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Beyond Checkpoints: Identity and Developmental Politics in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

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Beyond Checkpoints: Identity and Developmental Politics in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh BEYOND CHECKPOINTS: IDENTITY AND DEVELOPMENTAL POLITICS IN THE CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS, BANGLADESH Submitted by Bokhtiar Ahmed MSCD (UoW), MSS & BSS (DU) A thesis submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) February 09, 2017 Faculty of Education and Arts Australian Catholic University (ACU) To Elora Sultana & Eraab Ahmed ii DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis contains no material that has been extracted in whole or in part from a thesis that I have submitted towards the award of any other degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution. No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgment in the main text of the thesis. All research procedures reported in the thesis received the approval of the relevant Ethics/Safety Committees (where required). And, the people and places mentioned in this thesis are real people and places in pseudonyms. Therefore, no information provided in this thesis merits legal significance and cannot be used against any person or group as evidences for jurisdiction of any kind. Bokhtiar Ahmed February 09, 2017 iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... vii List of Acronyms: ....................................................................................................... ix List of Maps: .............................................................................................................. xii Abstract of Thesis ................................................................................................... xiii Chapter 1 ..................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction: Place, People, and the Problem ......................................................... 1 The Place ..................................................................................................................... 1 The People and Their Identities ................................................................................... 6 The Problem .............................................................................................................. 14 Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................... 25 An Ethnography Beyond Checkpoints: Influence and Intentions ....................... 25 From Single-site to Multi-sites .................................................................................. 25 The Checkpoints ........................................................................................................ 27 My Journey towards ‘Experimentation’: A Partial Biography ................................. 29 Fieldwork in Field-methods: A Confluence Report .................................................. 30 Methodological Intentions: Multi-sited Contextuality and Anti-essentialism .......... 36 The Fieldwork: Following Life, Objects, and Metaphors ......................................... 39 Writing Across Ethical and Literary Checkpoints .................................................... 46 Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................... 49 Bangladesh: State, Nation and Imaginations ......................................................... 49 Ethnography of the State? ......................................................................................... 49 The Nation: Bengali or Bangladeshi? ....................................................................... 56 Imagination: The State as the Name Giver ............................................................... 61 Tribe vs Indigenous: What’s in a Name? .................................................................. 66 iv Imagination in Action: Nationalist Spiral of the ‘Tribal’ .......................................... 73 Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................... 77 Chittagong Hill Tracts: The Location and Dislocations ....................................... 77 Mapping Displacement .............................................................................................. 77 State-making in the CHT: From Homeland to Dreamland ....................................... 85 A Journey by Boat to Mahalu .................................................................................... 89 Displacement as ‘Order’: The State and Minorities on a Margin ............................. 99 Chapter 5 ................................................................................................................. 104 Pangkhua: A Jigsaw Puzzle of Identity ................................................................ 104 Who are the Pangkhuas? ......................................................................................... 104 Fleeing Identities: A Single Story ........................................................................... 106 Situating People and Place in History ..................................................................... 109 ‘Ogres are like Onions’: The Anarchic Layers of Identity ...................................... 114 Being a Pangkhua at Mahalu Today ........................................................................ 121 Chapter 6 ................................................................................................................. 126 Development: the Pedagogy of Progress ............................................................... 126 A Developmental Desire ......................................................................................... 126 Development as Moral Subjection .......................................................................... 133 Development as Alienation: the Power of Policy ................................................... 140 The Pedagogy of Progress: Developmentalisation of Consciousness ..................... 152 Chapter 7 ................................................................................................................. 158 Conclusion: Towards a Final Enclosure ............................................................... 158 Some Tentative Formulations ................................................................................. 158 Conversion and Cooption: The Politics of Recognition .......................................... 163 Development as Governmentality: From Exception to Normalisation ................... 172 Identity and Indigeneity: The Politics of Small Numbers in Global Matrix ........... 174 v References ................................................................................................................ 182 Appendix 1: Maps ................................................................................................... 190 Appendix 2: The State in/of the CHT: A Pictorial Glimpse ............................... 196 Appendix 3: ACU Ethics Clearance and Extension ............................................ 207 vi Acknowledgements I have so many people and institutions to express gratitude for their respective cooperation in this research which I have carried out over a period of five years. To begin with, I am indebted to the University of Wollongong (UoW) in Australia as the host institution of this project for the first three years of its duration. Here at UoW, I have so many distinguished people whose generous support has made this work possible. First among them are my supervisors, Professor Ruchira Ganguly-Scrase and Professor Tim Scrase. They have supervised this project across two different universities in Australia. I am indebted to them for trusting my ability to pursue this doctoral research, for being the most understanding and caring supervisors I could expect during difficult times, and for their overall academic commitment to this project. I am grateful to UoW for supporting me with the UPA scholarships for three years and also to the Centre for Asia Pacific Social Transformation Studies (CAPSTRANS) in particular for funding seven months of fieldwork I conducted in 2010. The UoW also has supported my participation in one of the most fruitful seminars I have attended in the same year. My fellow PhD researchers at UoW have been a constant source of inspiration. The staffs at the Faculty of Arts have provided every possible assistance and logistic supports whenever required. I am also indebted to Professor Brian Martin for his valuable guidance in the writing workshops I attended at the UoW which have significantly enhanced my capacity as a non-native writer of English. By the end of the third year of my candidature, I had to transfer my degree from the UoW to the Australian Catholic University (ACU) on supervisory grounds. Both of my supervisors had left the UoW to take up new academic positions at ACU in different stages of my candidature. I am highly indebted to the ACU for their generous decision to accept and host the project for the final year including offering me the ACUPA scholarship for this period. Among the universities the project has been supported by in different ways, I also like to include the University of Rajshahi (RU), Bangladesh, for granting me study leave for the entire duration of this research degree. On the other side of the research, the Chittagong Hill Tracts and Bangladesh, this project has also received tremendous contributions from numerous people and institutions. First among
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