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Bartis Research Assistant American Folklife Center July 6, 1978 s?oa.<3- Si 8us/ sll7hi c^]0% 3*1 INTRODUCTION: PURPOSEANDSCOPE INTRODUCTION: PURPOSE AND SCOPE This paper is designed to supply supportive data and reference materials to fieldworkers and researchers involved in the Blue Ridge Parkway Folklife Project. The Blue Ridge Mountains lie on the eastern edge of the Appalachians and run from Pennsylvania to Georgia. This majestic range, so t.?ten wrapped in a bluish haze, has been the inspiration for voluminous texts of both creative and academic strains. Of these materials we are examining only a fraction, and only those that shed light on the life, lore, and history of a segment of the range. The research team will be examining the traditional culture of an area that can be described roughly as the central Blue Ridge region, with intensive focus on an area straddling the Virginia- North Carolina border. While representative folklife of the Blue Ridge area has been copiously documented in the past, a coordinated guide offering information on the whereabouts, types, and formats of such materials appears not to be available. The Southern Mountain region is often regarded as a homo¬ geneous collection of people of similar heritage and culture, and additionally as a culturally static and economically depressed region of the United States. Careful examination of the numerous individual studies that have emerged in recent years dispels such notions, and we are encouraged to study the region's variety on a sub-regional level. - 2 - As early as 1939, in his introduction to These Are Our Lives, a work prepared by the Federal Writers' Project in North Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia, W. T. Couch was encouraging a more acute focus on detail. The life of a community or of a people is, of course, made up of the life of individuals, who are of different status, perform different functions, and in general have widely different experiences and attitudes—so different, indeed, as to be almost unimaginable, (p. x) Couch's is a plea for community studies. Since his writing, study of the life within a community or group of related communities has become mere important in Appalachian research. Yet there are striking similarities in the Southern Mountains, and it is the similarities that have received attention since the earliest general studies. It was necessary to examine a wide body of these general but informative texts, due to the paucity of available material which addresses exclusively the culture of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Pertinent data falls under larger categories, including "Appalachian," "Southern Mountain," "Southern Highlands," and "Upland South," in addition to materials organized by state—Virginia and North Carolina. Maiy works provide information on the Blue Ridge, but few focus on the Blue Ridge alone. Even the most recent and seminal body of material, in the special issue of the Appalachian Journal entitled A Guide to Appalachian Studies, continues to lump "mountain culture" THE REGION - 4 - THE REGION What is the Blue Ridge? The Blue Ridge Region extends from southern Pennsylvania to northern Georgia and lies between the Ridge and Valley Region of the Appalachians on the west and the Piedmont Plateau on the east. The general elevation is around 2,500 feet. Its rich valley bottoms offer excellent farmland. Oak-hickory forest dominates the entire Blue Ridge Region; among the leading varieties are white, red, scarlet chestnut, and black oak, and pignut, shagbark, and mockernut hickories Pine stands usually indicate younger forest where fire occurred, where land was once cleared, or where soil is too sandy for hardwoods. The desirable and useful American chestnut was a major part of the Appalachian economy until the blight of Asiatic fungus between 1910 and 1913 which destroyed millions of the trees. The chestnut tree, used by Native Americans and settlers alike, provided chestnuts for subsistence, split-rail fences, shake shingling, huge timber bearjis, and cash from selling tannin extracted from its bark and chestnuts. When the chestnut forest was destroyed, a key factor in the regional ecosphere was lost. This event, along with the construction of the Blue Ridge Parkway in the 1930s, might be seen as the beginning of the modern era in this part of the United States. - 5 - The Blue Ridge and its relationship to the Appalachians and the Southern Highlands Geographically the Blue Ridge is the main eastern range of the Appalachian mountain system. The focus of our study is the area where the ridge expands from a narrow sharp rise to broader plateaus with peaks, valleys, and deep ravines. The Blue Ridge also forms part of a cultural area often referred to as the "Southern Highlands." The term was first applied by John Campbell, who "isolated a part of the Great Appalachian Province which extends from New York to Central Alabama." For a lengthy discussion of regional boundaries readers should refer to the early pages in Campbell's The Southern Highlander and His Homeland. The following maps depict the region, (next page) The terms "Mountain South" or "Southern Mountain" and "Upland South" are geographical terms but are not synonomous. While "Upland South'' refers to a broad area, "Mountain South" or "Southern Mountain" differentiates between the Southern and Central Appalachians and the adjoining provinces of the Piedmont and the Ridge and Valley regions which have been sometimes included in the "Southern Highlands," and it comprises the core of the Upland South including the Blue Ridge, Black, Balsam, Plott Balsam, Great Smoky, Cumberland, Allegheny, and other mountain ranges. For further discussion of these definitions readers should examine various works by Gene Wilhelm, Jr.; Rupert B. Vance, "The Region: A New Survey," in Thomas R. Ford, ed.. The Southern Appalachian Region: A Survey, p. 2; W. D. Thornbury, Regional Geomorphology S c O * w j E a, I CD w E j * Z 53 e I 4> (4 2 „ X o c I « sft -os D 3 e a, I H i -a :4/> ® • □ FROM: The Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department Commerce, January 1974. - i i i l m O o 13 3 3 a> «/» C7 3 O o Oj o FROM: The Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department of Commerce, January 1974. - 6 - of the United States, p. 72; Frederick Jackson Turner, The Frontier in American History, pp. 46 and 164-165; and Fred B. Kniffen, "Folk Housing: Key to Diffusion," pp. 549-577. Turner is credited with the origin of the term "Upland South." Jurisdiction Most of the Blue Ridge area is under the jurisdiction of two federal agencies: The National Park Service and the United States Forest Service. The National Park Service operates the Blue Ridge Parkway, the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, the Shenandoah National Park, the Catoctin Mountain Park, and Harpers Ferry National Historic Park. In addition to its forest preserves, the United States Forest Service operates several recreational areas in Cohutta and Ellicott Rock Wilderness, James River Face Wilderness, Linville Gorge, Mount Rogers National Recreation Area, and Shiny Rock. There are, in addition, three state parks in our project area. These are Fairy Stone State Park in Patrick County, Virginia; Mount Jefferson State Park in Ashe County, North Carolina; and Stone Mountain State Park in Wilkes County, North Carolina. There is a long and interesting history preceding the actual proposal by Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia to establish the Blue Ridge Parkway. Much of the appreciation for this natural area was a result of the efforts of George Freeman Pollock, who founded a summer - 7 - resort, "Skyland," in what is now the Shenandoah Valley. Pollock soon became known as a one-man army fighting to preserve this region. Construction for the Parkway began in 1933 as a Public Works Administration project in order to build a road that would connect the Shenandoah and Great Smoky Mountain National Parks. It became a unit of the National Park Service in 1936. It winds for 469 miles through 90,761 acres and was designed to protect the varied highland character and to illustrate its characteristic floral and faunal abundance. The Region's People The immediate region we are examining has a complex and diverse settlement history, in general representative of the Upland South. It has been nourished by two of the most fertile and in¬ fluential culture zones in the United States—the Tidewater Virginia region and that region comprised by southern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland, which Henry Glassie, among others, regards as "the smallest though perhaps most influential of the material folk culture regions" (Pattern, p. 235). Although exploring parties entered the Blue Ridge as early as 1671, when Captain Thomas Batt conducted an expedition from what is presently known as Petersburg, Virginia, the area was at first slow to be settled. The first notable movement into the Blue Ridge came through Pennsylvania via the. Shenandoah Valley of Virginia when immigrants who - 8 - had landed in Philadelphia and Delaware ports pushed inland in search of a place to settle. Many Scotch-Irish immigrants from northern Ireland and Germans from the Palatinate arrived in a first wave between 1720-1770. Once entering the region, many of them and their descendants channeled southward and spread along the range. The Pennsylvania- Shenandoah Valley migration pattern met a movement westward from the Virginia and Carolina Piedmont beginning in the later 18th century. The westward migration from the South received a new impetus with the decline in the price of cotton and tobacco in the period from 1830 to 1850. That the majority of initial settlers in the western Piedmont of North Carolina came from or through the Shenandoah Valley has been shown by Robert W. Ramsey in his work Carolina Cradle: Settlement of the Northwest Carolina Frontier. 1747-1762 (1964). German settlements along the Blue Ridge itself were largely on the westward slope. Much has been made of the Anglo-Saxon stock of the Upland South. In noting the features that made the area distinctive, Allen Eaton observed In Handicrafts of the Southern Highlands: For generations people of the Highlands and the Lowlands mingled with one another as little as though they belonged to different countries, and until quite recently it was customary to refer to anyone outside the region as a foreigner, (p. 44). Although Campbell's work The Southern Highlander and His Homeland suggests that the area has the purest Anglo-Saxon stock in the United States, these general observations should be treated with caution. - 9 - Isolation was less intense than is sometimes supposed, and there have been longstanding components of non-English-language groups and blacks in the region. Campbell in 1910 noted that the black population was concentrated in "cities of the Highlands, in the Greater Valley, especially in its southern reaches, and in the larger accessible valleys of the Blue Ridge Belt" (p. 75). It is difficult to evaluate the history and role of blacks in this region. In their article "The Sociology of Southern Appalachia" (in A Guide to Appalachian Studies) Walls and Billings have recently restated the need to study black Appalachians. They note that "Surprisingly little attention has been paid to racial and ethnic minority groups, a shortcoming which has bolstered the old stereotype of Appalachia as a bastion of Anglo-Saxon stock" (p. 136). A CULTURAL OVERVIEW - 10 - A CULTURAL OVERVIEW Several excellent texts may be consulted to obtain an overview of the Southern Mountain region. Although dated, works such as Campbell's The Southern Highlander and His Homeland, Horace Kephart's Our Southern Highlanders, and Samuel H. Thompson's The Highlanders of the South contain valuable information, including specific mention of the Blue Ridge sector. With these early works arrived the first general studies of the Southern Mountains, and their bibliographies should be examined for further citations. The more recent works by Wilhelm and Glassie, though specifically categorized as folklife studies in this survey, provide clear and insightful general discussions of the region as well. Perusal of the portly compilation entitled Virginia Books and Pamphlets Presently Available (BAPPA) may provide additional leads and citations in tangential areas. , Two texts have recently emerged that reflect an increasing interest in revitalizing folklife studies in and on the South. These are Appalachian Journal's special issue A Guide to Appalachian Studies and Southern Exposure's volume Long Journey Home: Folklife in the South, both published in 1977. The format of these works illustrates a major change in the scholarly posture. These recent "required" readings are compilations of specialized articles which answer the need for more detailed study. Both works contain seminal articles covering a wide range of subjects as well as useful bibliographic and discographic data. - 11 - Long Journey Home: Folklife in the South should also be consulted for valuable discussions of study centers throughout the South. Also of note is an effort by the North Carolina Folklore Journal entitled The All Appalachian Issue (volume 16, number 3, November 1968). Several excellent bibliographies may be useful in developing an approach to the region and serve as guides to general resources. These are listed in the Bibliography under the category "General Resources." Since this report is somewhat deficient in the area of film resources, readers may wish to take special note of Robert J. Higgs' "Filmography of Southern Appalachia" in Bibliography of Southern Appalachia, edited by Charlotte Ross. It may be useful to view the resource materials available to students of Blue Ridge culture as fitting within three general cate¬ gories, each contributing in some way to an understanding of the region: 1) non-fictional and historiographic materials, 2) literary works, which amount to fictional ethnographies, c^nd 3) folklife studies. The following brief sections highlight the important reference tools for researchers examining a specific area in greater depth. While some insights are offered and key materials outlined, readers should turn to the bibliographic section for fuller coverage of available studies. Non-Fictional and Historiographic Materials This section contains the broadest range of materials. Many of the items have no special relationship with the Blue Ridge - 12 - other than the fact that they deal with mountain communities. A large proportion of them might be described as sociological in orienta¬ tion, beginning with the earliest works by Kephart and Campbell and continuing through the 1960s. Harry M. Caudill's works were very influential during the 1960s and brought the plight and problems of mountain people to national attention--particularly concerning the coal industry and strip mining. Caudill's Night Comes to the Cumberlands: A Biography of a Depressed Area (1963) rekindled the embers of early studies focusing on the region as "depressed." Many works followed which assessed rural change, adaptation, and resettlement. One which directly addresses the issue is Change in Rural Appalachia: Implications for Action Programs (1971), edited by John D. Photiadis and Harry Schwarzweller. Besides sociological and ethnographic items, this broad heading of non-fictional and non-folkloric resources includes materials that provide information related to the specific counties being studied in this project. The few works which comprise the latter category consist primarily of genealogy and local history. Of the works which discuss the Blue Ridge, Bake and Wilhelm provide the most information and discussion of the Parkway. George Freeman Pollock's Skyland, The Heart of the Shenandoah National Park provides an interesting account of the development of the park and region which was a significant in¬ fluence on the formation of the Parkway. - 13 - Works specifically about the study area are generally not very useful. One recent work compiled and edited by Bettye-Lou Fields, entitled Grayson County: A History in Words and Pictures, is an exception and should be examined for its sections relating to houses, community members, and local gossip, as well as its array of photographs. Much of the history that is included may have been recorded from oral tradition. Literary Works: The Fictional Ethnography Folklorists have long discussed the benefits and the accompanying problems resulting from the use of the creative literary works of "local color," "homespun," or "regional" writers. At best some literary works are fictional ethnographies that illustrate community ethos and preserve legends, stories, local history, and general gossip. Especially important are their use of dialect, and their reflection of a general repertoire of proverbs and beliefs to which the writer has been exposed. But an untrained researcher can misgauge the writer's fidelity and fail to account for creative input. Nevertheless, if attuned to these problems, researchers will find literature about the region, especially when written by community members, of considerable interest. There are numerous standard and wide-ranging bibliographies pertaining to Southern literature and Appalachian literature. A Biblio¬ graphical Guide to the Study of Southern Literature, edited by Louis D. - 14 - Rubin, is check!isted by topic and author and should be used in con¬ junction with a volume entitled Southern Literature 1968-1975: A Checklist of Scholarship, edited by Jerry T. Williams (1978), which is useful in surveying critical insights. Another general work is Ot'is W. Coan and Richard G. Liliard*s America in Fiction: An Annotated List of Novels that Interpret Aspects of Life in the United States, Canada and Mexico (1967). More specific in scope is Wei ford Dunaway Taylor's Virginia Authors: Past and Present (1972); researchers should consult especially the brief section entitled "A Research Guide to Virginia Writers," which discusses sources consulted in compiling the text. In addition, Taylor has included enough biographic information for readers to select authors whose works reflect a region such as south¬ western Virginia. Bibliographic works and anthologies under the rubric "Appalachian" clearly are useful for study of the Blue Ridge. Among these are the Bibliography of Southern Appalachia (i976), edited by Charlotte Ross; Louise Boger's The Southern Mountaineer in Literature (1964); and Cratis Williams' dissertation "The Southern Mountaineer in Fact and fiction," which also appeared in Appalachian Journal (volume 3) in abridged form. Williams is a diligent student of the literature of the mountain people, an active member of the North Carolina Folklore Society, and Dean of the Graduate School at Appalachian State University. Rather than providing more citations here, readers # - 15 - are directed to a fertile article by Jim Wayne Miller, "Appalachian Literature," in A Guide to Appalachian Studies (1977), which provides sufficient introductory data. Readers should be aware that "Appalachian" material covers a wide geographical area, and that many of the works cited have a strong Kentucky and Tennessee flavor. The works of Harden E. Taliaferro will prove to be of special interest for students of the central Blue Ridge region. Taliaferro (pronounced "Tolliver"), whose works have been frequently discussed by folklorists, was a Baptist minister and a native of Surry County, North Carolina, who returned to his boyhood home in 1857 after an absence of 28 years. Shortly afterwards he recounted his boyhood memories in Fisher's River Scenes and Characters, which he wrote under 'the pseudonym "Skitt." He presents the setting this way: Surry County is one of the northwestern counties of North Carolina, and joins Grayson, Carroll, and Patrick counties, Virginia. These scenes are laid in the extreme northwestern part of this country. It is a romantic section and produces a people equally romantic. Further on he offers yet another testament linking the people of these North Carolina counties to Virginia. He states that the people "came mostly from Virginia, and a portion of them from the middle and lower parts of North Carolina, and a few from other sections-a sufficient number from all parts to make a singular and pleasing variety." The main settlement thrust he tells us came from "Fudginny." Also of interest is Carolina Humor, a compilation of articles originally published in the Southern Literary Messenger from November 1860 to October 1863. . - 16 - For more material concerning Taliaferro, readers are directed to articles by Williams and Whiting, cited in the bibliography. Works by Hammer and West are also of special interest. Earl Hammer Jr.'s Spencer's Mountain (1962) and The Homecoming (1970) concern life in the Blue Ridge Mountains. Spencer's Mountain is about a boy's life and reflects much of Hammer's years as a boy growing up in Nelson County--a county located along the Parkway in the Virginia Blue Ridge. The Homecoming is about a Christmas visit back to Spencer's Mountain. The autobiographical novel Time Was (1965), set in Wilkes County, North Carolina, was recently reissued. Its author, John Foster West, taught English and was a former president of the North Carolina Folklore' Society. He has also contributed scholarly work on dialect studies in the Southern Mountains to the North Carolina Folklore Journal. See the Abrams article for a discussion of West's use of folklore. . FOLKLIFE STUDIES - 17 - FOLKLIFE STUDIES FIELDWORK: A Drief Survey and History of Collecting in the Study Region and Near Vicinity Field Collecting Prior to 1950 Much folk cultural fieldwork has been done in the central Blue Ridge area. The goals and methods for collectors in the area closely parallel the growth and development of folklife studies at the national level. The early field excursions were often launched in response to and in accordance with particular social and academic movements. Before beginning chronological discussion of fieldwork, we would do well to consider three classes of fieldworkers. Fieldwork efforts might be divided among 1) those who engaged in active fieldwork in order to view and report first-hand the condition and lifestyle of the rural and mountain poor whites; 2) those whose collecting was part of a growing movement to locate and define an "American" folklore along regional lines; and 3) a scholarly, academic group, labeled by Wilgus as the "musical esthetic tradition," who were often affiliated with English departments and who continued to study the ballad as the folk counterpart of literature. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the "academic" and "regional" collectors, but often we can see a difference in the manner of presentation and quality of comparative data supplied. Field researchers such as John C. Campbell, Allen H. Eaton, and Horace Kephart, who sought to reveal the social conditions of the - 18 - poor mountaineers, saw much that conflicted with the wealth and social ideals of America during the first part of the present century, and noted the pitiful and distraught conditions that had changed little over the years. Their interest in increasing economic production led to efforts to cultivate "home industries" and the practice of crafts. The Russell Sage Foundation, which launched so many efforts in the Southern Mountains, was established in 1907 by Mrs. Russell Sage "for the improvement of social and living conditions in the United States." The Foundation's support of Eaton led to the publication in 1937 of his Handicrafts of the Southern Highlands, a text based on his extensive travel and evaluation of home industries in 235 counties in the highland region. Eaton's work, described by Rayna Green as a "rigorous ethnography," is typical of one approach to highland culture. By 1941 the Russell Sage Foundation had established the Department Of Arts and Social Work with Eaton as its first director, thus clearly illustrating the Foundation's goals and viewpoints. Prior to this time numerous regional schools and departments focused on what has been termed "handicrafts," "home industries, ' or "fireside industries. The Appalachian production of many traditional crafts items as a result of this social movement is rightly termed a "revival." Many schools, opened through various auspices, focused on craft training from the late 1890s till about 1940, the period when Eaton's book first appeared. The first efforts are often attributed to Berea College's President Dr. William Goodell Frost, who began to accept coverlets and other handicraft products as barter in exchange for tuition. Other - 19 - training programs which emerged were affiliated with religious missions and local finishing schools for girls. In the Madison and Buncombe County region of North Carolina, Francis Goodwin Goodrich, a social worker of the Women's Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church, began to focus on crafts in 1895 and soon afterwards developed the Allanstand Cottage Industries. After Berea and Allanstand, many other schools and industries followed suit, especially in the further southern reaches of the Highlands. Among them were Biltmore Industries near Asheville in 1901; the Hindman (Kentucky) Settlement School in 1912; and the Berry School near Rome, Georgia, in 1902. In 1920 Rosemont Industries was organized by the Farm Bureau at Marion, Smyth County, Virginia with the assistance of Laura Copenhaver. In 1922, a weaving department was added to the Crossnore School in Avery County, North Carolina. In the same year the Blue Ridge Weavers were established by Mr. and Mrs. George A. Cathey in Tryon, North Carolina. A handicrafts course was begun at the Blue Ridge Industrial School in Greene County, Virginia, in 1926; a Crafts Guild was formed at the John C. Campbell Folk School at Brasstown, Cherokee County, North Carolina, in 1927; and the Shenandoah Commmunity Workers was organized a-; Bird Haven, Shenandoah County, Virginia, in that same year. While many of the organizers of these schools were not "fieldworkers" in a strict sense, they did consistently examine the artistic expressions of their locality. The growth and development of these programs reflected - 20 - a nationally recognized concern and had much to do with the approval on February 23, 1917, of the Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Bill by the U. S. Congress. The bill provided for cooperation with the states in promoting education and training in agriculture and the trades and industries, and cooperation with the states in preparing teachers of vocational subjects. The result of such enterprises and schools was to standardize products, increase productivity, and perpetuate traditional crafts in new economic circumstances, making it difficult for fieldworkers today to find craftspeople not influenced by the "revival" and its educational institutions. The emphasis in training was for the prevailing industry of the particular region: mill and textile work on the border belt of the mountains, and woodworking, coal, and iron in the forest areas. Such integration with the regional economy further demonstrates the need for fieldworkers to familiarize themselves with the history of such schools in their region. One might suggest that a key impetus for the arts and crafts revival was the interest in and influence of Morris and Ruskin in the 1890s. Scholars were becoming increasingly fascinated with the innate integrity in the common man's "simple life," while others, seeing the hardship, fought to increase their job potential and to improve their lot. For an example of the merger of social studies and concern for - 21 - traditional culture, students should examine John C. Campbell's The Southern Highlander and His Homeland or Kephart's Our Southern Highlanders. Eaton's work is excellent for describing the location and emphasis of each school in the highlands at the time of his writing, and he is most articulate concerning programs of economic assistance involving crafts. For a more current view of crafts and economic de¬ velopment, see Charles Counts' Encouraging American Handicrafts: What Role in Economic Development? (Washington, 1966) and Jonathan Williams' "The Southern Appalachians" in Crafts Horizons, volume 26 (June 1966). With the publication of Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads by John Lomax in 1910, the modern era of folksong collecting in the United States began. Not only did it proclaim the existence of "American folksongs" as opposed to British folksongs found in America, but its scope encouraged further regional collecting. By 1915 one can witness the emergence of regional studies in folklore and the growth of many state folklore societies. Both the Virginia and North Carolina folklore societies offered a podium for regional collectors and encouraged fieldwork in their respective states. The Virginia Folklore Society was founded in 1913. Major figures were Arthur Kyle Davis, Jr., and C. Alphonso Smith, both of whom were associated with the University of Virginia. Early work in North Carolina and by its society is credited to Frank C. Brown of Duke University. A significant amount of his work focused on the Carolina Appalachians until his death in 1943. Brown was an avid collector who reaped a rich harvest. In two and one half months in 1939, for example, he traveled 2500 miles in the - 22 - North Carolina mountains and recorded 225 songs. Another active and well- known member of the North Carolina society was Arthur Palmer Hudson of the University of North Carolina. Academic folklorists formed a significant part of the regional societies and often were the driving and inspiring force behind them. Published and Archived Collections The work of the great English scholar-collector Cecil J. Sharp marks the earliest large-scale collecting effort in our study area, and among the earliest efforts in the Southern Mountains generally. Sharp's work included collecting visits to Patrick and Franklin Counties in Virginia, both in our study area. In North Carolina a significant portion of his collecting was centered in Madison and bordering counties, to the southwest of our area. Between 1916 and 1918 Sharp and Olive Dame Campbell visited the Southern Mountains of the United States on three separate occasions. Sharp spent a total of 46 weeks in the mountains: nine weeks in 1916, 19 weeks in 1917, and 18 weeks in 1918. He noted songs from 281 singers and collected a total of 1612 tunes representing about 500 different songs. In August 1918 he collected a total of 115 songs in Franklin and Patrick Counties alone. In Franklin he reports 67 songs at St. Peters and 27 at Endicott; in Patrick, 3 at Woolwine, 2 at Stuart, and 16 at Meadows of Dan. The first batch of these materials was published in American English Folk-Songs in 1918, then the larger compendium Folk Songs of English Origin Collected in the Southern - 23 - Appalachians appeared in 1919. The fullest edition was issued as English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians, 2 volumes, edited by Maud Karpeles in 193£. In the period prior to the 1950s collecting in the Southern Mountains was sporadic; field jaunts were scattered and collectors varied in their professionalism. Only Sharp and perhaps Brown seem to have attempted an orderly, systematic collection. Many smaller collecting efforts were reported in the pages of the Journal of American Folklore. E. N. Caldwell may have collected in the North Carolina mountains in 1913, since Perrow, in his "Songs and Rhymes from the South" in volume 28 of the Journal says that his material from the mountains came from a manuscript provided by Caldwell. Isabel Gordon Carter's article "Some Songs and Ballads from Tennessee and North Carolina" (JAF 43, 1933) was based upon 50 songs she gathered during the summer of 1923 while collecting folk stories in the mountains of eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. Most of her North Carolina work is from around Bryson City, beyond the pale of our study area. Susannah Wetmore's collection Mountain Songs of North Carolina was a result of fieldwork in western North Carolina in the eight years prior to its publication in 1926. Several articles appeared over the years by Mel linger Edward Henry, a secondary school teacher who described himself as an enthusiastic amateur but who was more of the English professor-collector type. He collected in the Black - 24 - Mountain area in 1934 and in the vicinity of Rominger, North Carolina, in 1936. His 1941 article "Songs from North Carolina" in Southern Folklore Quarterly was done in conjunction with Maurice Matteson of the University of Maryland, whose work in the Beech Mountain region also led to Beech Mountain Folk Songs and Ballads (1936). There are many publications which, although not directly based on collections from the study region, provide a general per¬ spective on the repertoire of the Virginia-North Carolina Blue Ridge. Dorothy Scarborough's A Song Catcher in the Southern Mountains was based on materials she collected in the summer of 1930 while centered at the Blue Ridge Industrial School. Arthur Kyle Davis, Jr., collected in the Virginia mountains, with particular stress on finding ballads of the Child canon. Some of the fruits of his work are Traditional Ballads of Virginia (1929), Folk Songs of Virginia: A Descriptive Index and Classification (1944), and More Traditional Ballads of Virginia (1960). At this time, too, Bascom Lamar Lunsford and Lamar Stringfield were collecting among performers in the Madison County, North Carolina, area. Their work led to 30 and 1 Songs (from the Southern Mountains). Richard Chase while teaching at the University of North Carolina collected in the Banner Elk region of the state, generally channeling his efforts to a popular readership. One of his few scholarly accounts of field collecting is "The Blessings of - 25 - Mary" (JAF 48, 1935). Some of the most impressive and important early collecting in an adjacent area was done by Joseph S. Hall. Hall began his field¬ work and long association with the Smoky Mountain National Park in 1937 while making a linguistic survey of the region as a student technician of the National Park Service. Up until 1972 Hall amassed a large personal archive which is now housed in Los Angeles. It in¬ cludes discs and tape recordings covering a full range of subjects including musical performances, oral histories, dialect studies, yarn's, tales, and accounts of old practices of farming and herding. Since the late 1950s much of his recorded material has been duplicated and is housed in the Archive of Folk Song at the Library of Congress. Elihu Jasper Sutherland visited Russell County, Virginia, two counties removed from our study area, and reported a murder ballad in an article entitled "Vance's Song" (Southern Folklore Quarterly 4, 1940), and Robert Winslow Gordon, then head of the Archive of Folk Song at the Library of Congress, recorded black performers with his recording machine in the Charlottesville, Virginia, area, and white performers in the Asheville area. His Folk Songs of America (1938). first published by the New York Times Magazine in 1927-28, included some of his Asheville collection. In July and August of 1941 Alan Lomax, Joseph Liss, and Jerome Wiesner documented the festivals at Asheville, North Carolina, - 26 - and Galax, Virginia. Their visit was part of a larger field tour using the Library of Congress sound truck which also carried them through Georgia and Tennessee. In the 1940s Artus M. Moser collected in North Carolina, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and provided the Library of Congress with copies of much of his collection. Field collecting since 1950 By far the most significant swath of recent fieldwork in the study area centers on the white secular musical tradition along the central Blue Ridge. It was probably encouraged by the Galax Old Time Fiddlers' Convention, which has drawn outside attention since the earliest field recordings relating to Virginia. In 1937 John A. and Bess Lomax recorded 35 discs at the Galax convention for the Library of Congress. Maud Karpeles, who had worked with Sharp and his Appalachian collection, returned to the mountains of Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee accompanied by Sidney Robertson Cowell for 3 1/2 weeks in the summer of 1951. With a tape recorder lent by the Library of Congress, they recorded 91 songs and instrumental tunes, of which 69 were from singers who had previously sung to Cecil Sharp or from near relations of these singers. In the same year in her "Notes to the Preface" prepared for the 1952 reprint edition of Cecil Sharp's English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians, Miss Karpeles commented on the cultural revolution in the region since Sharp's - 27 - visit and the influence of print and radio on traditional musical performance. Her revisit is a milestone and her comments significant in that they signaled a new mode of fieldwork that recognized the com¬ plex factors affecting the performance and perpetuation of traditional culture in the 20th century. The changes in the cultural tradition itself were matched by the changes in the medium which recorded it, for the tape recorder not only offered higher fidelity in the field but made possible for the first time an extensive documentation of the larger context surrounding performances. Thus her visit may be said to inaugurate modern fieldwork in our £tudy region. The first large-scale recent sampling of the region appears to be the field recordings of Peter Hoover during the years 1959- 1963. His collection amounts to forty-four hours of tapes including materials from Baywood, Cana, Fancy Gap, Five Forks, Hillsville, Independence, Meadows of Dan, and Springfield. Collecting between 1961 and 1962 George Foss produced ten hours of tapes including materials from Brown's Cove, Fancy Gap, Long Branch, Mission Home, Saltville, and Wyatt's Mountain. Scott Odell and Burton Porter produced four hours of material in 1964-65, documenting performances in the Five Forks and Galax region. From 1964 to 1969, James Scancarelli collected sporadically in North Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia. With a primary interest in fiddling traditions, Alan Jabbour, now Director of the American Folklife Center, conducted extensive - 28 - fieldwork in the region from 1965 to 1968. Fourteen hours of his collected materials are housed in the Archive of Folk Song, including recordings from Copper Hill, Ferrum, Laurel Fork, Meadows of Dan, Mt. Airy, Sparta, and Twin Oaks in our study area. The following year also saw Eric Olson recording fiddle tunes and other folk music in North Carolina and Virginia. Recording in 1966 in Forest Hill, Maryland, Joseph C. Hickerson, now Head of the Archive of Folk Song, produced six hours of materials documenting Fields M. Ward of the famous Bogtrotters band from Galax. Perhaps the most significant recent collection from the study area in the Archive of Folk Song is 233 reels of tape from a project funded through the Youth Grants Program of the National Endowment for the Humanities. It was the result of one year of recording traditional music by Blanton Owen and Tom Carter. All the collections listed above are to be found in the Archive of Folk Song at the Library of Congress. They represent a small but representative sampling of the thousands of modern field recorded tapes from the study area which are scattered around the country, mostly in private hands. Work of a different sort began in the early 1960s, and music collectors began to share the field with scholars examining the regional cultural milieu with a special bent for material culture studies. Among them are two disciples of cultural geographer Fred Kniffen, Henry Glassie and Gene Wilhelm, Jr. As his mpst recent regional study I - 29 - illustrates, a good deal of Glassie's fieldwork has been concentrated on the Piedmont region of Virginia, a fertile area influencing the Blue Ridge region. His most pertinent works are "Types of the Southern Mountain Cabin" and Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of the Eastern United States. Gene Wilhelm's numerous articles make him one of the more interesting folklife scholars to concentrate on the Blue Ridge. His work covers 13 summers of fieldwork from 1963 to 1975, and includes a broad range of studies which emphasize the relationship between settlement patterns and the community as a functioning social unit. His two articles, "Folk Culture History of the Blue Ridge Mountains" in Appalachian Journal 2 (1975) and "Folk Settlements in the Blue Ridge Mountains" in Appalachian Journal 5 (1978) are the most useful general cultural studies addressing the Blue Ridge region. William A. Bake, a journalist-photographer with a personal attachment to the Blue Ridge, did fieldwork in the years prior to the publication of his informative book entitled The Blue Ridge (1977). Recently, continuing field research has been conducted by the Blue Ridge Institute of Ferrum College. Since the early 1970s the Institute has been energetically preserving the traditional culture of the Blue Ridge. It has engaged in projects ranging from festivals to radio programs and documentary LP records. Its Blue Ridge Farm Museum will reconstruct farms from three different settlement periods of Blue Ridge history: a German farm of 1800, a Scotch-Irish farm of 1850, - 30 - and a "melting pot" farm of 1900. The collection of artifacts accumulated by the Institute will be housed in a Museum of Mountain Culture. The increased attention paid to black music in the region by the Institute is significant and helps fill a gap in Blue Ridge folklife research. The only other significant fieldwork that examines black traditions in the region is that of Charles and Nancy Perdue at the University of Virginia. Black materials accessioned at the Library of Congress include approximately forty hours of diverse materials including folktales and church services recorded by Charles Perdue in the period 1969-1971 from the Rappahannock County area at the northeastern end of the Virginia Blue Ridge. Also available from Rappahannock County Afro-American traditions are selections of material of John and Cora Jackson recorded by Joseph C. Hickerson of the Archive of Folk Song. Material culture The cultural artifact, whether material or non-material, can be fully understood only if the researcher is as cognizant of its historical and social significance as of its innate artistic integrity. A house and a song both have an inner structure to which artistic embellishments are attached: the song is performed in a milieu, the house is constructed on a landscape; a song is performed in a community and a house is inhabited by its members. - 31 - By virtue of the substance used to construct material artifacts, they are less likely to change or erode as quickly as cultural artifacts constructed of less durable elements such as words. For this reason it is often thought that the material cultural artifact is perhaps the best gauge of the persistence of traditions and the flow of ideas. As noted in the earlier discussion concerning settle¬ ment history, various forces coming together within our study region add to the complexity of the traditional artistic expression of the region. Of the material cultural artifacts, dwellings and outbuildings are often the most interesting and informative. 1) Dwellings and Outbuildings One might cite three main house types as models for the region. From the Chesapeake source area and westward one finds the "hall and parlor" house, an asymmetrical two-room form which is one story high and one room deep. Another source was the Carolina-Southern Tidewater area with its Georgian influence and center hall type. A third, often cited influential force moving up the Tennessee Valley from further south is the dogtrot house, though it may not have reached our study area. In addition to the influence of various migrations to the region, mountain terrain i^ a force which exerted influence on the selection and construction of larger structures. Henry Glassie has spent considerable time examining and discussing the movement of ideas from the critical Pennsylvania area to the Southern Mountain regions. While his work Folk Housing in Middle Virginia: A Structural Analysis of Historic Artifacts (1975) does not concentrate on the Blue Ridge, - 32 - it offers significant insights concerning the relationship between terrain and structural models. He observed: The early Pennsylvania Germans, for example, had types for hillsides and types for flat land. But the old Virginian did not, and even when he moved up into the Blue Ridge mountains he continued to build as if his land were level. West of the Blue Ridge crest, where Pennsylvanians settled, one finds banked barns, hillside houses, and outbuildings with semi subterranean cellars. The eastern slope, populated out of Middle Virginia, is built up with flat!and architectural forms that refuse to admit they are perched on the side of a mountain. (Folk Housing, p. 145) Researchers should also examine Gene Wilhelm's article "Folk Settlement in the Blue Ridge Mountains." In this article he further delineates variation in construction, economy, and a panoply of \ traditional activities based on five different settlement types which he hypothesizes for the Blue Ridge Mountains after 1750: the gap, hollow, cove, ridge, and meadow typos. For notes on log cabin construction in the region, students are advised to resort to works by Glassie, Wilhelm, Eaton, or Campbell, where both a general description and construction notes are offered. Overall, in log copier-timbering saddle and V-notching appears to pre- v dominate. When chestnut was available, it was preferred for con¬ struction: clay caulking, long oak shake roofing and split log puncheon floors were characteristic. 33 - Of special interest is the double-crib barn. For a description of southern barn types which developed from Pennsylvania originals, readers should consult Henry Glassie, "The Old Barns of Appalachia," in Mountain Life and Work (Summer 1965). The most important of these was the double or "transverse" crib barn, which probably originated in southeastern Tennessee and spread northward to northern Virginia and southern Indiana. Although it is rarely found in Pennsylvania, the double-crib barn has been viewed as an early Pennsylvanian type.* Its basic design incorporated two separate con¬ struction units under a common gable roof, the ridge line of which ran transverse to a center runway. The separate units are referred to as "pens," "cribs," or "mows," and the ridge line as its "comb." The enclosed units may have been subdivided and defined for a specific use such as stable area or corn and hay storage. The structure is frequently found in expanded versions which are sometimes more difficult to identify. Covered work areas may be provided by the addition of a pole-supported roof; small storage and stalling areas are added by attaching sheds. While sheds are more frequently added to the gable end, a great many barns have been enlarged by expanding sheds on all four sides and drawing out the existing roof, often lending to the structure a long low-slung profile. It is of log construction, although the entire structure has been frequently translated to frame construction in our study region; it is rarely hewn and it uses V or saddle corner notching. The interstices left between the logs are rarely chinked and - 34 - are frequently covered with vertical clapboards. A smaller version known as a "meadow barn" is also a characteristic mountain type. Employing the same construction techniques, although more often the logs are hewn, the meadow barn is built a considerable distance from the dwelling and other outbuildings and used for the storage of hay and temporary stabling of draft animals. Variants of this type, Glassie reports, are found with frequency in the Valley and Blue Ridge of Virginia and only occasionally in the North Carolina-Tennessee mountains. His article "The Pennsylvania Barn in the South" offers a rigorous discussion of building types and origins. For further discussion of influential Pennsylvania German barn structures, readers should also consult The Pennsylvania Barn, edited by Alfred L. Shoemaker, and The Early Architecture of Western Pennsylvania by Morse Stutz (1936). More often then not, books which address dwellings in the vicinity of our project pridefully focus on the exquisite palatial homes of the South. An example is Emmie Ferguson Farrar's Old Virginia Houses Along the James (1957), which also illustrates the emphasis that appears to be placed on the James River region, south of which studies seem not to focus with a great deal of clarity but along which much documentation seems to be available. Only a few texts specifically address the Blue Ridge region. Besides the works cited in the bibliography by Glassie, Kniffen, and Wilhelm, those discussing - 35 - the Shenandoah Park area by Zim, Steere, and Hoffman are perhaps the most pertinent. 2) Smaller Artifacts: Crafts, Tombstones, Folk Art, Foodways, etc. Buildings are not the only material artifacts. In light of the settlement history of the region, a wide range of materials might be considered relevant, including crafts from Virginia and the creations of the Pennsylvania Germans, in order to trace origins and parallel practices. This section and its accompanying bibliography have been restricted to publications that specifically discuss mountain crafts. The first resource is an early work in the field, Allen H. Eaton's Handicrafts of the Southern Highlands. Not only does this work cover various categories of activity, but it also discusses at length the development and role of the craft-oriented missionary schools which operated under the auspices of various agencies and founda¬ tions and which sought to encourage consistent quality in order to produce marketable products. Eaton's table of contents is a useful tool for researchers. Its chapter headings and divisions provide us with checklist of crafts and items found in the mountain regions of the South. Headings such as "Spinning and Weaving for Home and Market," "Coverlets and Counterpanes," "Quilting and Patchwork," "Native Dyes and Herbs," "Furniture and Other Woodwork," along with their subtitles also provide a thoughtful classification system within which activities - 36 - might be better understood. Another text of interest is Elinor Lander Horwitz' Mountain People, Mountain Crafts (1974), which distinguishes between decorative and domestic crafts. A wide range of artifacts is potentially available. Mountain schools seem to have reinforced one area above all, the production of textiles. While it is not likely that weaving and spinning are currently practiced, quilting and patchwork survive. Folklorists may find one remnant from the weaving practice, however-- the old mountain "drafts." These are weaver's guides or patterns on a slip of paper. A quote from Miss Goodrich's Mountain Homespun best describes the "draft": In the "drawing-in: and in the actual weaving of a coverlet, a design or pattern is necessary and this was called a draft. The good offices of a preacher or lawyer were often called upon to "draw off," that is, to copy, a draft. It was written on a narrow slip oT paper, from four inches to half a yard long according to the length of one unit of the pattern, and was fastened on the front of the loom in plain sight of the weaver. Old drafts are often written on the backs of letters or bills or law papers. The draft consists of lines and figures, or--if the reader could not read figures--of lines only, mystifying to the uninitiated. These may be found in many an old house tucked away in trunks and cupboards, rolled up and tied carefully with thread. When spread out they are seen to be marked with multitudinous pin pricks as one worker and another has put in a pin to keep her place in the "drawing in." (1931, pp. 8-9) Wooden dancing men and carved figures, baskets, candles, and the making of soap, dyes, and other practices may be found or remembered - 37 - by the people of the Blue Ridge. Doubtless, however, one category of material culture, foodways, is still available and still exhibits strong connections with practices prior to new-fangled kitchens and electric appliances. The term "foodways" encompasses a range of activities and behavior but in general may be divided into three stages: preliminary preparation such as slaughtering, churning, grinding, curing, and smoking; cooking--the recipe; and the dining event which focuses on the time and place where food is served, from ordinary meals to homecomings, barbecues, or holidays. While the bibliography illustrates an array of cookbooks which to some degree document the second stage, the events before and after need more study. There are, however, a few articles that provide some insight. Among them are Sam Hilliard's "Hog Meat and Cornpone: Food Habits in the Antebellum South" and Bobby G. Carter's article "Folk Methods of Preserving and Processing Food." Other information can be obtained in the works of Campbell and Eaton. Glassie (1968) also contains bits of information and some insights and citations concerning moonshine. Verbal and Behavioral Expression 1) Narrative "There's an intriguing legend which explains the presence of the haze which characterizes the Blue Ridges. It tells about groups of people who had ascended to the Upper Land, from which on clear days they could plainly see the Blue Ridge Mountains among which they had dwelt during their earthly sojourn. This 'eagle's-eye view' tended to make them homesick for their native hills, despite the splendor which now surrounded them. "Accordingly, the Good One, 'who knows what is best for every one,' instructed that his four archangels each take one corner of a great veil of azure light and spread it between the blue of the sky and the - 38 - green of the forested mountains. The color in this huge veil was so deep that it obscured the earth from the view of those dwelling on High--apd they became contented with their celestial abode."-State Magazine, September 1, 1967, page. 10. (quoted in North Carolina Folklore, volume 15, no. 2). For the purposes of this introduction the term "narrative" refers to tales, legends, and similar non-musical performances that are orally communicated. Overall there has been significant research focusing on narrative in the Southern Mountains. This work was begun early; among the collectors who published their materials were E. C. Perrow, Josiah Combs, Isabel Gordon Carter, and Richard Chase. For the most part, collections reflected the repertoire of the southern part of the Blue Ridge and eastern Kentucky. Witness to this is the popularity of collections by Leonard Roberts, who was connected with Berea College when he issued South From Hell-fer-Sartin: Kentucky Mountain Folklore Tales (1955) and his later Up Cutshin and Down Greasy (1959). For materials closer to our study area, both Carter and Chase are of special interest. Isabel Gordon Carter's article "Mountain White Folk-Lore: Tales from the Southern Blue Ridge" appears to rank among the earliest published collection of stories from the region. She wrote in 1925, "While the collections of ballads has gone steadily on, so far as the writer knows no collection of the old folk tales has been made in this region. This is not surprising since there are so few people who 39 - can tell the old stories." Fifteen of her stories were collected from around Hot Springs,North Carolina, including twelve tales using the ubiquitous hero Jack. Jack tales were also among those that were collected and rewritten by Richard Chase in his first published collection The Jack Tales (1943). He collected them from the descendants of Council Harmon of Beech Creek, North Carolina. Additional Jack tales were collected by Duncan Emrich of the Archive of Folk Song of the Library of Congress and issued on a recording entitled Jack Tales Told by Mrs. Maud Long of Hot Springs, North Carolina (see discography). A more recent LP record of Jack tales features Ray Hicks of the much highlighted Beech Mountain area, recorded by Sandy Paton for Folk Legacy Records. Ray Hicks is also the focus of a 16mm film produced and distributed by Appalshop entitled Fixin' to tell About Jack. The collections of Hall and Glassie deserve special attention. Glassie's "Three Southern Mountain Jack Tales," reported in The Tennessee Folklore Society Bulletin, includes one from Virginia and two from North Carolina collected during one of his earlier field trips to the region. Further south, in the Cades Cove area of the Smokies, a significant bit of fieldwork was reported by Joseph S. Hall. Hall began his collecting in 1937 as a young man working at the Civilian Conservation Corps. His most recent publication. Sayings From Old Smoky: Some Traditional Phrases, Expressions, and Sentences Heard In the Great Smoky Mountains and Nearby Areas: An Introduction to A Southern Mountain Dialect (1972), is a representative sampling of the materials he collected - 40 - over the years. As the title suggests, he reports a wide range of narrative items, including vocabulary, popular beliefs and expressions, and examples of mountain humor in addition to tales. In all. The Frank C. Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore remains the best and broadest collection and reference tool for field research in verbal traditions. Volumes VI and VII include 8,569 items in 14 categories including unorthodox medical beliefs concerning birth and the human body, death, and witchcraft. The selection of bibliographic citations for verbal traditions has been difficult; it appears to be a neglected subject wanting rigorous documentation in our project area. In the absence of collections in the immediate area it is hard to determine the usefulness of collections from elsewhere in the Southern Appalachians, such as James Still's recent work Way Down Yonder on Troublesome Creek: Appalachian Riddles and Rusties or Ruth Ann Musick's Green Hills of Magic: West Virginia Folktales from Europe. I have resorted to the narrowest selection of materials, a good deal of which have to do with county place names. The Virginia State Library's A Hornbook of Virginia History (1965) provides much place-name information as well as works by both Robinson and Hi den. Percy's work Exploring the Present and Past: Central Virginia Blue Ridge (1952) retells several legends. For dialect studies, readers should turn to Wolfram's excellent article in the Appalachian Journal's special issue, "On the Linguistic Study of Appalachian Speech and a Bibliography of Appalachian English." - 41 - Readers should note that a good deal of the citations are from Kentucky, Georgia, and Tennessee, as is the case in another valuable article in the same issue by W. K. McNeil entitled "Appalachian Folklore Scholarship." In addition to the works cited here, readers might return to the works of Harden Taliaferro and John Foster West. While Taliaferro was a creative writer and as such has taken liberties with his sources, it is likely that he exhibits fidelity to characteristic motifs, anecdotes, and other smaller items of expression within the sketches and tales he reports. Here again his Fisher's River Sketches may be most useful. Also of interest is the Cratis Williams article "Fabulous Characters in the Southern Mountains," and Abrams' and Whiting's articles concerning folklore (language and proverbs) in the material by West. 2) Religion and Recreation Discussion of Southern Mountain religious practice is made complex by the variety of religious groups and subgroups in the region. Overall, however, there appears to be a division into two doctrinal groups regardless of the church. The distinction might be seen simplistically as the long-standing difference between free will sects and CalviniStic determinists. Of course, there are many shades of doctrine and practice within these groupings. For useful information readers should turn to Campbell's chapter "The Growth of Denomina¬ tional ism" and an especially relevant and lucid article by Loyal Jones entitled "Studying Mountain Region." This last reference should be - 42 - viewed as vital preliminary reading and primary resource material from which to begin studies in greater depth. The article is strong in bibliographical citations, including numerous materials related to religious music of the mountains. Insights concerning religious behavior and its role in the larger community can be found in various texts which take a larger overview of mountain life. Besides Campbell, Emma Miles' The Spirit of the Mountains (1905, reprinted 1975) and Jack Weller's Yesterday's People (1965) are two examples. Readers should also examine the more significant stock of large-scale historical and sociological studies of religion. Among them are Carl D. C. Brewer and W. D. Weatherford's Life and Religion in Southern Appalachia (1962), Elmer T. Clark's The Small Sects in America (1937, revised 1949), and Vinson Synan's The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement in the United States (1971). A more recent study by Brett Sutton is entitled "In the Good Old Way: Primitive Baptist Tradition," in Southern Exposure's special edition Long Journey Home: Folklife in the South. This article along with that by Loyal Jones provide readers with an updated account of religious behavior in the region. Along with these one might note that Appal shop has also made and distributes a 16mm film entitled In the Good Old Fashioned Way on Kentucky mountain religion in the Old Regular Baptist Church. For information on the older repertoire of shape-note music, researchers might best begin by examining George Pullen - 43 - Jackson's White Spirituals in the Southern Uplands (1933), and a more recent article in Goldenseal by Alice and Jack Welch, "Shape-note Singing in Appalachia: An Ongoing Tradition." A significant part of any cultural overview is an examination of the religious behavior of a people or community. Securely entwined in its practices are often found the fundamentals of a community's moral and social order and a framework within which work, worship, and leisure are functionally interrelated. Although they are often thought of as part of religious behavior, gospel and spiritual sings, church gatherings, homecomings, baptisms, weddings, and fellowship feasts also satisfy recreative needs and can be categorized as part of our leisure time. The category of activity designated by "recreation" is broad and overlaps many other activities such as music and song performances, dancing, crafts, and tale-telling. Although very much out of date, Campbell is perhaps the only source which specifically discusses "recreation." It is a subject in sore need of perspective for our study area. Both Robert Lee's Religion and Leisure in America: A Study in Four Dimensions (1964) and Joffre Dumazedier's "Leisure" in the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences are recommended readings for those unfamiliar with studies of recreation and leisure patterns in the traditional community—particularly since leisure and work activities may be understood only in light of one another and since they are often considered the two most significant elements in community - 44 - structure other than family ties. 3) Musical Traditions The brief history of field collecting presented earlier in this essay makes it clear that the project area of the Blue Ridge is one of the most thoroughly documented areas of the United States in terms of secular folk song and instrumental music. Documentation for the area spans several decades, and recordings, films, and general field work continue to accrue up to the present day. The secular singing tradition has been sporadically documented since Cecil Sharp's visit, and there has been some recorded documenta¬ tion of secular singing. The documentation is not as copious, however, as might be imagined in the immediate project area; most available materials are from areas to the southwest and northeast. Instrumental musical traditions are remarkably well documented for the project area, both on field recordings dating from the 1930s and via the medium of commerical hillbilly recordings, which have featured Blue Ridge musicians from the 1920s through the present day. Field recorded documentation of instrumental music is well represented in the Archive of Folk Song, particularly in the collection amassed by Blanton Owen and Tom Carter in the early 1970s. The attached discography lists many available published documentary recordings from the project area or nearby environs. It should be remembered, though, that an equally large harvest of un-selfconscious recordings on commercial labels documents musical traditions of the same area. - 45 - Religious music has been less documented in the project area, though Brett Sutton's investigation of Primitive Baptist traditions is worth noting. Lining-out hymnody apparently persists in the area, in white Primitive Baptist churches and perhaps in black churches as well. The older shape-note repertory once flourished in the area but is now moribund, or at least has not yet turned up in active practice. Of course, some hymns from that older repertory may be remembered by individual singers. Gospel hymnody, which is likely to prove wondrously varied amongst the various local congregations, is poorly documented in the study area, though some local gospel styles have doubtless found their way onto commercial recordings. The singing tradition of the immediate project area appears to follow the general repertorial and stylistic lines of singing elsewhere in the Mountain South: the older solo style characterized by rubato performance and fairly copious ornamentation, and a variety of group singing styles associated both with religious music and with bluegrass. The instrumental tradition of the area is characterized historically by the prominence of the fiddle, the early and profound addition of the banjo as a favorite instrument, the use of a strummed dulcimer both for singing and for instrumental dance music (usually in family contexts), the occasional appearance of piano as an accompany¬ ing instrument, and the emergence from an early era of a strong and vital string band tradition. The string bands range from fiddle and - 46 - banjo duets through family bands with fiddle or banjo lead through tightly integrated bluegrass bands of the post-World War II period, which continue to flourish throughout the area. The bluegrass bands, whether amateur or semi-professional, tend to play both secular and sacred repertories. A close investigation of the musical tradition may provide one index for measuring differences between the two extremes of our project area. It is apparent, for example, that there flourished around Meadows of Dan, Virginia, a strong and characteristic instrumental tradition with a special local repertory and an identifiably mellifluous style. Samplings from just across the North Carolina border, on the other hand, suggests a more rhythmic and syncopated local style. It will be interesting to see whether such differences show up on a broader musical spectrum, and whether they are paralleled by local differences in non-musical traditions. In general, the widespread though narrowly focused interest in' music along the central Blue Ridge, although encouraged by national interest in hillbilly culture, probably reflects a genuine perception of musical vitality and creativity throughout our study area in the 20th century. The task of this project will be both to amplify the musical portrait already available for the study area, and to correlate that portrait with the broader portrait of the traditional life of the region. CONCLUSION - 47 - CONCLUSION Overall, an examination of resource materials for our study area suggests that there has been a general emphasis on the artistic expression of the area but a lack of focus on the traditional culture in which the arts flourish. Some of the broader cultural studies, such as Wilhelm's, focus on a different area of the Blue Ridge, while others are too general and neglect the special characteristics of naturally defined sub-regions. These special characteristics are often linked to the natural and geographical resources of a particular area and help to define the range of potential activities. Neglected topics in our study area include, for example, quail hunting', fishing, apple orchards, burley tobacco, and traditional farming techniques—an area of special importance since these counties reserved an unusually high percentage of their farm products for personal household use. Similarly, there is a lack of holistic studies on traditional activities that could offer information on family and community life cycles and work, worship, and leisure patterns. Even the existing documentation of some forms of artistic expression remains incomplete. Only recently have folk music scholars turned from an emphasis on the Anglo-American secular musical tradition toward documentation of sacred music and of black and ethnic performers. In-depth studies of the area's material culture have focused on dwellings and outbuildings, while smaller useful BIBLIOGRAPHY GENERAL RESOURCES Appalachian Bibliography. Morgantown: West Virginia University Library, 1970. Second edition, 1972. Third edition, 1975. Appalachian Issues & Resources. Compiled by the Southern Appalachian Ministry in Higher Education, 1975. Available from SAM, 1538 Highland Avenue, Knoxville, Tennessee 37916. Appalachian Outlook: New Sources of Regional Information. Morgantown: West Virginia University Library. Quarterly. "Appalachian Resource Survey." Appalachian Notes, volume 1, number 3, 1973, pp. 13-16; volume 1, number 4, 1973, pp. 14-16; volume 2, number 1, 1974, pp. 15-16. Bennett, George E. Appalachian Books and Media for Public and College Libraries. Morgantown: West Virginia University Library, 1975. Drake, Richard. "A Bibliography of Appalachian Bibliographies." Appalachian Notes, volume 2, number 3, 1974, pp. 44-48; volume 3, number 3, 1975, pp. 47-48; volume 3, number 4, 1975, pp. 62-63; volume 4, number 2, 1976, pp. 31-32. Fisher, Steve. "Bibliography." In Appalachia: Social Context Past and Present, edited by Bruce Ergood and Bruce Kuhre, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall- Hunt Publishing Company, 1976, pp. 321-331. Higgs, Robert J. "Filmography of Southern Appalachia." In Bibliography of Southern Appalachia, edited by Charlotte Ross, Boone: Appalachian Consortium Press, 1976, pp. 1-16. Jones, Loyal. "The Surveys of the Appalachian Region." Appalachian Heritage, volume 4, Spring 1976, pp. 25-42. Ross, Charlotte, editor. Bibliography of Southern Appalachia. Boone: Appalachian Consortium Press, 1976. LOCAL HISTORY AND GENEALOGY Adams, Lei a C. Abstract of Wills, Inventories and Accounts: Patrick County, Virginia, 1791-1823. Bassett, Virginia: Lela C. Adams, 1973. Adams, Lela C. Marriages of Patrick County, Virginia, 1791-1850. Bassett, Virginia: Lela C. Adams, 1972. Bork, June Baldwin. Patrick County, Virginia: Vital Records. Huntington Beach, California: June Baldwin Bork, 1976. Cook, G. N. 1812 Tax List of Surry County, North Carolina. Cimarron, Kansas: Mrs. R. J. Taylor, 1973. Crouch, John. Historical sketches of Wilkes County. Wilkesboro, North Carolina: J. Crouch, 1902. Federal Writers' Program of the Work Projects Administration in the State of Virginia. The White Man Comes to Stay. Richmond,Virginia: The Franklin County School Board, 1941. Fields, Bettye-Lou, editor. Grayson County: A History in Words and Pictures. Independence, Virginia: Grayson County Historical Society, 1976. Fletcher, Arthur Lloyd. Ashe County: A History. Jefferson, North Carolina: Ashe County Research Association, 1963. Hollingsworth, Jesse Gentre. ■History of Surry County, or. Annals of Northwest North Carolina. Greensboro, North Carolina: W. H. Fisher Co., 1935. Martin, James H. "Founding of Patrick County." Journal of the Roanoke Historical Society, volume 2, number 1, Summer 1965. Morris, W. R. Folk Lore of Blueridge Mountain: Their First Sunday School and Founders: Other Places of Interest. Volume 1, Fancy Gap, Virginia: W. R. Morris, 1953. "Folk Lore" of Early Settlers of America and Their Ancestral Lineage: Interesting Short Notes Including Poems of Judge D. W. Bolen and Others. Volume 2 and 3, Fancy Gap, Virginia: W. R. Morris, 1958, 1960. Folk Lore. Volume 4, Fancy Gap, Virginia: W. R. Morris, 1962. - 51 - North American Land Company. Plan for the Settlement of 552,500 Acres of Land in the District of Morgan, County of Wilkes, in the State of North Carolina, North America, between 36 and 37 Degrees North Latitude and 80 and 82 Degrees West Longitude. London, England: 1796. Reprint edition, Boston, Massachusetts: Historical Society, 1941. Nuckolls, Benjamin Floyd. Pioneer Settlers of Grayson County, Virginia. Bristol, Tennessee: The King Printing Co., 1914. Reprint edition, Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1975. Pedigo, Virginia G. and Lewis G. History of Patrick and Henry Counties, Virginia. Roanoke, Virginia: Stone Printing and Manufacturing Co., 1933. Reprint edition, Baltimore, Maryland: Regional Publishing Co., 1977. Shelor, Susan Jefferson. Pioneers and Their Coat of Arms of Floyd County: Genealogies of Prominent Early Settlers of the Blue Ridge Plateau of Virginia. Winston-Salem, North Carolina: 1961. Available from author. Route 2, Box 46, Floyd, Virginia 24091. Thomas, Max S. Walnut Knob: A Story of Mountain Life and My Heritage in Song. Radford, Virginia: Commonwealth Press, 1977. Wingfield, Marshall. Marriage Bonds of Franklin County, Virginia 1786-1858. Berryville: Virginia Book Company, 1939. Franklin County, Virginia: A History. Berryville: Virginia Book Company, 1964. Pioneer Families of Franklin County, Virginia. Berryville: Virginia Book Company, 1964. - 52 - THE REGION The Blue Ridge Parkway Bake, William A. Mountains and Meadowlands Along the Blue Ridge Parkway. Washington: Office of Publications, National Park Service, United States Department of Interior, 1975. Jolley, Harley E. The Blue Ridge Parkway. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1969. Lord, William G. Blue Ridge Parkway Guides. Luray, Virginia: The Shenandoah Natural History Association, Inc., Matthews, William H. A Guide to the National Parks: Their Landscape and Geology: Volume 2, The Eastern Parks. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co., 1968. Pollock, George Freeman. Sky!and. The Heart of the Shenandoah Nationa1 Park. Berryvilie: Virginia Book Company, 1960. Robinson, Donald H. Camper's and Hiker's Guide to the Blue Ridge Parkway. Riverside, Connecticut: Chatham Press (distributed by Viking Press, New York), 1971. United States National Park Service. Blue Ridge Parkway, Virginia-North Carolina. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1947. Wilhelm, E. J. The Blue Ridge: Man and Nature in Shenandoah National Park and Blue Ridge Parkway. Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Press, 1968. Winokur, Lou. Joy in the Mountains. Boca Raton, Florida: Winokur, 1977. The Mountains Campbell, John C. The Southern Highlander and His Homeland. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1921. Kniffen, Fred B. "Folk Housing: Key to Diffusion." Annals, Association of American Geographers, volume 55, 1965, pp. 549-577. - 53 - Thornburg, W. D. Regional Geomorphology of the United States. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1965. Turner, Frederick Jackson. The Frontier in American History. New York: Henry Holt and Ccnipany, 1920. Wilhelm, Eugene J., Jr. "Folk Settlement Types in the Blue Ridge Mountains." Appalachian Journal, volume 5, number 2, Winter 1978. Vance, Rupert B. "The Region: A New Survey." In The Southern Appalachian Region: A Survey, edited by Thomas R. Ford, Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1962. Description and Geography Brooks, Maurice. The Appalachians. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965. Crandall, Hugh. Shenandoah: The Story Behind the Scenery. Las Vegas: K. C. Publications, 1975. Fisher, Ronald M. The Appalachian Trail. Washington, D.C.: The National Geographic Society, 1972. Frome, Michael. Strangers in High Places: The Story of the Great Smoky Mountains. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1966. Ogburn, Charlton. The Southern Appalachians: A Wilderness Quest. New York: William Morrow & Company, 1975. Peattie, Roderick, editor. The Great Smokies and the Blue Ridge. New York: Vanguard Press, 1943. Percy, Alfred. Exploring the Present and Past: Central Virginia Blue Ridge. Madison Heights, Virginia: Percy Press, 1952. - 54 - Stupka, Arthur Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Washington, D. C.: National Park Service, 1960. Trees, Shrubs, and Woody Vines of Great Smoky Mountains National Pcnrk. Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennesee Press, 1964. Wildflowers in Color. New York: Harper & Row, 1965. Wilhelm, Eugene J., Jr. Historical Ecology and Ecological History of the Blue Ridge. Washington, D. C.: National Park Service, 1968. CULTURAL OVERVIEW Non-Fictional and Historiographic Material Andrews, Charles M. Colonial Folkways. New York: United States Publishers Association, Inc., (The Yale Chronicles of America, number 9.), 1975. Bear, James A., Jr. and Mary Caperton. A Checklist of Virginia Almanacs, 1732-1850. Charlottesville: Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia, 1962. Beaty, Richard Edward. The Blue Ridge Boys: Narrations of Early, Actual Mountain Experiences and Humorous Anecdotes of the Shenandoah National Park Section. Fort Royal, Virginia: R. E. Beaty, 1938. Byrd, William. History of the Dividing Line Betwixt Virginia and North Carolina. 1728. New York: Dover Publishers, Inc., 1968. Campbell, John C. The Southern Highlander and His Homeland. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1921. Reprint edition, Spartanburg, South Carolina: The Reprint Co., 1973. Carawan, Guy and Candie Carawan. Voices from the Mountains. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975. Caudill, Harry M. My Land is Dying. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1973. Night Comes to the Cumberlands: A Biography of a Depressed Area. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press-Little, Brown & Co., 1963. The Watches of the Night. Boston: The Atlantic Monthly Press- Little, Brown & Co., 1976. * - 55 - Fetterman, John. Stinking Creek. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1970. Fisher, Stephen L., and J. W. Williamson, and Juanita Lewis, editors. In A Guide to~flppalachian Studies of the special issue of the Appalachian Journal, volume 5, number 1, Autumn 1977 Ford, Thomas R., editor. The Southern Appalachian Region: A Survey. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1962. Hicks, George. Appalachian Valley. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1976. Kahn, Kathy. Hillbilly Women. New York: Avon Books, 1974. Kaplan, Berton H. Blue Ridge: An Appalachian Community in Transition. Morgantown: Office of Research and Development, Appalachian Center, West Virginia University, 1971. Kelsey, S. T. The Blue Ridge Highlands in Western North Carolina. Superior Fruit, Farming and Grazing Lands-Grand and Beautiful Scenery- Pure Air and Pure Water. Greenville, South Carolina: Daily News Press, 1876. Kephart, Horace. Our Southern Highlanders. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1913. Reprint edition. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1967. Mcllwaine, Shields. The Southern Poor-White: From Lubberland to Tobacco Road. New York: Cooper Sguare Publishers, 1970. Meade, Bishop. "Old Churches, Ministers, and Families of Virginia." Northern Neck of Virginia Historical Magazine, volume 13, number 1, December 1963, pp. Meyere, Duane. The Highland Scots of North Carolina, 1732-1776. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961. Miles, Emma Bel 1. The Spirit of the Mountains. New York: J. Pott, 1905. Reprint edition, Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1975. Morgan, Edmund S. Virginians at Home: Family Life in the Eighteenth Century. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1963. - 56 - Owsley, Frank Lawrence. Plain Folk of the Old South. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1949. Reprint edition, Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1965. Perry, Jim and Betsy White. Le's Whittle Awhile: My Blue Ridge Neighbors and Friends. Greenville, North Carolina: Era Press, 1976. Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell. Life and Labor in the Old South. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1929. Photiadis, John D., and Harry Schwarzweller, editors_. Change in Rural Appalachia: Implications for Action Programs. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971. Plumley, William, Marjorie Warner, and^ Lorena Anderson, editors. Things Appalachian. Charleston: Morris Harvey College Publishers, 1976. Raine, James Watt. The Land of Saddle-Bags: Study of the Mountain People of Appalachia. New York: Council of Women for Home Missions and the Missionary Education Movement of the United States and Canada, 1924. Reprint edition, Detroit: Singing Tree Press, 1969. Riddel, Frank S. Appalachia: Its People, Heritage, and Problems. Dubugue, Iowa: Kendall-Hunt Publishing Company, 1974. Shackelford, Laurel, and Bill Weinberg. Our Appalachia: An Oral History. New York: Hill and Wang, 1977. t, Sheppard, Muriel Early. Cabin in the Laurel. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1935. Sherman, Mandel, and Thomas R. Henry. Hollow Folk. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1933. Stanard, Mary Mann Page (Newton). Colonial Virginia: Its People and Customs. Philadelphia and London: J. B. Lippincott, 1917. Reprint edition, Detroit: Singing Tress Press, 1970. Thomas, (Mrs.) Jeannette (Bell). Blue Ridge Country. New York: Eaton and Mains; Cincinnati: Jennings and Graham, 1910. - 57 - Tull os, Allen, editor. Long Journey Home: Folklife in the South. Special issue of Southern Exposure, volume 5, numbers 2 and 3, Summer and Fall 1977. United States National Park Service "Tabulations: Five Mountain Hollows." In A Report by the National Park Service, Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1933. Walls, David S., and John B. Stephenson, editors. Appalachia in the Sixties: Decade of Reawakening. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1972. Wayland, John Walter. The German Element of the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. Charlottesville, Virginia: John Walter Wayland, 1907. Reprint edition, Bridgewater, Virginia: Ivan D. Carrier, 1964. Weller, Jack E. Yesterday's People: Life in Contemporary Appalachia. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1965. Wright, Louis B., editor. Virginia Heritage. Washington, D. C.: Public Affairs Press, 1957. Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration. These Are Our Lives. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1939. Virginia: A Guide to the Old Dominion. New York: Oxford University Press, American Guide Series, 1940. Wust, Klaus. The Virginia Germans. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1969. Zelinsky, Wilbur.. The Cultural Geography of the United States. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Foundations of Economic Geography Series, 1973. Literary Studies Abrams, W. Amos. "Time Was: Its Lore and Language." In Fiction and Folklore in North Carolina, special issue of North Carolina Folklore, volume 19, number 2, March 1971 pp. 40-46. 58 - Askins, Don, ana David Morris, editors. New Ground. Jenkins, Kentucky: Southern Appalachian Writers Cooperative, 1977. Axelrod, Jim. editor. Growln' Up Country. Clintwood, Virginia: Council of the Southern Mountains, 1973. Boger, Lorise C. The Southern Mountaineer in Literature: An Annotated Bibliography. Morgantown: West Virginia University Library, 1964. Coan, Otis W., and Richard G. Lillard. America TrTTiction: An Annotated List of Novels that Interpret Aspects of Life in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Fifth edition, Palo Alto, California: Pacific Press, 1967. Hamner, Earl, Jr. The Homecoming» New York: Random House, Inc., 1970. Spencer's Mountain. New York: The Dial Press, Inc., 1962. Higgs, Robert d., and Ambrose N. Manning, editors. Voices From the Hills: Selected Readings of Southern Appalachia. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1975. Miller, Jim Wayne. "Appalachian Literature." In A Guide to Appalachian Studies of the special issue of the Appalachian Journal, volume 5, number 1, Autumn 1977, pp. 82-91. Ross, Charlotte, editor. Bibliography of Southern Appalachia. Boone: Appalachian Consortium Press, 1976. Rubin, Louis D. A Bibliographical Guide to the Study of Southern Literature. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969. Skidmore, Hubert. River Rising! Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1939. Taliaferro, Harden E. Carolina Humor. Richmond: Dietz Press, 1936. Originally published in Southern Literary Messenger, Richmond, Virginia, from November I860' to October 1863. Fisher's River (North Carolina| Scenes and Characters. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1859. Reprint edition. New York: Arno Press, 1977. - 59 - Taylor, Wei ford Dunaway. Virginia Authors: Past and Present. Richmond: Virginia Association of Teachers of English, 1972. Watkins, Floyd C., and Charles Hubert Watkins. Yesterday in the Hills: Earthy and Nostalgic Tales of the Southern Hill Folk. Chicago: Quadrangle, 1963. West, John Foster. Time Was. Boone, North Carolina: Folkways Press, 1978. Whiting, Bartlett Jere. "Proverbial Sayings from 'Fisher's River, North Carolina'." Southern Folklore Quarterly, volume 11, number 3, 1947, pp. 173-185. Williams, Cratis D. "Mountain Customs, Social Life, and Folk Yarns in Taliaferro's Fisher's River (North Carolina) Scenes and Characters," North Carolina Folklore, volume 16, number 3, November 1968, pp. 143-152. FOLKLIFE STUDIES Material Culture-Dwellings and Outbuildings Architects' Emergency Committee. Great Georgian Houses of America: Volume I, Virginia Houses. New York: Kalkhoff Press, 1933-1937. Reprint edition. New York: Dover Publishers, Inc., 1970. Carter, Thomas. "The Joel Cockhouse: Meadows of Dan, Patrick County, Virginia." Southern Folklore Quarterly, volume 39, number 4, December 1975, pp. 329-340. Dietz, F. Meredith. Photographic Studies of Old Virginia Homes and Gardens. Revised and enlarged. Richmond: Dietz Press, Inc., n.d. Farrar, Emmie Ferguson. Old Virginia Houses: The Mobjack Bay County & Along the James. New York: Bonanza Books (Crown Publishers, Inc.), 1957. Fitch, James Marston. American Buildings, 2: The Environmental Forces that Shape It. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972. Forman, Henry Chandlee. The Architecture of the South: The Medieval Style, 1585-1850. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1948. Frary, I.T. Early American Doorways. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1937. - 60 - Glassie, Henry. “The Appalachian Log Cabin." Mountain Life ana Work, volume 39, number 4, Winter 1963, pp. 5-14. Folk Housing in Middle Virginia: A Structural Analysis of Historic Artifacts. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1975. "The Old Barns of Appalachia." Mountain Life and Work, volume 40, number 2, Summer 1965, pp. 21-30. Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of the Eastern United States. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968. "The Pennsylvania Barn in the South." Pennsylvania Folklife, volume 15, number 2, Winter 1965-66, pp. 8-19. "The Smaller Outbuildings of the Southern Mountains." Mountain Life and Work, volume 40, number 1, Spring 1964, pp. 21-25. "Southern Mountain Houses: A Study in American Folk Culture." Master's Thesis, American Folk Culture Program, Cooperstown, State University of New York College at Oneonta, 1965. "The Types of the Southern Mountain Cabin," in The Study of American Folklore, edited by Jan Brunvand, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1968, pp. 338-370. Hall, Joseph S. Smoky Mountain Folks and Their Lore. Asheville: Published in cooperation with Great Smoky Mountain Natural History Association, 1960. Hamlin, Talbot. Greek Revival Architecture in America. New York: Dover Publishers, Inc., 1964. Hatcher, J. Wesley. "Appalachian America." In Culture in the South, edited by W. T. Couch, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1935. - 61 - Herman, Bernard L. and David G. Orr. "Pear Valley et^ al_: An Excursion into the Analysis of Southern Vernacular Architecture." Southern Quarterly, volume 39, number 4, December 1975, pp. 300-328. Hitch, Margaret A. "Life in a Blue Ridge Hollow." The Journal of Geography, volume 30, number 8, 1931, pp. 309-322. Hoffman, Michael A. and Robert W. Vernon. A List of Classified Structures for the Shenandoah National Park. Charlottesville: Laboratory of Archeology, Department of Anthropology, University of Virginia, April 5, 1976, pp. 1-10. Howells, John Mead. Lost Examples of Colonial Architecture. Buildings That Have Disappeared Or Been So Altered as to Be Denatured. New York: W. Helburn, Inc., 1931 .^Rejfrint edition. New York: Dover Publishers, Inc., 196>.^ Hunter, Thomas Lomax. , "The Old Farmhouse." Northern Neck of Virginia Historical Magazine, volume 7, number 1, December 1957, pp. 649-651. 7 Isham, Norman Morrison. Early American Houses; and, A Glossary of Colonial Architectural Terms. Reprint edition. New York: Plenum Publishing Corp. (DaCapo Press), 1977. A reprint of two works published originally by the Walpole Society: Early American Houses, published in 1928, and A Glossary of Colonial Architectural Terms published in 1939 in Boston. Kimball, Fiske. Domestic Architecture of the American Colonies and of the Early Republic. New York: Dover Publishers, Inc., 1966. Kniffen, Fred "On Corner-Timbering." Pioneer America, volume 1, 1969, pp. 1-8. _, and Henry Glassie. "Building in Wood in the Eastern United States: A Time-Place Perspective." The Geographical Review, volume 56, number 1, 1966, pp. 53-65. Mead, Edward Campbell. Historic Homes of the South-West Mountains of Virginia. Philadelphia and London: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1899. Mercer, Henry C. "The Origin of Log Houses in the United States." In Collections of Papers Read Before the Bucks County Historical Society,volume 5, 1926, pp. 568-583. - 62 - Millar, John Fitzhugh. The Architects of the American Colonies, or, Vitruvius Americanus. Barre, Massachusetts: Barre Publishers, 1968. Morley, Margaret W. The Carolina Mountains. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., V9U. Mumford, Lewis. The South in Architecture. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1941. Nichols, Frederick Doveton. "The Early Architecture of Virginia: Original Sources and Books." In Papers of the American Association of Architectural Bib!iographers, Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1965-1966, volume 1, pp. 81-128, volume 2, pp. 51-113. Rapoport, Amos. House Form and Culture. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Foundations of Cultural Geography Series, 1969. Reif, Rita. Treasure Rooms of America's Mansions, Manors and Houses. New York: Dover Publishers, Inc., 1970. Shoemaker, Alfred L., editor. The Pennsylvania Barn. Lancaster: Pennsylvania Dutch Folklore Center, 1955. Steere, Edward. Report on Preservation: Structures in the Shenandoah National Park. Luray, Virginia: Shenandoah National Park, 1936, pp. 37-40. Terrel 1, Isaac Long. Old Houses in Rockingham County, 1750-1850. Verona, Virginia: McClure Printing Co., 1970. Walton, James. "Upland Houses: The Influence of Mountain Terrain on British Folk Building." Antiquity, volume 30, number 119, September 1956, pp. 142-148. Waterman, Thomas Tileston, and^ John A. Barrows. Domestic Colonial Architecture of Tidewater Virginia. New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1932. Reprint edition. New York: Plenum Publishing Corp. (DaCapo Press), 1968. - 63 - Wayland, John W. Historic Homes on Northern Virginia and the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia. Verona, Virginia: McClure Printing Co., 1937. Weslager, C. A. The Log Cabin in America: From Pioneer Days to the Present. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1969. Wilhelm, Eugene J., Jr. The Blue Ridge: Man and Nature in Shenandoah National Park and the Blue Ridge Parkway. Charlottesville, Virginia: The University of Virginia Press, 1968. "The Blue Ridge Mill Complex." Pioneer America, volume 1, 1969, pp. 17-21. - "Folk Geography of the Blue Ridge Mountains." Pioneer America, volume 2, 1970, pp. 29-40. "Folk Settlements in the Blue Ridge Mountains." Appalachian Journal, volume 5, number 2, Winter 1978, pp. 204-245. Williams, Henry Lionel and K. Ottalie. A Treasury of Great American Houses. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1966. Wilson, Eugene M. "The Single Pen House in the South." Pioneer America, volume 2, number 1, January 1970, pp. 21-28. Works Projects Administration. North Carolina: A Guide to the Old North State. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1939. Wright, Martin. "The Antecedents of the Double-Pen House Type." Annals of the Association of American Geographers, volume 48, number 2, June 1950, pp.' 105-107. Zim, Herbert S. Report on the Houses and House Sites of Upper Nicholson Hollow: Shenandoah National Park. Luray, Virginia: Shenandoah National Park, February 1944, pp. 1-19. The Up-and-Down Sawmill and Adjacent Buildings on Lee Highway. Luray, Virginia: Shenandoah National Park, 1944. - 64 - Material Culture—Smaller Artifacts. Crafts, Tombstones, Folk Art, Foodways, etc. The Blue Ridge Cook Book. Boyce, Virginia: circa 1955. Bullock, Helen Claire. The Williamsburg Art of Cookery: A Collection of Early Virginia Recipes. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., n.d. Carson, Jane. Colonial Virginia Cookery. Charlottesville, Virginia: University Press of Virginia, Williamsburg Research Studies, 1968. Carter, Bobby G. "Folk Methods of Preserving and Processing Food." Johnson City, Tennessee: Institute of Regional Studies, East Tennessee State University, Monograph number 3, 1966, pp. 27-31. Chiles, Mary Ruth, and Mrs. William P. Trotter, editors. Mountain Makin's in the Smokies: A Cookbook. Gatlinburg, Tennessee: Great Smoky Mountain Natural History Association, 1957. De Virginia Harnbook by De 01' Virginia Hamcook. Richmond: Dietz Press, Inc., n.d. Eaton, Allen H. Handicrafts of the Southern Highlands. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1937. Reprint edition, New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1973. Erskine, Ralph. "Adventures Among the Mountain Craftsmen." In The Great Smokies and the Blue Ridge, edited by Roderick, Peattie, New York: Vanguard, 1943, pp. 200-216. Glassie, Henry. Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of the Eastern United States. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968. Goodrich, Frances Louisa. Mountain Homespun. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1931. Harland, Marion. Marion Harland's Complete Cook Book. Indianapolis: Bobbs, Merrill, 1906. Hilliard, Sam. "Hog Meat and Cornpone: Food Habits in the Antebellum South." Philadelphia: In Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, volume 113, January, 1969, pp. 1-13. Horwitz, Elinor Lander. Mountain People, Mountain Crafts. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1974. - 65 - Joyner, Charles W. "Dulcimer Making in Western North Carolina: Creativity in a Traditional Mountain Craft." Southern Folklore Quarterly, volume 39, number 4, December 1975, pp. 341-362. Kirkwood,t James J. "Land of Make-Do or Do-Without: Walled in by the Appalachians. Journal of the Roanoke Historical Society, volume 4, number 2, Winter 1968. The Ladies of Saint John's Evangelical and Reformed Church. The Guild Cook Book. Richmond: Dietz Press, Inc., n.d. Mansur, Caroline E. The Virginia Hostess: Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century. Volume 1, Collations, Comfits and Drams: Being 100 Receipts from Eighteenth Century Cookbooks, etc. Mount Vernon, Virginia: Virginia Hostess, 1960. Moore, J.Roderick "Early Craftsmen." Journal of the Roanoke Historical Society, volume 6, number 2, Winter 1970. Parris, John. My Mountains, My People. Asheville: Citizen-Times Publishinq Co., 1957. Phillips, Ulrich Bonne!. Life and Labor in the Old South. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1929. Powhatan School. The Powhatan Cook Book: Cooking for Company. Winchester: Powhatan School, 1971. Saint Margaret's Chapter, Grace Church, Walker's Parish. Favorite Recipes from Old Virginia. Charlottesville: 1965. Smith, Elmer L. Arts and Crafts of the Shenandoah Valley: A Pictorial Presentation Lebanon, Pennsylvania: Applied Arts Publishers, 1968. Shenandoah Valley Cooking. Recipes and Kitchen Lore. Lebanon, Pennsylvania: Applied Arts Publishers, 1970. Tarpley, Fred. "Southern Cemeteries: Neglected Archives for the Folklorist." Southern Folklore Quarterly, volume 27, December 1963, pp. 323-333 University of Virginia Hospital Circle. The Monti cello Cook Book. Richmond: Dietz Press, Inc., n.d. "The Old Rail Fence." Virginia Cavalcade, volume 12, number 1, Summer 1962, pp. 33-40. - 66 - Virginia Federation of Home Demonstration Clubs. Recipes From Old Virginia. Revised edition, Richmond: Dietz Press, Inc., 1946. Winchester-Frederick County Historical Society. Gravestone Inscriptions from 61 Graveyards, Winchester and Frederick County, Virginia: (Death dates range from the the 1700's to the early 190Q's). Winchester: Winchester- Frederick County Historical Society, 1960. Women's Auxiliary of the Olivet Episcopal Church in Fairfax County. Virginia Cookery Past & Present: Including a Manuscript Cook Book of the Lee and Washington Families Published for the First Time. Alexandria, Virginia: Woman's Auxiliary of the Olivet Episcopal Church, 1957. Women of St. Paul's Episcopal Church, Ivy, Virginia. Church Mouse Cook Book. Chariottessvilie, Virginia: The New Dominion Bookshop, n.d. Wust, Klaus. Folk Art in Stone: Southwest Virginia. Edinburg, Virginia: Shenandoah History, 1970. Narrative Botkin, Benjamin A. A Treasury of Southern Folklore. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1949. Carter, .Isabel Gordon. "Mountain White Folk-Lore: Tales from the Southern Blue Ridge." Journal of American Folk-Lore, volume 38, number 149, 1925, pp.340-374. Chase, Richard. The Jack Tales. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1943. Dial, Wylene P. "Appalachian Dialect: Vivid, Virile, and Elizabethan." Journal of the Roanoke Historical Society, volume 6, number 1 Summer 1969, pp. Ginther, Herman. Captain Staunton's River. Richmond: Dietz Press, Inc., 1968. Glassie, Henry. "Three Southern Mountain Jack Tales." Tennessee Folklore Society Bulletin, volume 30, number 3, December 1964, pp. 88-102. Hall, Joseph S. "Bear-Hunting Stories from the Great Smokies." Tennessee Folklore Society Bulletin, volume 23, number 3, September 1957, pp. 67-75. - 67 - Sayings From Old Smoky: Some Traditional Phrases, Expressions, and Sentences Heard In the Great Smoky Mountains and Nearby Areas. An Introduction to A Southern Mountain Dialect. Asheville, North Carolina: The Catalouchee Press, 1972. Smoky Mountain Folks and Their Lore. Asheville, North Carolina: Great Smoky Mountain Natural History Association, 1960. Hanson, Raus McDill. Virginia Place Names: Derivations, Historical Uses. Verona, Virginia: McClure Printing Co., 1969. Hiden, Martha W. How Justice Grew, Virginia Counties: An Abstract of their Formation. Williamsburg, Virginia: Virginia 350th Anniversary Celebration Corporation, 1957, Jamestown 350th Anniversary Historical Booklets, No. 19. Lee, Marguerite duPont. Virginia Ghosts. Berryville: Virginia Book Co., 1966. McNeil, W. K. "Appalachian Folklore Scholarship." In A Guide to Appalachian Studies, special issue of the Appalachian Journal, volume 5, number 1, Autumn 1977, pp. 55-64. Peel, Alfreda Marion. Witch in the Mill. Richmond: Dietz Press, Inc., 1947. Percy, Alfred. Exploring the Present and Past: Central Virginia Blue Ridge. Madison Heights, Virginia: Percy Press, 1952. Old Place Names. Madison Heights, Virginia: Percy Press, n.d. Robinson, Morgan P. "Virginia Counties." Bulletin of the Virginia State Library, volume 9. Richmond: Virginia State Library, 1916. Rogers, P. Burwel1. Virqinia Counties. Charlottesville: University of Virginia, October 1972, Virginia Place Name Society Occasional Paper, number 16. Virginia State Library Publications. A Hornbook of Virginia History. Revised second edition, Richmond: Virginia State Library, Virginia State Library Publications number 25, 1965. Washburn, Benjamin E. A Country Doctor in the Southern Mountains. Asheville, North Carolina: Stephens Press, 1955. - 68 - White, Newman Ivey, general editor. The Frank C. Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore. Volume 1. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1952-1964. Williams, Cratis. "Fabulous Characters in the Southern Mountains." North Carolina Folklore, volume 6, number 2, December 1958, pp. 1-7. "Mountain Speech." Mountain Life and Work, volumes 37-40, 10 parts running serially from Spring 1961-Spring 1964. Wolfram, Walt. Appalachian Speech. Arlington, Virginia: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1976. "On the Linguistic Study of Appalachian Speech and A Bibliography of Appalachian English." Appalachian Journal, volume 5, number 1, Autumn 1977, pp. 92-102. Religion, Recreation, Social Life, and Customs Andrews, Charles M. Colonial Folkways. New York: United States Publishers Association, Inc., (The Yale Chronicles of America number 9), 1975. Bailey, Kenneth K. Southern White Protestantism in the Twentieth Century. Gloucester, Massachusetts: Peter Smith, n.d. Brewer, D.C. and W. D. Weatherford. Life and Religion in Southern Appalachia. New York: Friendship Press, 1962. Bruce, Philip Alexander. Social Life in Old Virginia. 2 volumes. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1910. Social Life of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century. Richmond: Whittet and Shepperson, 1907. Reprint edition, New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., Inc., 1964. Campbell, John C. The Southern Highlander and His Homeland. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1921. Reprint edition, Spartanburg, South Carolina: The Reprint Company, 1973. Carson, Jane. Colonial Virginians at Play. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, Williamsburg Research Studies, 1965. Clark, Elmer T. The Small Sects in America. Nashville: Cokesbury Press, 1937. Revised edition, Nashville: Cokesbury Press, 1949. - 69 - Coiner, Elizabeth Hampden. "Customs and Manners in Old Virginia at the Turn of the Eighteenth Century." Northern Neck of Virginia Historical Magazine, volume 7, number 1, December 1957, pp. 615-633. Cooney, Barbara. A Garland of Games and Other Diversions. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969. Dumazedier, Joffre. "Leisure." In International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, volume 9, edited by David L. Sills, New York: Macmillan, 1968, pp. 248-254. Ewing, William C. The Sports of Colonial Williamsburg. Richmond: Dietz Press, 1937. Fetterman, John. Stinking Creek. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1970. Garstad, Edwin S. Historical Atlas of Religion in America. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1962. Hitch, Margaret A. "Life in a Blue Ridge Hollow." The Journal of Geography, volume 30, number 8, 1931. Jackson, George Pullen. White Spirituals in the Southern Uplands. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1933. James, Charles Fenton. Documentary History of the Struggle for Religious Liberty in Virginia. Lynchburg: J. P. Bell Company, 1900. Reprint edition. New York: DaCapo Press, 1971. Jones, Loyal. "Studying Mountain Religion." In A Guide to Appalachian Studies , special edition of Appalachian Journal, volume 5, number 1, Autumn 1977, pp. 125-130. Kane, Steven M. "Ritual Possession in a Southern Appalachian Religious Sect." Journal of American Folklore, volume 87, number 346, October-December, 1974, pp. 293-302. Kephart, Horace. Our Southern Highlanders. New York: Macmillan Co., 1929. Lee, Robert. Religion and Leisure in America: A Study in Four Dimensions. New York: Abingdon Press, 1964. . - 70 - Miles, Emma Bell. The Spirit of the Mountains. New York: J. Pott, 1905. Reprint edition, Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1975. Mitchell, R.D. "The Shenandoah Valley Frontier." Annals of the Association of American Geographers, volume 62, number 3, September 1972, pp. 461-486. Perry, Jim amd Betsy White. Le‘s Whittle Awhile: My Blue Ridge Neighbors and Friends. Greenville, North Carolina: Era Press, 1976. Reed, Andrew and James Matheson. "By Steamboat and Horseback to One cf the Earliest Camp Meetings (from 'A Narrative of the Visit to tne American Churches by the Deputation from the Congregational Union of England and Wales' by Andrew Reed and James Matheson)." Lancaster Heritage, number 1, April 1970. Sheppard, Muriel Early. Cabin in the Laurel. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1935. Sizer, Miriam M. "Christian Names in the Blue Ridge of Virginia." American Speech, volume 8, April 1933, pp. 34-37. Sutton, Brett. "In the Good Old Way: Primitive Baptist Tradition." In Long Journey Home: Folklife in the South, special edition of Southern Exposure, volume 5, numbers 2-3, 1977, pp. 97-105. Synan, Vinson. The Hoiiness-Pentecostal Movement in the United States. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971. Thompson, Ernest Trice. Presbyterians in the South: Volume 1: 1607-1861. Richmond: John Knox Press, 1963. Welch, Alice Fortney and Jack. "Shape-Note Singing in Appalachia: An Ongoing Tradition." Goldenseal, volume 4, numbers 2-3, Apri1-September 1978, pp. 13-17. Weller, Jack. Yesterday's People. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1965. Wilhelm, Eugene J., Jr. "Animal Drives: A Case Study in Historical Geography." Journal of Geography, volume 66, 1967, pp. 327-329. "Animal Drives in the Southern Highlands." Mountain Life and Work, volume 42, 1966, pp. 6-11. - 71 - "Folk Culture History of the Blue Ridge Mountains." Appalachian Journal, volume 2, 1975, pp. 192-222. Williams, Cratis D. "Mountain Customs, Social Life, and Folk Yarns in Taliaferro's Fisher's River Scenes and Characters." In All-Appalachia Issue of North Carolina Folklore, volume 16, number 3, November 1T68, pp. 143-152.’ Folk Music Collections, General Studies, and Criticism Relating to the North Carolina and Virginia Mountains. Abrahams, Roger and George Foss. Anglo-American Folksong Style. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1968. Abrams, W. Amos. "Frank Proffitt: A Legend A-Burning." North Carolina Folklore, volume 14, number 2, November 1966, pp. 12-20. Alden, Ray G. "Music from Round Peak." Sing Out!, volume 21, number No'°mber- December 1972, pp. 1-5, 10, 11. Buchanan, Annabel M. Folk Hymns of America. New York: J. Fischer & Brother, 1938. Cambiare, Celestin Pierre. East Tennessee and Western Virginia Mountain Ballads: The Last Stand of American Pioneer Civilization. London, England: The Mitre Press, 1934. Carter, Isabel Gordon. "Some Songs and Ballads from Tennessee and North Carolina." Journal of American Folklore, volume 46, number 179, pp. 22-50. Chase, Richard. "The Blessings of Mary." Journal of American Folklore, volume 48, number 190, October-December, 1935. Cox, John Harrington. Traditional Ballads and Folk Songs Mainly from West Virginia. 1939. reprint edition, American Folklore Society, 1964. Davis, Arthur Kyle, Jr. Traditional Ballads of Virginia. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1929. Folksongs of Virginia: A Descriptive Index and Classification. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1944. More Traditional Ballads of Virginia. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1960. - 72 - Davis, Stephen F. and Robert E. Nobley. "Norman Edmonds: Mountain Fiddler: the Grand Old Man of Blue Ridge Mountain Music." Old Time Music, number 9. Summer 1973. pp. 22-23. Downey, James C. "John Adam Granade: The 'Wild Man' of Goose Creek." Western Folklore, volume 33, number 1, January 1974, pp. 77-87. Fenton, Mike. "Midst the Green Fields of Virginia." Old Time Music, number 6, Autumn 1972, pp. 17-22. "The Mountain Ramblers of Galax." 2 parts. Old Time Music, number 21, Summer 1976, pp. 12-16; number 22, Autumn 1976, pp. 12-16. Glassie, Henry. "Blue Ridge Song Sampler." Mountain Life and Wo^, volume 40, number 3, 1964, pp. 53-60; volume 40, number 4, 1^'\ pp. 19-28. Gordon, Robert Winslow. Folk Songs of America. New York: Works Progress Admin*.^rat’^n National Service Bureau, Federal Theater Project, 1938 (u -*nt of New York Times article, 1927-1928). Green, Archie. "Hillbilly Music: Source and Symbol." Journal of American Folklore, volume 78, number 309, July-September 1965, pp. 204-225. Gresham, Foster B. "The Jew's Daughter: An Examination of Ballad Variation." Journal of .American Folklore, volume 47, number 186, Dctober-December 1934, pp. '35'8-'3Ft7 - Henry, Mellinger Edward. "American Survivals of an Old English Ballad." Journal of American Folklore, volume 39, number 152, 1926,pp.211-212. "Ballads and Songs of the Southern Highlands." Journal of American Folklore, volume 42, number 165, 1929, pp. 254-300. •"The Lexington Girl." Journal of American Folklore, volume 42, number 165, 1929, pp. 247-253. "More Songs from the Southern Highlands." Journal of American Folklore, volume 44, number 171, 1931, pp. 61-115. "Still More Ballads and Folksongs from the Southern Highlands." Journal of American Folklore, volume 45, number 175, 1932, pp. 1-176. Songs Sung in the Southern Appalachians. London, England: The Mitre Press, 1934. - 73 - Henry, Mellinger Edward, and Maurice Matteson. "Songs from North Carolina." Southern Folklore Quarterly, volume 5, number 3, 1941, pp. 137-149. Jabbour, Alan. "Folk Music." Arts in Virqinia, volume 12, number 1, Fall 1971, pp. 16-21. Jackson, George Pullen. White Spirituals in th? Southern Uplands. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1933. Jones, Loyal. "The Minstrel of the Appalachians: Bascom Lamar Lunsford at 91." John Edwards Memorial Foundation Quarterly, volume 9, number 29, Spring 1973, pp. 2-8. Joyner, Charles Winston. "The Craftsmanship of Frank Proffitt: Tradition and Individual Talent in Folklore." Tennessee Folklore Society bulletin, volume 32, number 1, March 1966, pp. 1-5. Lair, John. "High Jinks on White Top!" Old Time Music, number 2, A. 'n .971, pp. 16-17. Lunsford, Bascom Lamar and Stringfield Lamar. 30 and 1 Folk Songs (from the Southern Mountains). New York: Car. Fischer, 1929. Malone, Bill C. Country Music, U.S.A.: A Fifty Year History. Austin, Texas and London, England: University of Texas Press, 1968. Marshall, Howard Wight. "'Keep on the Sunny Side of Life': Pattern and Religious Expression in Bluegrass Gospel Music." New York Folklore Quarterly, volume 30, number 1, March 1974, pp. 3-43. Matteson, Maurice. Beech Mountain Folk Songs and Ballads. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1936. Mendel son, Michael. "A Bibliography of Fiddling in North America." John Edwards Memorial Foundation Quarterly. Volume 11, number 38, Spring 1975, pp. 104-111; volume 11, number 39, Summer 1975, pp. 153-160; volume 11, number 40, Winter 1975, pp. 201-204; volume 12, number 41, Spring 1976, pp. 9-14; volume 12, number 43, Autumn 1976, pp. 158-165. . - 74 - Murphy, Michael. The Appalachian Dulcimer Book. St. Clairsville, Ohio: Folksav Press. 1976. Niles, John Jacob. The Ballad Book. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961. Odell, Scott. "Folk Instruments." Arts in Virginia, volume 12, number l.Fall 1971, pp. 30-37. Perrow, E.C. /'Songs and Rhymes from the South." Journal of American Folklore, volume 28, number 58, 1915 pp. 129-190. Price, Steven D. Old as the Hills: The Story of Bluegrass Mu^ic. New York: Viking Press, 1975. Putnam, John F. The Plucked Dulcimer of the Southern Mountains. Berea, Kentucky: Council of the Southern Mountains, 1957. Richardson, Ethel Park. American Mountain Songs. New York: Greenberg, 1927. Sharp, Cecil J. American English Folk-Songs. New York: G. Schirmer, 1918. Folk-Songs of English Origin Collected in the Southern Appalachians. London: Oxford University Press, 1919. English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians. Edited by Maud Karpeles, volume 1 and 2. London, England: Oxford University Press, 1932. Reprint edition 1966. Shellans, Herbert. Folk Songs of the Blue Ridge Mountains. New York: Oak Publications, 1968. Street, Julia Montgomery. "Mountain Dulcimer." North Carolina Folklore, volume 14, number 2, November 1966, pp. 20-23. Sutherland, Elihu Jasper. "Vance's Song." Southern Folklore Quarterly, volume 4, number 4, 1940 pp. 251-254. - 75 - Warner, Anne and^ Frank Warner. "Frank Noah Proffitt: Good Times and Hard Times on the Beaver Dam Road." Appalachian Journal, volume 1, number 1, Autumn 1973, pp. 163- 193. "Memories of the Civil War." Family Heritage, volume 1, number 1, February 1978, pp. 18-21. Wetmore, Susannah aiid Marshall Bartholomew. Mountain Songs of North Carolina. New York: G. Schirmer, 1926 Welch, Alice Fortney and Jack. "Shape-note Singing in Appalachia: n Ongoing Tradition." Goldenseal, volume 4, numbers 2 and 3, April-September 1978, pp. 13-17. Whisnant, David. "Thicker Than Fiddlers in Hell: Issues and Resources in Appalachian Music." In A Guide to Appalachian Studies, special issue of Appalachian Journal, volume 5, number 1, Autumn i°77, pp. 103-115. Wilgus, D.K. Anglo-American Folksong Scholarship Since 1898. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1959. "An Introduction to the Study of Hillbilly Music." Journal i American Folklore, volume 78, number 309, July-September 1965, pp. 195-203. Wilgus, D.K. and John Greenway, editors. Hillbilly Issue, Special issue of Journal of American Folklore, volume 78, number 309, July-September 1965. Winans, Robert B. "The Folk, the Stage, and the Five-String Banjo in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of American Folklore, volume 89, number 354, October- December 1976, pp. 407-43/. Bronson, Bertrand Harris. The Traditional Tunes of the Child Ballads with Their Texts, According to the Extant Records of Great Britain and America, 4 volumes. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1959-1972. - 76 - White, Newman Ivey, general editor. The Frank C. Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore. 7 volumes. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1952-1964. Volume 2. Folk Ballads. Edited by Henry M. Bel den and Arthur Palmer Hudson, 1952. Volume 3. Folk Songs. Edited by Henry M. Bel den and Arthur Palmer Hudson, 1952. Volume 4. The Music of the Ballads. Edited by Jan P. Shinhan, 1957. \ Volume 5. The Music of the Songs. Edited by Jan P. Shinhan, 1962. 77 - APPENDIX 1 SELECTED LIST OF RELEVANT PERIODICALS CURRENTLY PUBLISHED IN NORTH CAROLINA AND VIRGINIA Appalachian Journal: A Regional Studies Review. Quarterly. Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina 28608. Highland Heritage. Annually. Emory & Henry College, Emory, Virginia 24327. Highland Highlights. Monthly. Southern Highland Handicraft Guild, Box 9145, Asheville, North Carolina 28805. Journal of the Roanoke Historical Society. P. 0. *Box 1904, Roanoke, Virginia 24008. Laurel Leaves. Irregularly. Appalachian Consortium Press, Boone, North Carolina 28607. Mountain Life and Work: The Magazine of the Appalachian Souti. 11 issues a yeai Council of the Southern Mountains, Drawer N, Clintwood, n«..ia 24228. North Carolina Folklore Journal. Irregularly. Box 5998, Raleigh, North Carolina 27611. North Carolina Historical Review. Quarterly. Department of Archives and History, State Library Building, 109 E. Jones Street, Raleigh, North Carolina 27611. The Plow: The Monthly Magazine for Mountain People. Semi-monthly. Appalachian Information, Box 1222, Abingdon, Virginia 24210. Southern Exposure. Quarterly. Box 230, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514 Virginia Magazine of History and Biography. Quarterly. Virginia Historical Society, Box 7311, Richmond, Virginia 23221. For a comprehensive listing of important periodicals see "Appendix C: A Guide to Current Periodicals" in A Guide to Appalachian Studies, special issue of Appalachian Journal, volume 5, number 1, Autumn 1977, pp. 160- 164. i - 78 - APPENDIX 2 SELECTED FOLKLIFE ARCHIVES Blue Ridge Institute of Ferrum College Ferrum, Virginia 24088 Contact: Roddy Moore, Associate Director The Blue Ridge Institute operates and oversees a wide variety of pro¬ jects which preserve ana maintain the traditional cultural expressions of the region in which it is located. Among these projects are the Blue Ridge Folklife Festival which is held each fall; the Blue Ridge Farm Museum, which features reconstructed farms from three different settlement periods of Blue Ridge history; and a counterpart to the museum. The Blue Ridge Heritage Library. The Library is an archive of historical and folklore research materials of various formats including a collection of television documentary programs focusing on the musical styles of the Upland South. Appalachian Collection Belk Library Appalachian State University Boone, North Carolina 28607 This collection contains tapes, phonographic recordings, p. .ographs, and over 10,000 bound volumes. Bascom Lamar Lunsford Collection Appalachian Room Memorial Library, Mars Hill College Mars Hill, North Carolina 28754 Contact: Laurel Horton Collection is of Lunsford's personal materials. Folk Music Archives 103 Hill Hall University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514 Contact: Daniel Patterson Contains over 400 reels of field recordings, many of which have been shared with the Library of Congress Archive of Folk Song. Focuses primarily on North Carolina. - 79 - APPENDIX 2, page 2 The Archive of Folk Song Library of Congress Washington, D. C. 20540 Contact: Joseph C. Hickerson Established within the Music Division of the Library of Congress and operative since 1928, the Archive of Folk Song has amassed numerous and wide-ranging collections. The Archive houses over 26,000 recordings-cylinders, discs, wire spools and tapes and over 225,000 sheets of manuscript material. It is particularly strong in recordings from the Appalachians, the Deep South, the Ozark area, and Texas. Archive of Virginia Folklore Department of English University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22904 Holdings of this archive include the Arthur KyU Davis Collection of personal papers, miscellaneous material's, and an inde.. to the materials of the Virginia Folklore Society held in the manuscripts oivision of the Alderman Library. Joseph S. Hall Great Smoky Mountains Collection of Speech, Music, .d Folklore 1455 Lemoyne Street Los Angeles, California 90026 Hall collected many genres in the Smoky Mountain region since 1937, including accounts of early times, old practices of farming, hunting, and cooking, as well as hunting yarns and folktales. Much of his collection has been duplicated by the Archive of Folk Song in the Library of Congress and is available there for restricted use. WPA Folklore Archives Alderman Library University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia 22904 Contains materials collected during WPA programs and miscellaneous i terns. DISCOGRAPHY - 80 - DISCOGRAPHY ARHOGLIE 5002 J.E. MAINER'S MOUNTAINEERS ATLANTIC SD A 1346 SOUNDS OF THE SOUTH Volume 1 of SOUTHERN FOLK HERITAGE SERIES Mono Series HS 1 SD A 1347 BLUE RIDGE MOUNTAIN MUSIC Volume 2 of SOUTHERN FOLK HERITAGE SERIES SD A 1349 WHITE SPIRITUALS Vol'.me 4 of SOUTHERN FOLK HERITAGE SERIES SD A 1350 AMERICAN FOLK SONGS FOR CHILDREN Volume 5 of SOUTHERN FOLK HERITAGE SERIES BIOGRAPH 600^ FIELDS AND WADE WARD 6004 BETSY RUTHERFORD 6005 CHARLIE POOLE 1928-30 6003 ORIGINAL BOG TROTTERS BLUE RIDGE INSTITUTE 001 NON-BLUES SECULAR BLACK MUSIC 002 BALLADS FROM BRITISH TRADITION COUNTY 504 MOUNTAIN SONGS Various old-time string bands 505 CHARLIE POOLE & THE N.C. RAMBLERS 1925-30 recordings 507 OLD-TIME FIDDLE CLASSICS Anthology of champion old-time fiddlers 509 CHARLIE POOLE & THE N.C. RAMBLERS Volume 2 510 THE RED FOX CHASERS Carolina string band, 1928-30 recordings - 81 - COUNTY (Continued) 511 MOUNTAIN BLUES Sam McGee, Dock Boggs, Dick Justice, more 512 A DAY IN THE MOUNTAINS-!928 Old-time mountain humor, various string bands 513 GRAYSON & WHITTER Songs and ballads, recorded 1927-30 515 MOUNTAIN BANJO SONGS & TUNES Recorded 1925*1933 516 THE LEGEND OF CHARLIE POOLE Volume 3 522 OLD-TIME BALLADS FROM THE SOUTHERN MOUNTAINS Various bands 523 OLD-TIME MOUNTAIN GUITAR Finger-style guitar, I^96-30 524 DA COSTA WOLTZ'S SOUTHERN BkL CASTERS with Ben Jarrell & Frank Jenkins 525 A FIDDLER'S CONVENTION IN MOUNTAIN CI7\, TENNESSEE 1924-30 recordings of participants at Mountain City convention 526 THE SKILLET LICKERS Volume 2, with Tanner, Puckett, Stokes & McMichen i 527 OLD-TIME FIDDLE CLASSICS Volume 2-1920s recordings 531 OLD-TIME STRING BAND CLASSICS Various old-time bands, 1927-33 701 CLAWHAMMER BANJO Wade Ward, Kyle Creed, Fred Cockerham, George Stoneman 702 LARRY RICHARDSON & THE BLUE RIDGE BOYS Bluegrass from Virginia 705 VIRGINIA BREAKDOWN Otis Burris, Buddy Pendleton, Sonny Miller 32 - COUNTY (Continued) 708 RAY & INA PATTERSON Old-time ballads and hymns 709 THE CAMP CREEK BOYS Old-time string band from the Blue Ridge 711 E.C. BALL AND THE FRIENDLY GOSPEL SINGERS With Charles Hodges and Charles Harless (Ashe) 713 DOWN AT THE CIDER MILL Tommy Jarrell, Fred Cockerham & Oscar Jenkins 715 RAY & INA PATTERSON Volume 2, mandolin and guitars 716 EASTER BROTHERS & GK. ~N VALLEY QUARTET Bluegrass gospel 717 MORE CLAWHAMMER BANJO Various artists 718 ERNEST EAST & THE PINE RIDGE BOYS Old-time band from N.C. 720 THE MOUNTAIN RAMBLERS & JOE DRYE Mountain dance band 723 JENKINS, JARRELL, & COCKERHAM Volume 2, "Back Home in The Blue Ridge" 731 THE FOOT HILL BOYS Cullen Galyean & Wayburn Johnson 734 THE RUSSELL FAMILY Old-time mountain dulcimer 737 RAY & INA PATTERSON Volume 3, "Songs of Home & Childhood" 741 JENKINS, JARRELL, & COCKERHAM Volume 3, "Stay All Night" 746 BLUE RIDGE BARN DANCE Gray Craig, Kimble Family, Jim Willie Pruitt 748 TOMMY JARRELL'S BANJO ALBUM "Come and Go With Me" / I - 33 - COUNTY (Continued) 749 SPRINGTIME IN THE MOUNTAINS Ted Lundy, Red Allen, Larry Richardson Happy Smith 756 TOMMY JARRELL'S FIDDLE ALBUM "Sail Away Ladies" 763 THE CONNOR BROTHERS With Billy Edwards and Gene Elder FOLK LEGACY 1 FRANK PROFITT 2 JOSEPH ABLE TRJVETT 6 RICHARD CHASE 14 RAY HICKS 17 HOBART SMITH 22 TRADITIONAL MUSIC FROM BEECH jUNTAIN, NORTH CAROLINA Volume 1 23 TRADITIONAL MUSIC FROM BEECH MOUNTAIN, NORTH CAROLINA Volume 2 24 CAROLINA TAR HEELS 36 FRANK PROFFITT MEMORIAL ALBUM FOLKWAYS 2315 THE STONEMAN FAMILY 2350 TOM (CLARENCE; ASHLEY AND TEX ISLEY 2355 OLD-TIME MUSIC AT CLARENCE ASHLEY'S 2359 CLARENCE ASHLEY'S CLD-TIME MUSIC, #2 2360 FRANK PROFFITT SINGS FOLK SONGS 2362 HORTON BAKER: TRADITIONAL SONGS - 84 - FOLKWAYS (Continued) 2365 MOUNTAIN MUSIC PLAYED ON AUTOHARP Stoneman, Snow, Ward, Seeger 2366 DOC WATSON AND FAMILY 2380 UNCLE WADE: WADE WARD MEMORIAL 2434 37th.OLD-TIME FIDDLERS CONVENTION 2435 GALAX VIRGINIA FIDDLE CONTEST 2650 COUNTRY BANDS Volume 1 2651 SONGS Volume 2 2652 SONGS Volume 3 2653 SONGS Volume 4 2654 PLAY AND DANCE Volume 5 2655 RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR Volume 6 2656 ELDERS Volume 7 2657 YOUNGSTERS Volume 8 2658 WORSHIP Volume 9 2659 BEEN HERE AND GON Volume 10 2951 AMERICAN FOLK MUSIC ANTHOLOGY Volume 1 2952 AMERICAN FOLK MUSIC ANTHOLOGY Volume 2 2953 AMERICAN FOLK MUSIC ANTHOLOGY Volume 3 3811 TRADITIONAL MUSIC OF GRAYSON & CARROLL COUNTIES, VIRGINIA - 85 - FOLKWAYS (Continued) 3830 VIRGINIA MOUNTAIN BOYS WITH GLEN NEAVES 3831 PERSISTENCE & CHANGE: BLUE RIDGE MOUNTAIN SONGS WITH WADE WARD 3832 BAND MUSIC OF GRAYSON & CARROLL COUNTIES WITH WADE WARD 31021 DOC WATSON FAMILY GALAX 30-39 GALAX FIDDLE CONVENTION 1965-74 HISTORICAL 8001 EARLY COUNTRY MUSIC Volume 1 8002 EARLY COUNTRY MUSIC Volume 2 8003 TRADITIONAL COUNTRY CLASSICS 8004 ERNEST V. STONEMAN 8005 CHARLIE POOLE, 1926-30 KANAWHA 318 JIMMY EDMONDS & THE VIRGINIA CAROLINA BUDDIES LIBRARY OF CONGRESS LI ANGLO-AMERICAN BALLADS Recorded in various parts of U.S. by John and Alan Lomax and others, 1934-41 L2 ANGLO-AMERICAN SHANTIES, LYRIC SONGS, DANCE TUNES AND SPIRITUALS Recorded in various parts of U.S. by Alan Lomax, Herbert Hal pert and others, 1937-41 - 86 - LIBRARY OF CONGRESS (Continued) L 7 ANGLO-AMERICAN BALLADS Recorded in Kentucky, North Carolina, and Virginia by Alan Lomax, Herbert Halpert, and Fletcher Collins, 1937-42 L 9 PLAY AND DANCE SONGS AND TUNES Recorded in southern and mid-western U.S. by several collectors, 1936-42 L 14 ANGLO-AMERICAN SONGS AND BALLADS Recorded in various states by Artus Moser, Vance Randolph, and Duncan Emrich, 1941-46 L 21 ANGLO-AMERICAN SONGS AND BALLADS Recorded in various parts of U.S. by several collector. 1938-47 L 47 JACK TALES Told by Mrs. Maud Long Hr*- Springs, North Carolina, 1947 L 48 JACK TALES Told by Mrs. Maud Long of Hot Springs, North Carolina, 1947 L 49 THE BALLAD HUNTER, PARTS I AND II Cheyenne: Songs from the range and hill country L 57 CHILD BALLADS TRADITIONAL IN THE UNITED STATES Volume I Recorded in various parts of U.S. by several collectors, 1935-46. Edited by Bertrand H. Bronson L 58 CHILD BALLADS TRADITIONAL IN THE UNITED STATES Volume II Recorded in various parts of U.S. by several collectors, 1936-50. Edited by Bertrand H. Bronson L 62 AMERICAN FIDDLE.TUNES Recorded in northern and southern U.S. by several collectors, 1934-46. Edited by Alan Jabbour L 65 - L 66 THE HAMMONS FAMILY: A STUDY OF A WEST VIRGINIA FAMILY'S TRADITIONS Recorded by Alan Jabbour, Carl Fleischhauer and Dwight Diller, 1970-72. Edited by Car'1 Fleischhauer and Alan Jabbour. - 87 - MOUNTAIN 301 BLUE RIDGE STYLE SQUARE DANCE 302 TOMMY JARRELL, KYLE CREED, BOB PATTERSON, A. LINEBERRY 303 KYLE CREED & BOBBY PATTERSON "MOUNTAIN BALLADS" 304 CREED & PATTERSON "ROUSTABOUT" 305 PINE RIVER BOYS "OLD TIME STRING BAND" 306 THE BROWNS OF GALAX "SINGING PRAISES" OLD TIMEY 100 THE STRING BANDS Volume I 101 THE STRING BANDS Volume II 102 BALLADS AND SONGS 106 J. E. MAINER'S MOUNTAINEERS Volume 1 107 J. E. MAINER'S MOUNTAINEERS Volume 2 PRESTIGE INTERNATIONAL 25003 BALLADS AND BREAKDOWNS FROM THE SOUTHERN MOUNTAINS 25004 BANJO SONGS, BALLADS, AND REELS FROM THE SOUTHERN MOUNTAINS 25009 BAD MAN BALLADS 25011 SOUTHERN WHITE SPIRITUALS ROUNDER OLD ORIGINALS Volumes I and II Edited by Tom Carter (Volume I includes material from Patrick, Franklin, and Floyd Counties; Volume II includes materials from Carroll and Grayson) _ 88 . ROUNDER (Continued) 0001 GEORGE PEGRAM 0009 CLINT HOWARD AND FRED PRICE 0020 TED LUNDY 0021 OLA BELLE REED 0026 E. C. BALL 0028 HIGH ATMOSPHERE 0029 SMOKEY VALLEY BOYS 0036 FIELDS WARD 0049 PINNACLE BOYS 1005 GID TANNER & THE SKILLET LICKERS 1008 STONEMAN'S BLUE RIDGE CORN 'CK 7S 1013 EARLY DAYS OF BLUEGRASS 1014 EARLY DAYS, #2 1015 EARLY DAYS, #3 1016 EARLY DAYS, #4 1017 EARLY DAYS, #5 "The Rich-R-Tone Story" SOVEREIGN GRACE 6444 OLD HYMNS LINED AND LED BY ELDER WALTER EVANS, SPARTA, NORTH CAROLINA (Alleghany) 6058 OLD HYMNS LINED AND LED BY ELDER WALTER EVANS, SPARTA, NORTH CAROLINA With the congregation of the Little River Primitive Baptist Church (Alleghany) i B C 16o vra-y v-v\. t • o ^ , r% &fe V* :»\/* v V ^ £Kfe-» V :«: V «& Vc,' O'* :£O ♦ A V «5v * • (&>* <« $ qV • 1 ' • 4 *b 4* c 0 • • - <** *T /•'-' % _ a4o_ v O .1^ • -C^vVw ** V* > Sv ^ * &\{i//Z2^ , A I y* "V •^'f,‘ yh' %'■'^f-* y •; X/ :*§\ W :» X/ aV'X - *p§fflrily « O lj'.r'^? c • V V * xv *^V • 4 4.^ o ^V J,*$* vN * A ' Va 4 ^ ^ <2V 4 V ^ ♦ / V V-A 4 Z> 'o.l* A <. 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