluctant to expand access to state in decades. communication technologies such as mobile phones and the Internet, because of their potential When Burma was under democratic government use in anti-government activities. The regime from 1948 to 1962, a vibrant civil society existed seeks to isolate and demoralise those who would in urban areas although paramilitary organisations speak out for political change by extending its and local politicians tended to repress dissenting intelligence network into all the institutions where views and independent organisations in rural areas. frustrated individuals could organise and by Since General Ne Win’s military coup in 1962, imposing long prison sentences for even minor however, successive regimes have sought to stamp actions. out civil society and permit only state-controlled organisations that further the regime’s interests. Certain students, monks, and writers have taken great personal risks to promote the restoration of Civil society re-emerged during the nation-wide democracy, but they have not been able to pro-democracy demonstrations in 1988, with an galvanise a mass movement since 1988. explosion of student organisations, political International NGOs and some local organisations parties, and independent media. After the military have worked to start small-scale projects retook control in September of that year, however, addressing local problems, but they must stay clear it clamped down on most independent of politics. Many educated people have left the organisations, although it allowed political parties country rather than live under such constraints. to form. Following the 1990 election, the results of which it did not honour, the regime declared Today Myanmar is entangled in two political most political parties illegal. Nevertheless, the struggles: the restoration of democracy and the National League for Democracy (NLD), under the resolution of ethnic minority rights. To what leadership of Aung San Suu Kyi, and some ethnic extent can civil society play a role in solving these minority political parties have struggled to restore conflicts? Aung San Suu Kyi strongly promotes democracy. the idea that everyone must take part in the democracy struggle, but because of the harsh The military regime continues to restrain civil repression, most people leave it to the NLD society in Myanmar severely today. Because the leadership to resolve the political crisis itself. Yet Myanmar: The Role of Civil Society ICG Asia Report N° 27, 6 December 2001 Page ii because civil society is weak, and so many sensationalist media and organisations promoting members have resigned under pressure, the NLD’s narrow nationalism could emerge to disrupt the bargaining power is reduced. difficult process of resolving the country’s deep political crises. At the same time, few independents in central Myanmar have thought seriously about ethnic The military regime’s resistance to devolution of minority political demands and how a process of power to the ethnic states and its determination to understanding and cooperation between majority unify the country’s diverse population through Burmans and minority groups can be achieved. cultural and religious assimilation have deepened While the NLD has reached out to the ethnic the mistrust between many minority groups and minority political parties, the regime has sought to Burmans. Turning Myanmar into a pluralist society limit such contact by imprisoning elected MPs in which power is decentralised and differences are from those parties and the NLD. respected is a challenging and long-term process. Because Myanmar has been under military rule for However, more could be done to support this so long, few people today understand the role that process and to develop the key civil society civil society is meant to play in a democracy or organisations that will be essential if any that a healthy democracy requires broad- negotiated political transition is to be durable. With mindedness and a dispersion of power. Thus, even this in mind, expanded external support is needed organisations outside the regime’s direct control to promote civil society in Myanmar, including in tend to replicate the hierarchical organisational the areas controlled
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