ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation: FROM COLONIES TO CLIENT-STATES: THE ORIGINS OF FRANCE’S POSTCOLONIAL RELATIONSHIP WITH SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, 1940-1969 Paul Daniel Schmitt, Doctor of Philosophy, 2011 Dissertation directed by: Professor Jeffrey Herf Department of History This dissertation examines the transformation of French mentalities regarding France’s role in Africa, beginning with World War II and continuing through the end of Charles de Gaulle’s presidency in 1969. Despite the political independence of France’s African colonies in 1960, many of them quickly transitioned from colonies into client- states. Since then, France’s relationships with its former colonies have enabled a variety of underhanded dealings on the continent. In tracing the roots of this transformation, I focus on French politicians and colonial administrators, and their gradual ideological shift away from traditional conceptions of the French colonial mission. I argue that the events of World War II, which split the empire and placed France in a greatly disadvantageous international position (first with respect to Nazi Germany and later vis-à-vis the Allies), led to a formidable shift in how France viewed its colonies and other Francophone territories in sub-Saharan Africa. French insecurity, precipitated by its fall as a major world power, required new ways to maintain influence internationally and in its empire. This mentality, while shaped by the postwar environment, was not the product of any one political ideology; it was shared by colonial administrators in both the Vichy and Free French regimes, and by politicians on both the left and right of the political spectrum after the war. At the same time, French officials grew increasingly wary of British and American efforts to broaden their respective standings in Africa. This renewed concern about the “Anglo-Saxon” threat, along with the increasing need to preserve influence in Africa in a postcolonial age, were powerful undercurrents in the formation of French policy on the continent leading up to and after decolonization. The result was increasingly cynical support of despotic regimes friendly to French interests, in an effort to maintain political influence in Africa after decolonization. FROM COLONIES TO CLIENT-STATES: THE ORIGINS OF FRANCE’S POSTCOLONIAL RELATIONSHIP WITH SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, 1940-1969 by Paul Daniel Schmitt Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2011 Advisory Committee: Professor Jeffrey Herf, Chair Professor Paul Landau Professor Richard Price Professor Todd Shepard, Johns Hopkins University Professor Donald Sutherland Professor Vladimir Tismaneanu © Copyright by Paul Daniel Schmitt 2011 Dedication To Stephanie and Emma ii Acknowledgements In writing this dissertation, I have been fortunate to have the encouragement and support of valued colleagues, family, and friends. First, words cannot express my gratitude for the guidance I received from my mentor and advisor, Jeffrey Herf. From the very beginning of my graduate career, he took an active interest in my intellectual development and was vital to the evolution of this dissertation, from my initial interests in the Vichy and Free French regimes to deeper questions about postwar European history. He offered invaluable advice about every facet of the dissertation process, and his careful attention to each draft chapter helped sharpen and clarify the focus and direction of the final product. Above all, he has been an inspiration for the possibilities of an active and engaged intellectual life. My advisory committee also had a great impact on both my education at Maryland and the finished dissertation. Richard Price’s graduate seminar on the British Empire prompted my initial interest in colonial studies. His insightful comments both early in the research process and during the defense will certainly influence my work going forward. Paul Landau also helped shift my interests toward French colonial history. An independent study with him in Fall 2005 was instrumental in shaping some of my research questions as I prepared the prospectus. His focus on African history provided important perspective on my project, and he lent an always appreciated critical eye. Donald Sutherland’s expertise on the French Revolution inspired questions about enduring political and intellectual themes in French history, and his advice helped frame some of the issues raised by my research. Vladimir Tismaneanu of Maryland’s Government and Politics Department graciously agreed to serve as a Dean’s iii Representative, and offered valuable insight about France in the twentieth century from a broader European viewpoint. Finally, I was fortunate to have Todd Shepard of Johns Hopkins University on the committee, given his extensive work on late colonial and postcolonial French history, as well as his helpful comments during the defense. During the past ten years in the University of Maryland’s History Department, I had the privilege of being part of a vibrant scholarly community. Several members of the faculty influenced this dissertation, including Michael David-Fox, Jeannie Rutenburg, Sonya Michel, Art Eckstein, Keith Olson, and Hilary Jones. Pierre Verdaguer of Maryland’s Department of French and Italian Languages helped me develop the prospectus. In addition, one of my most rewarding experiences over the past five years was the ability to teach my own classes in the department. Many deserve credit for providing these opportunities and making me a better teacher, including Whit Ridgway, Robyn Muncy, Ken Holum, Daryle Williams, Mary Kay Vaughan, and Claire Lyons. My students at Maryland constantly challenged my horizons and provided hope for the future. I have also greatly benefitted from the enrichment of my fellow students in the History Department, including Rob Chase, Mike Petersen, Christina Kinsell, Jeremy Sullivan, Brian Phelan, Kate Keane, Thanayi Jackson, Nick Schlosser, Jon White, and many others. I am especially thankful for my friendship with Stephen Johnson and Askar Askarov. Both provided countless fascinating conversations and, in the final months, necessary encouragement. Stephen’s comments on the final drafts were particularly helpful in sharpening the argument and focusing the discussion, and both Stephen and Askar provided insight into preparing for the defense. iv My studies at Georgetown University Law Center, which commenced just as this dissertation started, and culminated just before it ended, also had a great impact on the direction of my research. In particular, Jane Stromseth and David Luban’s classes on international law and human rights led to some of the questions raised by the dissertation. I am grateful to both for their encouragement of my academic pursuits. Also during my time at Georgetown, I was given the opportunity to work at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, which taught me a great deal about the history of the United Nations. The experience led to my consideration of the role played by the UN in colonial affairs in the 1950s, and its eventual inclusion in this dissertation. Throughout my time there, I was impressed by the dedication of those at the tribunal to the mission of the UN and the cause of international human rights. I would like to express my appreciation to the staff of the Archives Nationales de Paris and the Archives Nationales, Section Outre-Mer, in Aix-en-Provence. While every staff member was extraordinarily accommodating during my research trips, I am especially thankful for the efforts of Pascal Geneste, Ségolène Barbiche, Françoise Adnes, and Evelyne Camara, all of whom were helpful in obtaining derogations or providing more extensive information on the collections. Without question, the support of my family over the past several years kept me going during the most difficult points in this process. My parents John and Eleanore have provided love and encouragement throughout my life, constantly urging me to follow my dreams and fulfill my potential. The rest of my family has also provided support, especially my brother John and my sister Jennifer. My only regret is that my grandfather v John, who immigrated to the United States from Germany in 1923 and inspired my love of history, was not here to see this day finally arrive. Finally, this dissertation would not have been possible without my wife Stephanie’s love. Over the past seven years, she patiently endured my travails through two degrees, numerous trips to France, and countless late nights researching and writing the dissertation. In this dissertation’s final months, both our dreams came true with the birth of our daughter Emma. Now that this journey has finally come to an end, I cannot imagine what it would be like without the two of them here to share it with me. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication ii Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents vii List of Abbreviations viii Introduction 1 Chapter One: Facing the Anglo-Saxon Threat: The Vichy Regime and the Future of Africa, 1940-1943 24 Chapter Two: Restoring Grandeur : De Gaulle, Free France, and Africa, 1940-1944 102 Chapter Three: Defending the Empire after the War: the French Provisional Government, 1944-1946 176 Chapter Four: The Threat of the International Community to the Fourth Republic, 1946-1954 241 Chapter Five: The Fourth Republic’s Decline and the Turn to Africa, 1953-1958 298 Chapter Six: From Colonies to Client