ISSN 2731-7890 (Online)

International Journal of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves

www.biospherejournal.org

Published by Volume 3 Issue 1 July 2019 VIU Press TABLE OF CONTENTS

Poem Submission 1

Learning by example: A historical account of the experiences and transformation in the management of the Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Region (Reserve), Vancouver Island, 2 Canada

Review Article Biosphere Landscapes: Principles and Local Practices Challenging 29 Sustainable Development In Africa

Integrated Assessment of Changes In Wetland Types In The Songor Biosphere Reserve, 51 Ghana

Commitment Charter for the Recognition of the Socioeconomic Actors of The Biosphere 61 Reserves

Deep Bay, Vancouver Island The Heron in the Cedar tree Spreads his wings and squawks Pterodactylily. He lifts off his perch, the branch rebounds, Indifferent to archaic sounds. But I'm alert to watch his shadow drift Across an ancient valley rift, And feel the continent divide Though I have just now stepped outside. He settles on the tidal shore No longer leathered Pterosaur. Then he assumes his breakfast pose, And I return to breakfast prose. But my day is brighter now by half Because I heard the Heron laugh.

Larry William 06/17

1 Learning by example: A historical account of the experiences and transformation in the management of the Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Region (Reserve), Vancouver Island, Canada.

Glen Jamieson1 and Karen Hunter2 1 804 San Malo Cr., Parksville, BC, V9P 1S4 Canada 2 Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Pacific Biological Station, 3190 Hammond Bay Road, Nanaimo, BC, V9T 6N7 Canada

ABSTRACT This report outlines the developmental history of the MABR from its conception in the early 1990s through its evolution into an effective, functional biosphere region in 2016. It describes why and how the biosphere reserve concept was initially felt to be appropriate for the region; the challenges in trying to achieve UNESCO recognition without initial senior (provincial and federal) governmental support, and how this lack of support was overcome; the initiatives undertaken in the first decade after establishment; and how the biosphere reserve almost collapsed when it was largely commandeered by community members that had an anti-development advocacy agenda. It concludes by describing how the initiative evolved into what is now one of the most productive and dynamic Canadian biosphere reserves. The documented experiences of the world’s biosphere reserves are valuable educational products, and it is hoped that descriptions of the challenges encountered and overcome in the Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Region (Reserve) can benefit the development of other biosphere reserves both in Canada and worldwide.

Keywords: Biosphere Reserve, Governance, History, Watersheds.

INTRODUCTION The United Nations Educational, Scientific and its unique challenges in balancing conservation Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) Man and and local human use in its area. the Biosphere Programme (MAB) created the The Biosphere Reserve World Network is more concept of biosphere reserves to recognise areas than a listing; biosphere reserves exchange where local citizens are attempting to achieve a knowledge and experiences on sustainable balanced relationship between people and development innovations across national and nature to ensure environmental, economic and continental borders. Of the more than 669 social (including cultural and spiritual) biosphere reserves designated by UNESCO sustainability. This is achieved by striking a MAB in 2016 (Fig. 1), each has a unique story balance between the goals of conserving and history.1 Benefits gained from being part of biological diversity, promoting economic development, and maintaining associated 1 The number of biosphere reserves worldwide as of May cultural values. A biosphere reserve 2018 (www.unesco.org/new/en/natural- sciences/environment/ecological.../biosphere-reserves/) demonstrates practical approaches in addressing

2 the network include access to a shared base of Strategy (1996), Madrid Action Plan (2008- knowledge and scientific research, working 2013)). In order for an area to be included in the toward high-level and common goals, and the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, work opportunity to connect internationally to other towards these ends within the area must be biosphere reserves on issues of conservation, initiated at the local level, appropriate development, and sustainably managed information about the region must be ecosystems. The biosphere reserve concept is summarised, and the local population needs to applied differently within each local context, have expressed its written support. Nominations and even among biosphere reserves in one for a biosphere reserve are prepared and country such as Canada, there are a multitude of submitted to UNESCO by national ways that local communities embrace the governments, in most cases through MAB opportunity that a designation offers (e.g., national committees. Canadian Biosphere Reserves (2012)). This document summarises the development Biosphere reserves are areas that explore history of one of the earlier community- innovative approaches in a vast diversity of initiated biosphere reserves in Canada, that of policy and management fields to work towards Mount Arrowsmith, in the hope that achieving a balanced relationship between descriptions of the challenges overcome there mankind and nature as defined in Biosphere can benefit the development of other biosphere Reserve policy and strategy documents (Seville reserves both in Canada and world-wide.

Figure 1: Map showing the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. As of 2016 total membership has reached 669 biosphere reserves, including 12 transboundary sites, in 120 countries occurring in all regions of the world.

3 THE CANADIAN CONTEXT Biosphere reserves were established in Canada present day. There are now 18 biosphere (Fig. 2) in two general episodes: an early federal reserves (BRs) in Canada, with the most recent, government-initiated creation of six biosphere Beaver Hills BR in Alberta and Tsá Tué BR in reserves (1978 to 1990) and a later more the Northwest Territories, designated in 2016. community-driven establishment from 2000 to

Fig. 2. Canadian biosphere reserves in 2016. Mount Arrowsmith is second from the left.

4

BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN CANADA – early 1990s in the area of the future MABR, a PRIOR TO 2000 group of local citizens were organizing regional Canada’s first biosphere reserve, Mont Saint- and local environmental committees to try and Hilaire, was established in Quebec in 1978, conserve local environmentally sensitive areas followed by Waterton in Alberta in 1979. that were being threatened by residential Between 1986 and 1990, four more were development, including the Englishman River established – one in Quebec (Charlevoix), two estuary in Parksville on the east side of in Ontario (Niagara Escarpment and Long Vancouver Island. The Society for the Point), and one in Manitoba (Riding Mountain), Preservation of the Englishman River Estuary creating a Canadian network of six biosphere (SPERE) was formed, and along with other reserves. In keeping with early days and local groups, pressure (including national news development of the MAB Programme, these coverage) was exerted on governments to biosphere reserves were all established by the protect this area, resulting in the establishment federal government with little required of the provincial Parksville/Qualicum Wildlife involvement by local people. Management Area (PQWMA) in 1992. However, Dr. Glen Jamieson, then president of DEVELOPMENT OF THE MABR SPERE, soon realized that while the Englishman PROPOSAL River estuary area was now protected, a In the late 1980s and early 1990s, public interest functional estuary only existed if the river’s in the well-being of the environment in British water flow rate and quality were also being Columbia (BC) increased dramatically: the adequately monitored and managed, which was logging of old growth forests in coastal BC was not then the case. For example, in the winter, of particular concern, along with concerns about when rains were heavy and the river had its sprawling residential development and the scale maximum flow rates, turbidity was high, so and nature of resource extraction activities cleaner water from regional wells was the occurring in many west coast communities. This preferred municipal water source and impacts increase in human environmental impacts in BC on the river were minimal. However, in drought coincided with the new awareness in BC of the periods in the summer, river flow rate often potential of biosphere reserves, which until then decreased to less than one m3/sec, yet this was had not been regionally talked about. In the the time of year when river water use by local

5 governments was high due to the river’s summer relating to specific local challenges could lead to low turbidity. Coupled with a greater summer improved sustainable management. It was this municipal water demand from a growing new awareness of the concept that resulted in an residential uses, gardening, increasing tourism effort to establish a biosphere reserve in the and increasing pollution from agricultural runoff British Columbian Georgia Basin, and upstream, the health of the river for aquatic specifically in the Englishman River watershed, species was increasingly a concern of SPERE. which led to the proposal of the MABR. Protection of the estuary alone was seen as not However, despite the local importance of the sufficient, and sustainable water management Englishman River Estuary, its extent (about one needed to include the entire watershed. square kilometre in area) was relatively small compared to the areas of other Canadian BRs, In 1993, environmental groups around the Strait and did not include any legislated core protected of Georgia were brought together by the areas which often formed the basis of a BR Georgia Strait Alliance, formed in 1990. The given UNESCO guidelines of the day (Seville concept of “biosphere reserves” was raised at Strategy 1996). To ensure that riverine flow one of the early information meetings, and Dr. rates and water quality issues could be managed Jamieson realised that this concept might be as sustainably as possible over a more extensive appropriate for the east side of Vancouver area of adjacent watersheds, the desired Island. This area in the Georgia Basin had both boundaries of the MABR were established as unique ecosystems and unique resource the entire watersheds of the rivers and creeks management challenges, as it was almost flowing into the Strait of Georgia from entirely privately owned and the most urbanised Lantzville to the southeast and Bowser to the area in BC. While biosphere reserve designation northwest (a straight line distance of about 30 in itself did not legislatively protect land, it km, although the actual shoreline distance is would encourage awareness and responsibility about twice that). These were the Englishman, by local peoples to take actions that would Cameron and Little Qualicum River watersheds, conserve values identified as important. the Nanoose and Bonell Creek watersheds, and the smaller stream watersheds between them Emphasis was placed on the biosphere reserve’s (Fig 3). Five relatively small Provincial Parks non-advocacy role and their potential to be within these watersheds then met UNESCO’s living examples of how research and education definition of core areas within the BR.

6 Fig. 3. Map of the Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Region (Reserve).

Based on his involvement with local find out how to establish a new biosphere stewardship groups, and the termination of reserve. Representatives from the other SPERE after the establishment of the PQWMA Canadian biosphere reserves and Parks Canada in 1993, Dr. Jamieson prepared a prospectus for provided encouraging support. During the mid- a Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Reserve 1990s, the UNESCO designation process (MABR) that he presented to municipal advanced to incorporate recommendations of the governments. At the same time, he engaged the Seville Strategy (1996), which required Canadian Commission for UNESCO (CCU) and evidence of bottom-up community interest in representatives from the six established the concept, including municipal and provincial biosphere reserves in Canada (four were support in the Canadian context. affiliated with a National Park) in an effort to

7 While at the time there were no official steps or With the cooperation of community members, directives on how to proceed, it was suggested the Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Foundation by a representative from the CCU that to (MABF) was registered in 1996 as a non-profit achieve a Biosphere Reserve designation, an society, which was intended to be the area would have to be functioning as a management committee for a biosphere reserve biosphere reserve before applying for the in the area, if and when it was to be formally designation. It was noted that evidence for this recognized. Based on the British Columbia would include the provision of regionally Society Act (1996), the society was managed by relevant research in support of achieving a group of elected Directors who held decision- sustainability. making and fiduciary responsibilities of the society as outlined in a formal MABF operating Dr. Jamieson, as a federal research scientist, framework. Regional municipal representatives took on the scientific/educational aspects of participated as liaisons, not as directors, to avoid UNESCO’s directives for biosphere reserves any perceived conflict of interest. A seat on the and initiated a program of regionally relevant Board was allocated to each of the two local research in support of achieving sustainability. Salish Sea First Nations (the Snaw-Naw-As in By 1996, the first specific MABR research Nanoose Bay and the Qualicum further north), initiatives were underway, including a study the two international timber companies that with the Canadian Wildlife Service of Arctic- owned most of the proposed biosphere reserve’s bound migrating Brant (a marine goose) which land, along with open chairs for community rely on seasonally productive waters for representatives. Thus, while there are seven foraging each spring in the proposed biosphere First Nations with territories that the BR area; an analysis of riverine/forest connectivity overlaps (see below), seats were only offered to in the local area (the biodiversity and abundance the above two, since the others only had minor of insects was monitored over streams and into territory overlaps. The MABF provided a basic the adjacent forest); and other initiatives structure for activities, gave the initiative supporting long-term research and monitoring credibility, and to ensure as much community such as the establishment of a Smithsonian participation as possible, membership in the Forest Monitoring Plot in the Mount society was not restricted beyond paying for an Arrowsmith watershed. annual $5 membership. However, as will be shown, in addition to resourcing the MABF

8 (human and financial), this latter decision to make this a reality. With assistance from two caused serious problems in the evolution of this MABF members and Dr. Fred Roots, then Chair biosphere reserve. of Canada MAB, the application was in its final stages by late 1999. No financial or planning As the MABR concept was emerging on eastern support was directed toward the project from Vancouver Island, representatives from the six potential funding agencies. However, the existing Canadian biosphere reserves formed the nomination process came to a sudden halt in Canadian Biosphere Reserves Association 2000 when the BC government indicated it (CBRA), with the future MABR participating as would not support the MABR application. an associate partner. The CBRA aimed to improve collaboration among Canada’s existing This lack of support centred on perceived biosphere reserves and to advocate for federal conflict with another BC biosphere reserve support on behalf of all Canadian biosphere initiative underway at the same time, which was reserves. Circa 1996, there was no directed receiving significant financial support from both federal financial support for any Canadian the BC and federal governments. Together, biosphere reserve, but those reserves that these governments hired a consultant to prepare included a national park received logistical a submission for a proposed Clayoquot Sound support and minimal funding ($5000 year) from Biosphere Reserve on the west coast of Parks Canada for associated activities. Vancouver Island. This initiative arose from Incorporated in 1997, annual CBRA meetings Jean Chrétien’s interest as Canada’s were held, many in association with the “The Environment Minister in 1993 to address and Leading Edge” conference series jointly resolve the dispute over old growth logging in organized by the Niagara Escarpment and Long that area that received international attention, in Point BRs near Hamilton, Ontario. Dr. Jamieson part due to the largest mass arrests for civil presented a number of papers (Jamieson disobedience in Canadian history. In 1996, as 1997a,b) at these meetings, documenting his Prime Minister, Chrétien decided that the efforts in BC to establish the Mount Arrowsmith creation of a biosphere reserve in and Biosphere Reserve, and in 1998, he was surrounding Clayoquot Sound would make a encouraged to gather and submit the information strong environmental statement in support of required for a formal application to the Canada sustainability. Work was initiated to gain local Man and Biosphere Committee (Canada MAB) support from communities, First Nations, and

9 local business groups (logging, fishing, and Vancouver Island between government and the aquaculture). While the two initiatives were logging industry, by the late 20th century, unrelated, Dr. Jamieson and Ross McMillan, the virtually all forestry lands in the Mount consultant that was leading the process to Arrowsmith area (i.e., most of the proposed establish the Clayoquot Sound BR, were in biosphere reserve area) were owned by private close contact and the two initiatives, one on the international forestry companies and much of east side and the other on the west side of the remaining land base was also held by Vancouver Island, happened to come to fruition individuals under private ownership. Supporting at the same time. At that time, feedback to the an initiative that would place a UN designation MABF from the province indicated that the on privately owned lands was a difficult request MABR application should be temporarily for international forestry companies to support, withdrawn, as representatives from both the and these private entities could not be entreated province and Canada wanted the Clayoquot to support the Mount Arrowsmith BR Sound application to be considered by Canada designation. Executives of the forest companies MAB alone to give it maximum profile. The in the proposed MABR thus approached the understanding communicated to Dr. Jamieson province and said that since consensus for a BR was that the BC government would then support was required by all the major interests in the the Mount Arrowsmith submission in the next Clayoquot Sound area, it should also be required UNESCO consideration period of proposed new in the Mount Arrowsmith area, which caused BRs. the province to back off on its earlier indication of support for the Mount Arrowsmith BR In the Clayoquot Sound area on the west side of nomination. A provincial representative even Vancouver Island, all forestry land was Crown suggested to Dr. Jamieson that all private Land, and as such, government had an influence forestry land should be removed from the on how it would be managed and ultimately proposed MABR boundary, which Dr. Jamieson logged. Governments were thus able to apply refused to consider since it was not compatible pressure to obtain consensus from all the main with achieving desirable overall watershed interests in the Clayoquot Sound area to support management practices, which was the rationale designation of the Clayoquot Sound BR. In for trying to obtain MABR designation in the contrast, because of the 1884 Esquimalt and first place. Nanaimo (E&N) land grant on south-eastern

10 In contrast, local communities and First Nations found on the internet and were included in the in the proposed MABR were receptive to the BR application to document that industry biosphere reserve concept and potential future management policies indicated that the forest opportunities it might invite, such as increased companies wanted to work with local local environmental awareness and tourism to a communities in support of sustainable forest “model area”, and provided written support for management. Dr. Jamieson submitted this the nomination. In these early stages, none of collection of material as required in the the local First Nations that were engaged nomination process for the MABR to the Chair expressed concern about a biosphere reserve of Canada MAB, where it was accepted and designation despite their unresolved territorial then sent to UNESCO in the spring of 2000. The rights and claims associated with the proposed nomination was also accepted that spring and boundary. due to a delay in Paris in the approval of earlier submitted nominations that included the Despite the lack of support from the province Clayoquot Sound BR, formal recognition of and the lack of clarity in the requirements to both the Clayoquot Sound and Mount proceed with an application at the time, Dr. Arrowsmith Biosphere Reserves ultimately did Jamieson nevertheless elected to proceed. occur unexpectedly together in November 2000. Further research into the UNESCO nomination process revealed only two requirements actually The designation of the Mount Arrowsmith existed at that time: 1) that proposed biosphere Biosphere Reserve was not expected by either core zones (areas with legislative protection) the Province of BC or the forestry companies, would stay protected into the foreseeable future, and their concerns were expressed to both the and 2) that industry management policies were Canadian Commission to UNESCO (CCU) and of a sustainable nature. There was no actual to UNESCO headquarters. However, UNESCO mention of a need for formal written support determined that all relevant criteria had been from the higher levels of either government or considered, and so recognition of the Mount industry. Dr. Jamieson then confirmed in Arrowsmith Biosphere Reserve remained. writing from local protected area managers that Provincial representatives then stated that while the existing parklands would remain protected the “birth” of the BR was “irregular,” the into the foreseeable future. Policy documents “baby” had nevertheless been born, and so it from the local forestry companies were also would be recognised by governments. At a

11 public dedication ceremony of recognition by The BR is primarily within the Traditional UNESCO six months after the designation, Territories of the Snaw-Naw-As First Nation provincial representatives participated and even and Qualicum First Nation on the east side of announced a significant expansion in area of one Vancouver Island, but also overlaps portions of of the provincial protected BR core areas, the the unceded territories of the Snuneymuxw, Parksville-Qualicum Wildlife Management K’omoks, Tseshaht, Hupacasath, and Ditidaht Area. However, while the Clayoquot Sound BR First Nations on the western side of Vancouver received a $12 million endowment fund (the Island. Local governments include the City of Clayoquot Biosphere Trust) from Canada for its Parksville, Town of Qualicum Beach, and the operations, Mount Arrowsmith did not receive Regional District of Nanaimo (RDN). These any start-up or operational funding from either governments and institutions are joined by the province or Canada, and to this date, along dozens of registered non-profit organizations with most other biosphere reserves in Canada, that address local MABF concerns, such as fundraising still remains a priority activity for stream habitat enhancement and migrating the MABR. seabird monitoring. Along with these groups, an active citizenry that is known for volunteerism MOUNT ARROWSMITH BIOSPHERE and involvement in local issues characterizes the RESERVE - 2000 TO 2009 mid-Island area. The Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Reserve (MABR) is located on the east coast of While it had been established early on that there Vancouver Island, British Columbia (Fig. 3). was little in the way of formal guidelines for From the top of Mount Arrowsmith (1817 m) in achieving the biosphere designation at the time, the Beaufort Mountain range, the MABR the MABF also found that the path for both extends down to the sea, where it includes achieving the high level mandate of BRs and to islands in the Ballenas/Winchelsea Archipelago make it relevant at the “boots on the ground” and a marine area extending halfway to Lasqueti level was also not clear, with the result that Island to a depth of about 300 m below sea society membership remained small. In the early level. The total land area is approximately 800 years following the MABR’s designation, the km2 and the marine area at the surface is about society even struggled with maintaining a full 400 km2. slate of volunteer directors for the MABF’s eight-member Board of Directors (BOD). Part

12 of the reason was that functional BRs often have was obtained for research, including: funded support staff to achieve MAB goals. In 1) the continued monitoring of the Smithsonian the absence of funds and with few society Biodiversity plot located in one of the MABR’s members because of the challenge described core protected areas (with student and volunteer above, the MABF had a reduced capacity to labour), work towards realizing the potential benefits 2) initial GPS documentation of invasive plants outlined in the MAB Programme. The reality and animals locations in some of the core areas was that 1) there was a very limited number of with federal-funded summer student support, highly dedicated people involved, and 2) a lack 3) establishment of a GLORIA (Global of funding. A small group can do a lot, but Observation Research Initiative in Alpine dedicated time and effort is needed, which is Environments) site on the top of Mount difficult when funding is not available. In this Arrowsmith to document the effects of climate situation, a small group might not accomplish as on alpine flora through involvement of a local much in the same time as a larger one, although university graduate student, more could have potentially been accomplished 4) documentation of tagged migrating Brant with a different group of people. Under these geese for the Canadian Wildlife Service by a circumstances, the MABR could have benefited seasonal contract, and had it had more capacity to support staff to work 5) development of a two-part television series towards the goals the MAB Programme laid out titled “Liquid Assets”, which was about the (Seville Strategy 1996; Madrid Action Plan importance of water, i.e., its source and its 2008-2013). In contrast, funding was not a usage, in the MABR, which was shown problem with the nearby Clayoquot Sound BR, repeatedly on local television stations. which could utilise funds earned by their large All this funding was secured by Dr. Jamieson endowment. Thus, whereas the focus of the through his professional contacts and his MABF quickly turned to fund-raising, the focus associate professor status with local universities, of its sister biosphere reserve was focused on and he was the administrative supervisor in all how best to allocate its available resources. these initiatives. While biological research was being conducted, initiatives in social sciences However, difficulty in obtaining operating focused towards increasing community funding did not impede all progress in the early engagement were lacking. Volunteer effort years - some limited, project-specific funding within the BOD in this capacity was not present,

13 but Dr. Jamieson did manage to get some government sourced endowment fund. support to document the environmental Unfortunately the five-year program was education challenges the initiative was terminated one year early in 2012 as part of experiencing (Fraser and Jamieson 2003). general cutbacks across the public service, with the resulting implications discussed below.

The MABF was also actively involved at the national level by participating on the BOD of MABR FUNDING ACQUISITION the Canadian Biosphere Reserve Association INITIATIVES (CBRA) and with participants from other Starting in 2003, there were two unique funding biosphere reserves in documenting Canadian initiatives undertaken in the MABR, one under achievements (Jamieson et al. 2008). The nature the biosphere name and the other through a and sophistication of biosphere programmes in separate society created to provide support for sustainable development was described, and it the biosphere, separate because it involved was shown that while much variability in people not directly involved with the MABF. capacity existed across Canadian biosphere The first looked at establishing a Vancouver reserves, the biosphere reserve concept with Island Biosphere Centre (VIBC) within the respect to the achievement of sustainable biosphere boundary, and to this end, funding development was widely embraced by all was obtained from the City of Parksville and the communities in Canada associated with Regional District on Nanaimo for three studies, biosphere reserves. There was a wide diversity an initial conceptual study, a feasibility study, of initiatives, and Canadian efforts to develop and then a more detailed architectural study for biosphere reserve models of sustainable a specific site. The VIBC was designed to be a development at the community level were physical building/structure that would showcase showing successes, largely because of great and interpret the exceptionally rich and diverse imagination and volunteer dedication. The inventory of natural and cultural heritage CBRA was ultimately successful in receiving a resources that exists locally on Vancouver commitment to five years of federal funding Island. The intent was to focus on increasing (approximately $57,000 per year per BR), awareness of regional protected areas, their need starting in 2008, for all the Canadian BRs except to be effectively managed, and to highlight that for the Clayoquot Sound BR, which had its own protected areas can contribute economic value

14 to local communities. The challenges in its Arrowsmith Biosphere Reserve area) establishment were to identify a potential community projects, promote a sense of regional physical location for the centre that: 1) offered pride, and foster local economic activity and natural habitats around the centre for autonomy. The Foundation created “Oceanside interpretative walks; and 2) was acceptable to Dollars” that were a paper currency that could the community. A pre-design investigation that be purchased at local financial institutions and started in 2008 identified a “straw dog” site businesses and used throughout the area as within Rathtrevor Provincial Park, one of the regular paper currency at par with the Canadian BR’s core areas. However, public opposition to Dollar. The Oceanside dollars resembled the the commercialization of parkland ended Canadian paper currency in dimension and had a conceptual-only discussions on this site, and the printed expiry date about two years from the Centre remains at a pre-design stage to this day date of issue. Certificates that were not until another site can be determined. redeemed by their expiry date created revenue for the OMF, as did the interest earned on the The other funding initiative was founded Canadian dollar reserve being held in the banks through a separate registered society, the until each currency issue’s expiry date. There Oceanside Monetary Foundation (OMF). The was a favourable response from local businesses purpose of the OMF was to raise funds for and the program lasted for two years. Oceanside (the local name for the Mount

Fig. 4. Oceanside dollars for the Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Reserve, the world’s first biosphere reserve currency (continued on next three pages, showing the front followed immediately by the back of each denomination).

15 16 17 18 While this concept was unique among biosphere community markets and craft fairs, which reserves worldwide, it encountered some start- was somewhat successful but time up problems that eventually led to its demise: consuming, given the relatively little amount 1. The bills had the latest state-of-the-art anti- of Oceanside Dollars that ultimately entered counterfeiting technologies built into them: into circulation. In hindsight, it would have they were printed on Teslin®, a synthetic been better to try and engage local groups printing substrate, additional corresponding such as Rotary, etc., and to ask their UV bill serial numbers could be seen under members to buy bills so as to get the bills ultraviolet light, and there was an image of a into circulation faster. “ghost salmon” over the director signatures. 3. The trend toward a “cashless” society with However, unanticipated, the first printing on the increasing usage of credit and debit the then new plastic bills was “softer” than machines meant that local residents were on the existing regular Canadian paper less likely to use cash (or Oceanside Dollars) currency, which resulted in scratches on the for their purchases. bills when they were run through financial 4. The denominations of the bills ($1, 2, 5, 10 institution paper bill counting machines, and 20) were larger than most change given which effectively destroyed them. They by businesses for many small cash purposes, could not thus be counted this way, which which was generally in coins. created problems for the financial 5. The $1 and $2 bills in Canada had also institutions that were supporting the recently been entirely eliminated from initiative. Although this issue was soon circulation, being replaced by coins, called resolved, it was not quick enough to in Canada the “loonie” (it had an image of a overcome some negative public relations loon on it) and “twoonie,” respectively. that occurred in the first year following bill release. At the close of the program, approximately 2. The success of the program depended on $25,000 was placed into circulation, far short of getting a large amount of Oceanside Dollars the intended hundreds of thousands that had into community circulation as quickly as been hoped for. However, the program was still possible. In hindsight, greater efforts on an imaginative and innovative fundraising communication and promotions were initiative, and did increase MABR awareness needed. The sales methods used targeted within the community. On another positive note,

19 it also represented the world’s first unique because of core differences in MABR direction. biosphere reserve currency. Essentially, the MABF was in survival mode. Only three of the new directors persisted MOUNT ARROWSMITH BIOSPHERE throughout much of 2010 and the first RESERVE - 2009 – 2014 Coordinator hired had to be let go due to delays The years between 2009 and 2014 proved to be in the receipt of the approved federal funding. an incredible challenge for the MABR but in the As shown by the minutes of the MAB, existing end, a positive outcome was achieved. During directors did not meet regularly as a result of an this time, the MABF suffered communication internal breakdown in communications and little challenges including BOD disputes, difficulty progress was made in addressing the mandate of retaining volunteers and staff, and a loss of the organization during this time. Despite this funding when the Federal contribution breakdown, the BOD did undertake a hiring agreement to Canadian Biosphere Reserves was campaign and was able to bring on both a new cancelled in 2012. This period of difficulties in Coordinator and a Communications Assistant in part took hold in 2009 following an Annual early 2011, as well as attract several new General Meeting (AGM) of the society, when directors who together enabled a successful none of the existing directors, including Dr. governance transition for the MABR in 2014 Jamieson, were re-elected to the Board of (described below). Directors, although Dr. Jamieson did remain as a society member. Being the only local In addition, there was the unfortunate timing of “environmental” group at the time with the first MABR Periodic Review, which began dedicated federal funding, management of the during the summer of 2010, as each biosphere society was taken over by a surge of new reserve must undergo a formal evaluation every members that hoped to advance a more ten years. Recommendations from the review advocacy-driven agenda, with their sudden provide the basis for decisions made by joining the society facilitated by the inexpensive UNESCO’s International Advisory Committee ($5) society membership fee. (IAC) on the progress and fate of a designation. Periodic Reviews are organized by the host Meeting minutes made by MABF board country’s national MAB Committee, and members show that the period from 2009-2010 reviewers are assigned on a volunteer basis. was a very difficult year for the organization Despite the fact that there were severe issues

20 with funding, capacity and fierce internal requirement for biosphere reserves to provide a disagreements, the MABF was able to host community space for dialogue on sustainability UNESCO researchers and facilitate the Periodic and continued to promote an anti-development Review process. The reviewers spent several agenda. However, work on the education and days interviewing MABF directors and science mandate of BRs was developed and led members to compile information on how the by MABR staff and volunteers through this society was operating for their review. Directors time, and good progress was made through and staff of the MABF did not hear the results several initiatives. Some of the federal funding of the review until May 2011, and allocated to the MABR supported a publication unsurprisingly, the review was not positive, but on the status of the MABR (Clermont 2012), provided constructive recommendations. The environmental education initiatives, a MABF was then required to submit a Strategy monitoring of marine invasive species project, and Action Plan that addressed these and joint community removal initiatives for recommendations to the IAC by 2013, which if terrestrial invasive species within the MABR not accepted, would mean its loss of biosphere boundary. reserve designation. Internal communications among the MABF Concerns identified by the review committee BOD completely broke down in 2011 and a gap related to “not achieving the mandate of in the MABF’s bylaws regarding how to deal biosphere reserves, poor communications, with such conflict left the BOD with few limited community and First Nations options. By the 2011 AGM, the nature of the involvement, and a lack of progress on local break down was publicly voiced by Directors initiatives”. The problems that existed were well and members through speeches and known by the MABF executive. However, a grandstanding, but suggested changes to the lack of procedure at Board meetings and the bylaws promoted by the majority of the Board perceived advocacy role of Biosphere Reserves did not pass a vote (75% + 1). Proposed by some of the new MABF Directors and mediation to try and resolve differences within members remained key impediments to moving the BOD was put forth as a recommendation, forward. It was noted by Directors and staff, but this failed to receive unanimous support. including Karen Hunter that not all Directors were willing to embrace UNESCO’s

21 For the remainder of 2011, much of the early after, the City of Parksville Council passed a energy and resolve that had sustained the resolution to give the MABF minimal biosphere reserve was reduced, but funded administrative support while it pursued other programming continued to be delivered by staff. governance options. The MABF AGM in 2012 Board meetings were cancelled for a brief occurred without incident, and no general period and when they resumed, one Director meeting occurred in 2013, as is permitted by BC resigned and there were considerable lapses in Society Act regulations. attendance by another. However, the small group that remained continued to work towards Regular discussions continued in 2013, and a the goal of developing and submitting a Strategy community-university management partnership and Action Plan to the IAC as required for the MABR between Vancouver Island including: completing reporting requirements University (VIU) and the City of Parksville required by the BC Society Act and began to emerge for the management of the Environment Canada, the federal funding biosphere reserve. In mid-year, a Memorandum agency, supporting existing programs and of Understanding outlining this partnership was initiatives, and revising the governance of the drawn up and put forward to both the University MABF. The latter included the suggestion to and City for consideration. This news was close the Society and pass on the privilege of communicated to CBRA, the CCU and Canada managing the MABR to others. MAB through email channels, and presented in person to officials at the bi-annual meeting of In 2012 and 2013, much of the small working EUROMAB, which that year took place in Board’s activities focused on both gathering Brockville, Ontario. MABR representatives who information and preparing the MABR Strategy attended this meeting believed that the positive and Action Plan to respond to issues raised by communications at this meeting were the earlier Periodic Review and investigating instrumental in deciding the fate of MABR. alternate management systems for the MABR. In July 2012, the MABF Board proposed that In 2014, news from UNESCO disseminated via the Regional District of Nanaimo manage the Canada MAB stated that the MABR’s Strategy MABR as a Community Service. This and Action Plan had been accepted and the proposition was declined principally due to the threat of losing BR designation was eliminated. financial obligations of a new Service, but soon Dissolving the MABF was then immediately

22 proposed and accepted by the MABF that a “reserve” is an area that is somehow membership, with the understanding that the protected or preserved from development, which management of the MABR would then be is incorrect for most of the MABR’s area; and 3) passed to a new governing body comprised of the area is more accurately a region than a Vancouver Island University, the City of reserve by geographic definition. Parksville, and other future members with jurisdictional interests in the MABR. A final In addition to the Roundtable, faculty and MABF AGM was held to announce and students at VIU initiated the development of a celebrate the transition of the MABR new research institute with a focus on creating designation to the new partnership. new applied, community-based, participatory research initiatives that connect issues in the THE MOUNT ARROWSMITH community to undergraduate and graduate BIOSPHERE REGION – 2014 TO THE student researchers. The Mount Arrowsmith PRESENT Biosphere Region Research Institute (MABBRI) The new MABR governance model includes was founded in mid-2014 and to date has funded VIU, the City of Parksville, Snaw-Naw-As First the involvement of over 120 students in a wide Nation, Qualicum First Nation, two private variety of research projects. Highlights include forestry companies, the Town of Qualicum working with the City of Parksville on a Beach, representatives from provincial agencies, Community Park Master Plan and Parks and and two community members. The Board Trails Plan, with the Snaw-Naw-As First Nation operates as a Roundtable with quarterly on a “Garden of Spiritual Healing”, eelgrass and meetings that address issues of shared interest. bull kelp monitoring projects, and various other marine and terrestrial based restoration and An initial action undertaken by the Roundtable mapping projects. To finance this, the Institute was the renaming of the entity as the Mount has been successful in attracting substantial Arrowsmith Biosphere Region (instead of funding from a wide variety of foundations and Reserve). This change was made for several government sources. reasons: 1) the term “reserve” has a legal meaning in Canada, relating to the assigning of The new management structure and the lands for Canada’s Indigenous communities; 2) activities being conducted by the Institute have the term has other English meanings that imply thus led to significant advancement in achieving

23 the mandate and goals of the MAB Programme. 6) We leave personal wants outside. 7) We are open to new perspectives, we seek to The management structure – a roundtable – is understand where each person is coming from, recommended for other biosphere reserves and we share information and beliefs in an environment of trust. grappling with issues of contested space and 8) We listen to each other and work together to jurisdiction. All roundtable members, which at ensure that everyone has an opportunity to speak. present do not include the authors of this article, 9) We keep personal stories that are shared in recognize that the seven First Nations with confidence inside this room. 10) We arrive and depart feeling at ease, and we unceded territory on the east side of Vancouver look forward to meeting again.” Island where the MABR is defined hold the closest ties to the land and water and the The MABRRI has also been a significant feature strongest jurisdiction. The members also in the new success of the MABR. The energy recognize that while there is very little land in and endless capacity of students to engage in the MABR that is classified as parkland by any community-based applied research has enabled level of government, creative ways need to be the MABR to raise its profile among both the found to benefit the human/nature connection. worldwide biosphere reserve scientific Taking a solution-focused approach has also community and, more importantly, the local worked well for the roundtable, as has the community. Vancouver Island is known to be a adoption of a meeting “Culture of Engagement” prime destination for retirees from across document, which states: Canada and the United States, and many of “At the Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Region these individuals bring decades of experience Roundtable, we engage with one another and relating to the human/nature connection. with the land and culture around which we gather in the following ways: MABRRI has accessed some of this knowledge 1) We acknowledge the Traditional Territories through the development of Technical Advisory within which our meetings are held. 2) We demonstrate respect for Indigenous Committees which bring local residents in to protocol as individuals and as a group, advise students on project development and upholding the MABR’s Guiding Principles for Collaboration with First Nations. protocols, and increasing these ties to 3) Our communication is open, honest, community is the major focus of MABRRI in transparent and unemotional, and we are comfortable and willing to discuss potentially 2018/19. sensitive topics. 4) Before entering the gathering place, we hang bad feelings on a nail outside the door. 5) We work together to reach common goals for the betterment of our region.

24 LESSONS LEARNED OVER 20 YEARS sustainability is a more nebulous goal than 1. Margaret Meade stated that “Never doubt undertaking a specific activity, such as that a small group of thoughtful, committed building a fish ladder or removing invasive citizens can change the world; indeed, it's species. In the MABR Area, there are many the only thing that ever has.” This was true existing groups working on important, with respect to achieving recognition of the specific, task oriented initiatives, and instead MABR. However, moving forward after of duplicating these, a biosphere recognition without any dedicated funding management committee is better suited to: posed challenges that in hindsight perhaps 1) act as a coordinating umbrella should have been dealt with differently. The organization over a variety of community approach adopted was to try to obtain initiatives, and so support many initiatives funding directly from its own initiatives, and identify where gaps may exist in the whereas perhaps the focus should have been overall achievement of cultural, economic on establishing different and more and environmental sustainability; and 2) to appropriate connections and collaborations participate in international in long-term within the community to allow engagement monitoring activities efforts, such as of a broader group in this endeavour. GLORIA and with Smithsonian Biodiversity monitoring protocols. Communication on 2. Funding (or the lack of funding, more these facts is extremely important, and specifically) was always an issue for the should be a major component of any MABR, even before it became designated as biosphere reserve’s activities to ensure a biosphere reserve. It is difficult to attract maximum buy-in to the concept. The MABF volunteer resources when the first agenda in its early stages neither had the capacity item is always “fund raising,” and trying to nor resources to achieve this as successfully develop a different approach might in as was desired. hindsight have been desirable from the outset. 4. It is important to think and act outside the “box of convention” as demonstrated by Dr. 3. The overarching biosphere reserve concept Jamieson’s success in achieving initial can be difficult for many to grasp and MABR recognition. While acknowledging identify with: working toward achieving that community projects require buy-in by

25 society in their initial phases to be slate of elected directors that were not acceptable to key players, community focused on achieving either UNESCO’s inclusion does not necessarily need to follow requirements or the BR mandate. Again in established formats. Establishing the MABR hindsight, society membership should thus in the early 2000s was in hindsight again too have been restricted. This kind of open constraining. It is a perhaps one of the governance structure is therefore not reasons why UNESCO altered the recommended for societies that hope to designation application to be very specific achieve a functional process for BOD about the nature of community level support appointment and replacement. desired. In British Columbia, societies and Unpredictably, stable funding under these not-for-profit groups generally have an open circumstances did not support the membership that is achieved through achievement of required identified BR registration or the payment of a membership objectives. The new MABR management fee. For the MABR, in an effort to be as structure now being used has avoided this inclusive as possible, membership was open problem by implementing a roundtable to all with only a relatively inexpensive governance model (i.e., no open annual membership fee that allowed for membership, and with both appointed BOD take-over with minimal effort. For the directors and community advisors to the first 14 years when the MABF had no board) that meets to discuss issues of shared significant funding, this was not an issue, interest and to create opportunities for the largely as membership was low (6 to 20 Research Institute. members per year). However, once some significant operational funding was realized 5. In Biosphere Reserves a poor level of in 2008, members from other more funding can hinder the acquisition of advocacy-focused groups in the community committed volunteers and thus BR actions saw this as a way to advance their own as they attempt to meet MAB objectives specific interests. An open membership outlined in the Seville Strategy (1996) and process allowed the entire Board of the Madrid Action Plan (2008-2013). In the Directors of the MABF to be changed at the case of the MABR, there was burnout 2009 AGM, i.e., to have the agenda of the among the few committed directors, and society replaced and determined by a new frustration among experienced directors

26 because of the lack of resources to achieve 1990s through its evolution into an effective, what they desired to do. The result was great functional biosphere region in 2016. There have director turnover and a lack of capacity, with been many successes and challenges over this the resulting inability to really achieve the time period, but the end result is positive and the full potential of the biosphere reserve momentum is now in place to lead to significant concept. future achievements. While many challenges remain, notably around ongoing funding, there 6. Biosphere Reserves require strong local is widespread community support for this leadership and ties to local governance in biosphere region and many active projects are order to realize and implement the BR now underway. It is hoped that by documenting concept. If local governments do not value our experiences, other biosphere regions the BR as a community asset, it will be less (reserves), and those under consideration can likely to achieve outcomes over time that learn from our setbacks and achievements. will be satisfactory to UNESCO. In the case of the MABR, the value of the BR concept was recognized by local communities, even ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS with all the challenges that occurred after We thank Dr. Pam Shaw, VIU, for her 2009, which was why a new, more constructive comments, her adding the most functional management model was recent descriptions of how the MABR is now structured, its achievements and its on-going ultimately developed for the MABR. With projects; and for her coordination in publishing strong municipal government support and this document. As with most BR initiatives, the active involvement of the local academic many people have contributed over the past 25 research community, i.e., MABBRI and years to where we are today, and their support Vancouver Island University, the MABR and efforts are recognised and appreciated. The has overcome its early operational authors especially wish to especially acknowledge the hard work and dedication of difficulties and has now become an Kari Nelson, Chris Burger, Nicole Muchowski, effective, dynamic, functional organization. Joy Wade, Jim Boggs, David Witty, Holly Clermont, and Peter Rothermel, all MABF SUMMARY Directors who were a joy to work with and who This report outlines the developmental history were absolutely essential to the establishment of the MABR from its conception in the early and ultimate successful outcome of the MABR.

27 REFERENCES Canadian Biosphere Reserves Association Jamieson, G., G. Francis, G. Whitelaw and N. (CBRA). 2012. CBRA Annual Report 2012- Ruttan. 2008. Canadian biosphere reserve 2013. 25 pp. Available at: approaches to the achievement of sustainable http://static1.squarespace.com/static/5735fdc137 development. International Journal of 013b8eeb217d63/t/57a8c43dd482e9bbf170d516 Environment and Sustainable Development /1470678086884/2012-13_Annual- 7(2): 132-144. Report_CBRA.pdf Madrid Action Plan. 2008-2013, Clermont, H., (Ed.) 2011. The State of Mount http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0016/001633/ Arrowsmith Biosphere Reserve: Global and 163301e.pdf . 32 pp. Climate Change in Mountain Sites (GLOCHAMOST) Report 2011. Available at: Seville Strategy. 1996. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002147/ http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001038/ 214702E.pdf 103849Eb.pdf. 19 pp

Fraser, R. and G. Jamieson. 2003. Community Dr. Glen Jamieson was a federal Fisheries and Environmental Education: Challenges Within Oceans research scientist when he initiated the the Biosphere Reserve Concept. Prospects 33 Mount Arrowsmith Biosphere Reserve initiative (3): 293–302. in 1993, initially in stock assessment and later in DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025531610879 conservation biology, before retiring as an emeritus scientist in 2008. After 2009, while no Jamieson, G.S. 1997a. A proposal for the Mount longer directly involved in MABR management, Arrowsmith World Biosphere Reserve. Leading he participated “behind the scene” in helping to Edge 97, The Edge and the Point Conference. achieve a new management structure to Session 6: 289-292. overcome the problems described above, and continues to support the MABR in whatever Jamieson, G.S. 1997b. Establishing a Biosphere way he can. reserve: The proposed Mount Arrowsmith World Biosphere Reserve Experience. Leading Karen Hunter is a biologist who was hired in Edge 97, The Edge and the Point Conference. January 2011 as the MABR Coordinator. When Session 6: 285-288. funding terminated in 2012, she became a Director of the MABF where she represented MABR at regional, national, and international levels, and led the transition of the MABR to its new administrative home in 2014. Karen is employed as the Climate Response Program Lead at Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Science Branch since 2012.

28 REVIEW ARTICLE BIOSPHERE LANDSCAPES: PRINCIPLES AND LOCAL PRACTICES CHALLENGING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA 1 Tekalign Tafese Gebretsadik (Ph.D. student), Department of Natural Resource Management, College of __Agriculture & Natural Resource, Wolkite University, Ethiopia 2 Aden Abdurahman Shekur (Ph.D. student), Department of Natural Resource Management, College of Agriculture & Natural Resource, Dilla Universities, Ethiopia

*Correspondence: [email protected] ; Tekalign Tafese; P.O.Box: 07, Wolkite University, Wolkite, Ethiopia; Tele: +251943206455

Abstract: participation, and delivery. The aim of this article is A biosphere reserve is a unique kind of protected to review the existing empirical literature about the area that differs from national parks and other consistency of principles of BR with local practice kinds of protected natural areas having three very and challenging factors associated with successful different, but equal, aims: conservation, scientific management of BLs in Africa. The review collects research and monitoring; and sustainable relevant and recent articles published globally and development. MAB was launched in 1971 and the African context and used reports of UNESCO MAB BR network in 1976. Currently, WNBR had grown program and AfriMAB to see the current status of to include 686 BR in 122 countries, including 20 the program globally and African context. trans-boundary sites. AfriMAB regional network, contains 79 BR recognized as part of the WNBR, Key words: UNESCO, Biosphere Reserve, across 28 countries. Pre-Seville (1976 to 1995) and Landscape, Sustainable Development, Africa post-Seville (1996 to 2018) phases of BR, there exists both success and less success stories globally 1.0 Introduction and in African. The first phase lays its philosophy World's biological treasures threatened to an on strict environmental protection, i.e. strict BR to extent no previous generation has experienced serve science while the second delimited along (Philip J. and Michael S., 1995). As of Plato “what sustainable resource use principle, therefore, can now remains compared with whatever then existed is be defined as Biosphere landscape management. like the skeleton of a sick man, all the fat and soft The notion of converting the concept’s implications earth having wasted away, and only the bare into reality at international, national and local framework of the land being left” (Philip J. and scales raises a number of challenges arise from Michael S., 1995). Looking back on 100 years, three main functional factors leads to failure and or enormous change has observed in relationship with success of biosphere landscape i.e., BR designation,

29 the earth and human; like high population increase, ecological and environmental sciences (Ishwaran et development of world economy, need for natural al., 2008). The principles behind the development resources increased exponentially, and converted and management of biosphere reserves have evolved land from natural ecosystems to managed landscapes rapidly over the years and continue to develop as at a rate unprecedented in history. These altered lessons are learned from past experiences, and every natural ecosystem on the planet, and in the innovative policies and strategies are explored process, countless species became extinct and many (Philip J. and Michael S., 1995). others are now threatened. If it continues to The global growth in the number and area of indifferently transform the biosphere, the layers of BRs, as well as the concept’s further evolution crust, water, and atmosphere that support life on the toward the implementation of the SDGs are already earth, and if it continues to disrupt the ecological fundamentally positive developments (Susanne S. interactions and flows in our oceans, deserts, forests, and Tim, 2017). New reserves are designated every mountains, fields, and lakes, it threaten very year by the International coordinating Council for the existence by disrupting the fragile relationships that programme, established by UNESCO in the early maintain our life support system (Philip J. and 1970s; a body with a rotating elected membership of Michael S., 1995). 34 UNESCO Member States. The Man and the Biosphere reserves are areas comprising Biosphere Programme is an intergovernmental terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems designed scientific programme that aims to improve relations to deal with one of the most important questions the between people and their natural environment world facing; to reconcile conservation of (Maureen G. and Merle M., 2013 and C. Starger biodiversity and biological resources with human 2016, and UNESCO, 2018 b). The biosphere reserve activity through the sustainable use of natural principle, as promoted by UNESCO’s Man and the resources. One of their objectives is to give rise to Biosphere programme, combines biodiversity innovative sustainable development practices conservation with a strong cultural focus. It is (UNESCO, 1996, 2003, and Ana F. et al., 2018). The therefore considered a promising approach to Biosphere Reserve Program emerged to play a mitigate the loss of biodiversity and to foster prominent role in efforts to integrate biological sustainable land use while putting the needs of local diversity conservation and sustainable development. people and ethnic minorities at its core. This is The biosphere reserve concept originated as a tool for particularly appropriate in culturally diverse international cooperation, addressing issues and countries (Renée M., 2015). problems at the interface between nature The BR network was launched in 1976 conservation, interdisciplinary research and (UNESCO, 2008). BR is an international designation monitoring and educational prerogatives in the granted by UNESCO’s MAB Programme (Ishwaran,

30 et al., 2008), and Presently, (a as of 2018) had grown integration of their ecological, social and economic to include 686 BR in 122 countries, including 20 potentials, and set up a framework of genuine trans-boundary sites distributed across regional sustainability governance (Susanne S. and Tim, networks of BR (UNESCO, 2018). International 2017). Yet, BRs still need to build (more) trust Coordinating Council of the Man and the Biosphere through real relationships with communities and Programme also had withdrawn 40 BR sites from other relevant stakeholders (Stoll S., and O’Riordan WNBR during the (MAB ICC) meeting in Paris, T. 2018). France (UNESCO, 2018). The notion of converting the concept’s Adopting the framework of the UNESCO implications into reality at international, national and MAB programme, the regional network of African local scales raises a number of challenges (Ishwaran Man and Biosphere (AfriMAB) was created in 1996 et al., 2008). The implementations of UNESCO’s and institutionalized in 2010 during its first General Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme have Assembly, with the aim of building and never been officially documented and much strengthening the capacity MAB National undervalued framework in South Africa (Pool R., Committees and BR Mangers to promote BR as 2013). In the two phases of BR, pre (from 1976 to privileged tools of experimentation in conservation 1995) and post Seville strategy (1996 to present) of environment and sustainable development there exists both success and less success stories (AfriMAB, 2017). The AfriMAB network was globally and in African context (C.Van et al., 2017). established with no legal status but has statutes and Problems are also argued in the use of the internal rules (AfriMAB, 2017). Under UNESCO’s word “reserve,” which appears to convey the Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB), there are message of an area where people are excluded which 79 BR recognized as part of the World Network of in negative connotation for inhabitants in South BR in regional network of Africa as of 2018. These African BR while a more positive-sounding BRs are distributed across 28 countries (UNESCO, alternative exists in Austria, where BRs are called 2018). Biosphere Regions (Stanvliet 2014, and Stoll and The endeavor of sustainable development O’Riordan 2018). In addition, there is a generalized requires BR to move further towards embracing lack of information about how biosphere reserves are more integrated and effective forms of sustainable being managed and governed, and at what point their livelihoods for their inhabitants. This means placing goals are being achieved, which limits a better people at the heart of BR policy and management, understanding of the factors influencing biosphere and enabling to become pioneers and ambassadors reserve management effectiveness (Ana et al., 2018). for realizing effective sustainable development. BR Therefore, this paper tries to review the historical and related institutions have to work towards true development of BR, the general principles and frame

31 works related to its practical implementation and Reports of BR showing progress in different time challenges to assure sustainable BLs in African frame are presented in table and figure format. context, taking in to account some published articles. General Objective 2.0 Biosphere Landscape To review existing empirical literature about In the 1960s UNESCO, as the UN agency the consistency of principles of BR with local with responsibility for science, developed a new practice and challenging factors for successful programme dealing with human biosphere management BLs in Africa interactions, the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Specific objectives programme. It was a ground breaking programme, - To review how principles of BLs are seeking to use UNESCOs convening power in consistent with local practices in Africa? education, natural and social sciences, culture and - To review factors challenging successful communication to forge a new way of understanding management of BLs in Africa the natural world and the role of people in it. MAB Materials and methods blended new science direction with an innovative site For this article we collected relevant articles based approach, the Biosphere Reserve, (Peter, 2016, published globally and African context. The reviews and UNESCO, 2008). MAB was launched in 1971 collected in this special issue seek precisely to after the 1968 conference on the rational use and elucidate what is known about challenges of conservation of the resources of the biosphere’ implementing biosphere landscape under UNESCO (Batisse, 1986), as a progression from the MAB program and the degree of confidence International Biological Program (IBP; Di Castro, associated with available knowledge. We also used 1976), while this conference is referred to as the reports of UNESCO MAB program and AfriMAB to ‘Biosphere Conference’ (UNESCO, 1993 cited in see the current status of the program globally and Kaera L. et al., 2013 ). African context. The review distilled knowledge MAB was formally endorsed by U.N. from more than 100 research articles, and Member States at the U.N. Conference on the collectively the interventions assess cover more than Environment (the first "Earth Summit") in 1972. The 686 biosphere reserves of the world. For the review original aim of MAB was to establish protected areas analysis articles published in the last 10 years are representing the main ecosystems of the planet in considered to show the current picture of the which genetic resources could be protected and program. But reports and general information and research and monitoring could be carried out. These definitions are used from their early inception of protected areas were to be called "biosphere idea. We properly acknowledge for all relevant reserves" in reference to the MAB program's name materials used as a reference through citation. (Batisse 2019, UNESCO, 2008 and 2017). The BR

32 as a concept and a tool of UNESCO has an origin in conservation, and only secondarily with research and the protected areas domain but has now evolved into sustainable development. By design, there is no an international designation that allows context- single model for running BR, but there are two specific conservation and development relationships common underlying principles: the management to be developed in land and seascapes where more system of a BR needs to be open, not closed to than 80% of the designated area lies outside of community concerns; and it needs to be adaptable to legally protected core zones (Ishwaran et al., 2008). changes in local circumstances. BRs are meant to be Biosphere reserve is an international designation places where communities can work in concert with granted by UNESCO’s MAB Programme, seen as a the area's land-managing agencies, local successor to the International Biological Programme governments, schools, and other institutions to (IBP). IBP was non-governmental endeavor of design responses to external political, economic, and international research program that come to an end social pressures that affect the ecological and cultural in 1974 had focus on scientific issues having limited values of the area (UNESCO, 2008). abilities and insufficient emphasis on areas at the The word "biosphere" refers to the three regions interface where neighboring ecosystems met of the Earth capable of being occupied by living (Ishwaran, 2012). The concept expanded into the organisms (UNESCO, 2008). This includes as development dimension and noted at the First described below in Fig.1. International Congress on Biosphere Reserves in 1. The surface of the Earth (land, oceans, lakes, Minsk, Belarus in 1983, and which matured at the rivers, and other waters); Second International Congress on Biosphere 2. Close-lying subsurface areas occupied by plants Reserves in Seville, Spain in 1995 (Ishwaran et al., and animals (including microorganisms), 2008). 3. The low-altitude atmosphere where birds, A BR is a unique kind of protected area that insects, other flying animals, and plants can live. differs from a national park, wilderness area, national If you imagine a cross section of the Earth in forest, or wildlife refuge in having three very space, a side view of the planet as if it were cut in different, but equal, aims: conservation of genetic half from top to bottom, the biosphere would be a resources, species, and ecosystems; scientific very thin slice of the total picture; no more than the research and monitoring; and promoting sustainable "skin" of the Earth along with the area just above development in communities of the surrounding and below it. The word "biosphere" therefore region (UNESCO, 2008). All three of these aims are conveys a special quality of rarity and value, and of equally important in a biosphere reserve while life's inherent fragility. This, then, is the basic national parks and other kinds of protected natural concept behind the name "Man and the Biosphere"; areas usually are primarily concerned with the life supporting areas of Earth are valuable and

33 fragile, and need to be treated with care by human beings (UNESCO, 2008).

In the phases of BR program, these functions need to be implemented within a defined landscape and delimited according to interconnected zonation system along a progression from preservation to The concept of BR originated as a tool for sustainable resource use (Mehring and Susanne international cooperation, addressing issues and 2010, Pool 2013 and GIZ, 2016). Given that strict problems at the interface between nature environmental protection and development are not conservation, interdisciplinary research and usually mutually exclusive; BRs have a generalized monitoring and educational prerogatives in the spatial zonation of acceptable land uses relative to ecological and environmental sciences (Ishwaran et proximity to conservation areas. Different land uses al., 2008). Hence, inevitably the origin and the fall into zones of permissible access and enforced evolution of the concept has enjoyed an interactive controls (Kaera L. et al., 2013). relationship between MAB’s interdisciplinary A terrestrial BR consists of core, buffer and research, training and educational agenda and the transition zones as described in fig.2 above. The nature conservation and related socio-economic natural and an inner core area is an undisturbed and development interests of the global environmental legally protected ecosystem (strictly protected and conservation communities (Ishwaran et al., areas), buffer zones surrounds the core area, and is 2008). The network is a key component in MAB’s managed to accommodate a greater variety of objective of achieving sustainable balance between resource use strategies, and research and educational the sometimes conflicting goals of conserving activities (delimited for management purposes on biological diversity and promoting economic sustainable land use) and an outer transition zone is development, and maintaining associated cultural the outermost part of the BR (an area of active values. BRs are sites where these objectives are cooperation between reserve management and the tested, refined, demonstrated and implemented local people, wherein activities including (UNESCO, 2008). settlements, cropping, forestry, recreation and other economic uses continue in harmony with people and

34 conservation goals). The functions support the notion Asia and the Pacific. From the World Network of BR of sustainable development as it is widely used today program BR, USA takes major share of withdrawal (Mehring and Susanne S., 2010, and Pool R., 2013). history (45percent of BR), 17.5percent from Current Status of Biosphere Reserves of the World: Australia and 10percent from each of Austria, Post and Pre-Seville Period Bulgaria and UK ((Martin et al., 2010, UNESCO, The essence of the BR concept is about the 2018 and www.unesco.org). All have been voluntary combination of three complementary functions: removals by member states themselves, recognizing conservation of biological and cultural diversity (of divergence between the status of the BR and the landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic ideals of the BR concept (Kaera L. et al., 2013). variation), sustainable development in terms of The first phase of BR from 1976 to 1995, lays its cooperation with local populations (fostering philosophy on Western form of conservation economic development which is ecologically and focusing conventional ecological learning (Reed and culturally sustainable), and logistical support Massie, 2013). During the first phase of BR (research, monitoring, education and training designation, Europe and North America; i.e. through participation) (UNESCO, 1996, and Western, Eastern and Central Europe, USA and Mehring and Susanne S., 2010). The Man and the Canada, comprised more than 50percent of the total Biosphere Program (MAB) was launched in 1971 number of sites in the World Network (Ishwaran et and BR network in 1976 (UNESCO, 2008, and al., 2008). However, the post-Seville period (second Ishwaran et al., 2008). As of 2018, BR has grown to phase) marks the first time that the total number of include 686 BR in 122 countries, including 20 trans- biosphere reserves in Africa, Arab States, Latin boundary sites distributed across regional networks America and the Caribbean and Asia and the Pacific of BR as described in fig. 3 below (UNESCO, 2018). together exceeded the number in Europe and North Failure to fulfill the criteria set in Statutory America as described in fig 3 below (Ishwaran et al., Framework, that allow individual BRs to meet the 2008). basic conservation, development and logistic roles The second phase, i.e. from 1996 to present, expected of a site of excellence may eventually lead where the need and interest of local people become to a site’s UNESCO ‘BR’ status being revoked more important in determining the locations of and (Martin et al., 2010, and Kaera et al., 2013). implementing research programs associated with International Coordinating Council of the Man and BRs. This approach has its root on 1987 World the Biosphere Programme withdrawn 40 BR sites Commission on Environment and Development from world network of BR program, 82.5percent of (Brundtland Commission) and ongoing international sites from regional network of Europe and North discussions that focus the existence of people as part America while 17.5percent from regional network of of conservation solution (UNESCO, 1996).

35 reserves in different countries. To improve collaboration and partnerships WNBR has well- coordinated with each other through thematic network such as the World Network of Island and Coastal BR and five regional networks to set-up of trans-boundary BRs; twin arrangements between two sites in different countries; and establish sub- regional, regional and thematic networks. These are regional networks of Africa, Arab States, Asia and the Pacific, Europe and North America, and Latin America and the Caribbean, and s as described below in table 1. This networking has great role for better Since the second phase of BR (1996) networking and communication among BR implementation of the program focus on managers, researchers and other stakeholders (C. incorporating mutually nonexclusive concepts of Starger 2016 and www.unesco.org ). ecological and social learning. Since then, the idea of In the two phases of implementations success who should learn and about what was being learned and failure to achieve the criteria, objective and shaped the purpose and philosophy and further principles set by UNESCO MAB program is complicated the criteria for site selection and altered observed across the regions of World Network of the ability to assess effectiveness of biosphere BR. The review indicate that top countries having the reserve as exemplary of conservation and sustainable highest number of nominated successful BRs are development (Reed and Massie, 2013). Canada and Germany (8 sites), Vietnam (5 sites), Principal UNESCO Regions and Achievement in the Mexico, Spain and South Africa (4 sites each). Six two phase commonly nominated less successful BRs were BR is nominated by national governments spread across five countries (Australia, Chile, Kenya, and remains under the sovereign jurisdiction of the the US and Thailand) (C.Van et al., 2017). Thirty states where they are located. Their status is sites (10 post-Seville and 20 pre-Seville BRs) across internationally recognized (www.unesco.org ). WNBR were nominated as less successful, as an Building on activities at the site and national levels, example Australia (7 sites) and Germany (4 sites) are the encouragement of collaborative activities, at the countries having the largest number of less bilateral, sub-regional and regional levels is a crucial successful BRs (C.Van et al., 2017). link in contributing to the development of the Post-Seville generation had the highest WNBRs, and in promoting the exchange of proportion (59percent) in the list of the successful information and experience between biosphere

36 sites, while a significant percentage (41percent) of the zonation of the nominated area (Ishwaran et al., successful sites belonged to the pre-Seville 2008). generation. There is perhaps no better set of internationally networked areas where conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and its relationships to broader regional sustainable development perspectives could be studied and tested and the gained experience and knowledge shared amongst all nations of the world (Ishwaran et al., 2008). Large numbers of sites from the first and The contemporary concept of incorporating second generation are not fully compatible with the mutually nonexclusive concepts of ecological and Seville vision. social learning officially introduced a new function It is at this level of matching scientific and to BR: sustainable development involving the technical analysis of the periodic review and conservation of cultural diversity and livelihood. implementing the recommendations of the review for Even though the classical ecologist viewed the the whole BR that practice lags significantly behind approach as destructive or degrading of biodiversity, thinking and conceptualization can be seen in the the function of BR in the phase was recognized and case of the Amboseli Biosphere Reserve in Kenya affirmed the importance of understanding and (Ishwaran et al., 2008). Pre-Seville BRs were learning about human environmental interaction selected according to their relevance in regard to (UNESCO, 1996). biological conservation and potential research The post-Seville period marked the time interests. Thus, most of these sites had already been when biosphere reserves were not considered merely declared national parks or equivalent areas where as protected areas and additional zones, but seen as research activities and management facilities could ecosystems and landscapes where sustainable be used or enhanced (Mehring and Susanne S., development, characterized by a context-specific 2010). In this era BR were characterized by two relationship between biodiversity conservation and primary functions: conservation of biodiversity and socio-economic growth, came to be viewed as the support of related scientific research (Ishwaran, et essence of the governance and management of the al., 2008). As such ecological learning dominated designated area (Ishwaran et al., 2008). Most of post- during this period and considered as BR served Seville sites, 98percent of the designated sites had science (G.Reed and M. Massie, 2013). More than described all three zones in the nominations 40percent of first generation of sites did not describe submitted by the states and included in the World Network. Among the post-Seville sites, about

37 11percent of the total area constitutes the legally with communities and other relevant stakeholders protected core zone; 32percent of the total area (Stoll and O’Riordan 2018). Under UNESCO’s Man comprises the buffer zone and 57percent make up the and the Biosphere Programme (MAB), there are 79 transition zone (Ishwaran et al., 2008). biosphere reserves recognized as part of the World Biosphere Landscapes in Africa Network of Biosphere Reserves in Africa as of 2018 Africa is home to a rich and diverse animal, as described below in table 1. These are distributed plant, and marine biodiversity that provide critical across 28 countries (South Africa 10 sites, Kenya 6 ecosystem services, driving the continent’s economy sites, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Senegal, and Tanzania, and serving as buffers to climate change. However, 5 sites each, and Morocco, and Guinea 4 sites each the continent is experiencing a dramatic loss of constitute more than 50percent) recognized as part of biodiversity (The World Bank Group, 2019). It is the World Network of Biosphere Reserves in Africa. estimated that by 2100, climate change alone could Biosphere reserves in Sub-Saharan Africa are cause the loss of over half of African bird and organized in the AfriMAB regional network. While mammal species, as well as trigger a 20 – 30percent Biosphere reserves in Northern African countries decline in lake productivity (the plant and animal life belong to ArabMAB, UNESCO's regional MAB produced by a lake), and a significant loss of plant network i.e., Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Sudan, species. Even more immediate are the ongoing Tunisia and Mauritania totally having 22 BR sites threats to African biodiversity from natural habitat (Algeria registered 8 sites and each of Morocco and loss and degradation (especially from agricultural Tunisia registered 4 sites, Sudan 3 sites and Egypt 2 expansion), direct overexploitation of wildlife and sites) belong to ArabMAB, UNESCO's regional fishery species (including from illegal hunting and MAB network for Arab countries, (UNESCO, 2018 trade), and the spread of certain non-native invasive and www.unesco.org ). species (Wachira et al., 2001 and Nakileza et al., Democratic Rep. of Congo is the first African 2017). This loss of biodiversity affects livelihoods, country to be recognized as part of the World water supply, food insecurity, and lessens resilience Network of Biosphere Reserves, by registering two to extreme events, particularly for people living in sites (Yangambi and Luki BR) in 1976. Tunisia, rural areas who are often the poorest (The World Mortious, Nigeria, Mauritius, Cote D'ivoire, Congo, Bank Group, 2019 and Nakileza et al., 2017). Central African Republic joined the world network The global growth in the number and area of of BR in 1977 and Kenya in 1978 (UNESCO, 2018) BRs, as well as the concept’s further evolution as described above in fig. 4. toward the implementation of the SDGs are already Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, Sao-Tome and fundamentally positive developments. Yet, BRs still Principe, Malawi, Guinea Bissau and Togo joined need to build (more) trust through real relationships world network of BR only in post-Seville period

38 (after 1996), registered a total of thirteen sites and strategy; the management system of a biosphere DR.Congo, Congo, CAR, Coted'-Ivoire, Gabon, reserve needs to be open, not closed to community Rwanda, Nigeria, Mauritius, Mali and Cameroon concerns; and it needs to be adaptable to changes in registered only during pre-Seville BRs with a total of local circumstances. Biosphere reserves are meant to seventeen sites while other African countries be places where communities can work in concert registered in both periods. with the area's land-managing agencies, local governments, schools, and other institutions to design responses to external political, economic, and social pressures that affect the ecological and cultural values of the area (UNESCO, 2008). The Lima Declaration and Action Plan, serve as the roadmap that can focus the MAB Programme on achieving sustainable development (Starger 2016). The post-Seville vision as the hallmark of the biosphere reserve appeals essential link between conservation and development promoted by many Out of 10 BR in S. Africa 9 of them were policy and decision-makers. This vision seems to joined the network in the post-Seville while 5 of the have also been more attractive to countries in many BR in Kenya registered in pre –Seville and 1 in post- parts of the developing world, particularly since Seville period (UNESCO, 2018) as described above 1992, as the ecosystem approach to management of in fig. 4. biodiversity and biological resources received endorsement from the Conference of Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Ishwaran et al., 2008). UNESCO, 2018c described are eight recommended standard framework as essential steps towards successful BR management which are not Principles and Implementation Challenges in Africa mutually exclusive, but rather complementary. These Principles and Framework of Biosphere reserve. are participatory platform, policy integration, Each biosphere reserve has its own system of partnership and networking, periodic review, governance to ensure that it meets its functions and strengthen administration, legal recognition, objectives. By design, there is no single model for promoting existing framework, and strategic running biosphere reserves, but there are two dissemination of the framework. Often it is found common underlying principles in post Seville

39 useful to set up a committee or board that coordinates three main functional factors leads to promoting and all biosphere reserve's activities. Usually a hindering of BLs i.e., BR designation, participation, coordinator is named as the contact person for all and delivery. matters dealing with the biosphere reserve Periodic reviews of Biosphere Reserves in Africa. (UNESCO, 2008). The periodic review is an important event in Implementation Challenges. the life of a biosphere reserve (Martin et al., 2010). Developing a sustainable BLs is an enormous Periodic reviews are required to understand whether challenge in the face of the ever increasing demands the structure of zones within the BR; i.e., its design on the earth’s natural resource (Huntley et al., 1992). is sufficient to meet BR objectives. Additionally, in Diversity of factors potentially influences the keeping with the Statutory Framework of 1995, capacity of BLs to achieve their goals. BLs is not reviewers have also drawn attention to whether islands (Ana et al., 2018) they are influenced by the management and governance systems are adequate intertwined effects of social and ecological for assuring that biodiversity conservation and contextual factors at different spatial and temporal sustainable development objectives are addressed scales. They are dependent on a set of inputs to be (Reed and Egunyu 2013). Periodic review occurs managed and governed, which are also associated ones every ten years of the functioning, zoning, scale with a diversity of scales and actors. The varied and the implications for the populations in the strategies used to manage and govern social– reserve. It also makes it possible to evaluate the ecological systems in BLs are also important, evolution of the various functions of the reserve, be because they trigger social and ecological changes, it conservation, research, education or sustainable and not only in a positive way (Ana F. et al., 2018). development. Failure to do periodic review processes If BRs want to become an accepted local may result withdrawal from WNBR (Martin et al., partner, all relevant stakeholders and the local people 2010). should have the opportunity for their voices to be The review indicate that more than 370 heard. Engaging communities in the governance and periodic review reports were received by the management of BRs is a complex one that involves Secretariat and examined by the MAB International many hurdles. Factors beyond the control of the BLs co-coordinating Council in World Network of communities and their management, such as Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) (UNESCO, 2018). As structural poverty, corruption, and weak governance, of UNESCO, 2018 report, out of 35 Pre-Seville sites may overrule even the best-designed programs, with designated in AfriMAB regional network 48.5, 42.9, degradation and destruction of biodiversity as the and 8.6percent reviewed two times, one time, and final output of these failures (Stoll S., and O’Riordan never been reviewed as described respectively. T., 2018). Generally, C. Van et al., 2017, identified Among AfriMAB regional network, BR never been

40 reviewed belongs to Central Republic of Africa (two The post-Seville period marked the time sites), and Rwanda (one site) as described below in when biosphere reserves were not considered merely fig.5. as protected areas and additional zones, but seen as Out of 44 Post-Seville sites designated in ecosystems and landscapes where sustainable AfriMAB regional network, 6.8, 22.7, and development, characterized by a context-specific 70.5percent of BR sites reviewed 2 times, one time relationship between biodiversity conservation and and never been reviewed respectively. Most of Post- socio-economic growth, came to be viewed as the Seville, due to their early registration (less than ten essence of the governance and management of the years) they were not goes through review process designated area. The realization of this vision, (Fig.5). The review of UNESCO, 2018 report particularly at the local level, continues to be indicate that one BR in each of Niger, Benin and challenged by complexities in zonation and land Burkna-Faso, goes through joint and national review tenure, inadequate science, research, education and process. monitoring and inappropriate governance and coordination mechanisms for moderating stakeholder interests throughout the biosphere reserve (Ishwaran et al., 2008). Although on paper BRs seem to offer innovative thinking toward socially inclusive environmental management and are designed to be laboratories of research and education, they are experiencing different degrees of effectiveness in Local Practice of Biosphere reserve. realizing their prescriptive functions with regard to

Local practice refers to the entire range of addressing SDGs (Stoll S. and O’Riordan T. 2018). actions and activities that facilitate the expression BRs face a number of challenges, both familiar and and implementation of the biosphere reserve new (Stoll and O’Riordan 2018). Biosphere reserves concepts developed at international level to be have been initiated by the UNESCO to expand the executed at specific BR level (Ishwaran et al., 2008). idea of nature conservation to a network of model The zonation of core areas or other restrictions in the regions for sustainability they have not been in the use of natural resources may conflict with local focus of sustainability transitions research (Armin, property rights, commercial interests, or local 2018). people’s perceptions of the main problems in the Tesfu et al., (2018) reported that 75percent region (Stoll and Riordan 2018). user activities are illegal in Yayu BR of Ethiopia. Levrel and Bouamrane (2008) also indicated that due

41 to clearly defined use rights in West African BR, They can be seen as priority areas and large-scale illegal exploitation of natural resources in core areas laboratories for observation of the effects of global results biodiversity erosion. Tesfu et al., (2018) change on ecosystems (e.g., significant warming and indicate that extraction of products from Yayu BR in increased nitrogen deposition). Ethiopia; 65percent fuel wood removal and charcoal Reports by Andrew et al., 2017 indicate that production, 60percent bush meat hunting, 45percent high unemployment, poverty, lack of opportunity, livestock grazing, 40percent logging for local use, lack of sectorial communication is major factor 35percent fodder collection, 30percent of challenging Waterberg Biosphere Reserve in South uncontrolled land conversion to their farming Africa. Levrel and Bouamrane (2008) also indicate activities and 25percent of settlement on BR territory that local communities have few viable livelihood were undertaken illegally. Ayele 2011, and Matthias options and scarce fertile land around West African 2015 report also indicates that the same trend of BR BR leads to threat biodiversity. Report by Alfsen and utilization in parts of Kaffa Coffee Forest BR, Benjamin (2002) in South Africa indicate that the Ethiopia which results forest fragmentation. greatest enemy of the environment is human poverty. Population Pressure and Economic Dependency. Equally, one of the greatest causes of human poverty In both emerging and developed countries, is environmental degradation. The interdependencies world’s population represents one of the greatest are not limited to poverty. To control nature is to challenges to ensuring basic human welfare and the control people; hence armed conflict, migration, and functioning of viable ecosystems (Lotze C. et al., disease are at times all intimately tied to ecological 2008 and Stoll and O’Riordan 2018). The resources, their scarcity, and relationships with accelerating loss of biological diversity in many people. Economic development needs, particularly in world regions is one of the key results of developing countries like ecotourism, green energy, unsustainable human-nature interactions (Lotze et branding and product certification and alternative al., 2008). C. Van et al., 2017 indicated that lack of income activities in BR appear a significant finance and skilled human resource was considered limitation in practice (Van et al., 2017). the important contributor to biosphere failure in both The pressure on agricultural land in the wake developed and developing countries. Whereas the of the sharp increase in meat and dairy-product poor people who inhabit them have only limited consumption and the concomitant demand for huge access to basic services, are deprived of meaningful swathes of terrain devoted to massive feed participation in decision-making, and face extreme cultivation (especially of soya and maize) constitute vulnerability to natural disasters, urban areas are also a major problem that is detrimental to the loci of concentrations of knowledge, innovation, and implementation of BRs worldwide. The productive resources that could be used for UBRs. consequences of the accompanying dramatic

42 increase in the intensification of agriculture have not S. Africa. The Western Cape is the only province that spared BRs, and the land-grab plague now affects has promulgated a Biosphere Reserve Act (in 2011) BRs and other protected areas on every continent (Stanvliet 2014). It is a regulatory act to support the (Stoll and O’Riordan 2018). establishment, management and funding of Institutional and logistic problems. biosphere reserves in the province (Pool R., 2013). The management framework developed with Identifying appropriate authorities and institutions strong local and regional integration based on the that can influence governance and management combination of top-down and bottom-up regimes also challenges implementation of the participation and consultation process leads to program. More than 80percent of post-Seville sites success stories in BR. This framework integrated designated area is not under any protected areas different interests of conservation, agriculture, legislation. The protected area manager has no forestry, economy, research and environmental jurisdiction beyond the core, in buffer and transition education (C.V. Cuong et al., 2017). zones (Ishwaran, et al., 2008). Similar reports is also Strong government and stakeholders' observed by C. V. Cuong, et al., 2017; indicating that commitment ensures the long-term finances and the operation and management effectiveness of BR resources that lead successful implementation (C.V. in Vietnam is hindered by the predominant practice Cuong, et al., 2017). Most BR in Africa depends on of sectorial and top-down control, and relatively external funding; there for fails to meet its goal with weak legal status of BR within the national low and unsustainable funding (AfrimMAB, 2017). framework. Inadequate institutional framework and low Political Participation and Cooperation. will is also other problem to facilitate effective Local participation and cooperation with implementation of BR in South Africa (Pool 2013 stakeholders can create a synergy for sustainable and Andrew et al., 2017). Reports of Pool 2013 management (L. Schultz et al., 2010 and L. Durand indicate that the dedicated funding support for BLs and L. Bernardo 2011). Successful BR management from South Africa’s national government is still very requires more experimentation with participatory limited and almost impossible. Inadequate capacity methods and a more systematic reflection of success to implement MAB programme can also cause on and failure factors (Stoll and O’Riordan 2018). implementation of BR. There is a lack of clarity in Strong stakeholder engagement supported terms of who must do what at which level, causing formulation of good participatory governance in BR planning inertia and poor decision making (Andrew helps to ensure successful implementation of BR et al., 2017). program (C.V. Cuong, et al., 2017), whereas, lack of The review also indicates that the legal cooperation (lack of participation) and standing of biosphere reserves remains a challenge in communication are the most important constraints

43 blocking the way to successful implementation of unwanted development (Stanvliet 2014). The review activities for sustainable development (Mehring and indicates that problems are argued in the use of the Susanne 2010, and Weldemariam et al., 2016). word “reserve,” which appears to convey the The various official plans emphasize that message of an area where people are excluded which participatory and good management approaches, in negative connotation for inhabitants in South allowing multiple stakeholders to be an integral part African BR while a more positive-sounding of BRs, manifest themselves in effective partnerships alternative exists in Austria, where BRs are called through cooperation across all governmental levels, Biosphere Regions (Stoll and O’Riordan 2018). the private sector, mass media, civil society According to Tesfu et al., (2018) most farmers Yayu organizations, indigenous and local communities, as BR in Ethiopian had limited skills for biodiversity well as research, monitoring, and education centers management and conservation. Ayele, 2011 also (Stoll and O’Riordan, 2018). Weak involvement of reported that local communities have very stakeholders’ resources augmented with poor insignificant knowledge about the concept of BR in awareness and visibility activities as a tool for parts of Kaffa Coffee Forest Biosphere Reserve, development at policy and decision makers and Ethiopia. conflicting interest from various sector poses Opportunities for Sustainable Function of problem on successful management of BR Biosphere Landscape (AfrimMAB, 2017). BRs are a coordinated global network of Report by Pool 2013 indicate that the earlier protected areas designed to ensure the conservation establishment of the BR was very much a top-down of global biological diversity. These protected approach and oral communication with a strong landscapes, under the auspices of UNESCO and its element of spatial planning and development and Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Program, are based later BR designation with community-driven on the premise that it is possible to achieve a initiative and to pro-actively conserve and promote sustainable balance between the conservation of indigenous people with rich history in S.Africa. biological diversity, economic and social Awareness and Communication. development, and the maintenance of associated The benefits of implementing the MAB cultural values. BL is also centers of cooperative framework through BR must be made very clear research, education, and environmental monitoring (Pool 2013). Despite stern efforts by a group of BR (Batisse 1982, MAB 1987, US-MAB 1994 cited in practitioners, the concept it still not well known and (Nyhus and Adams, 1995, and Stoll and O’Riordan sufficiently supported in S. Africa. In South Africa, 2018)). WNBR of the MAB Programme consists of however, BR is often wrongfully perceived as a a dynamic and interactive network of sites. It works conservation instrument with which to block to foster the harmonious integration of people and

44 nature for sustainable development through management tool with which to integrate people and participatory dialogue, knowledge sharing, poverty the environment in a manner that supports the reduction, human well-being improvements, respect country’s natural and cultural conservation and for cultural values, and by improving society’s sustainable development objectives while improving ability to cope with climate change. It promotes human well-being (Pool, 2013). North-South and South-South collaboration and The MAB Programme has been seen as a represents a unique tool for international cooperation vehicle for implementing provincial policies as well through the exchange of experiences and know-how, as a strategic partner in support of provincial agendas capacity-building and the promotion of best such as sustainable development, climate change practices. adaptation, environmental education and training in The BRs have huge potential as landscapes S. Africa. One of the added values of the BR concept where socio-ecological land management can be lies in its international designation and its practiced towards a more sustainable future for all international affiliation by UNESCO stamp of (Pool, 2013). Biosphere reserves may offer a unique approval (Pool, 2013). The BR concept is very much opportunity to understand pathways for more in line with modern thinking of landscape sustainable social–ecological systems. Their management because it seeks to balance ecological ambitious goals match the huge challenges we requirements with the economic needs of people currently face, including halting biodiversity loss and living in these particular areas. For this reason it is ending poverty (Ana et al., 2018). potentially one of the greatest instruments to promote According to Mehring and Susanne (2010), collaboration across administrative and political BRs with the typical zonation of core, buffer, and boundaries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, while transition zone generally seem to be an appropriate demonstrating a practical implementation of instrument in terms of natural (forest) resource sustainable development (Pool, 2013). conservation. Biosphere Reserves that the MAB BR fosters collaborative thinking about the Programme could play a more prominent role in future management of a defined space. They promote government strategies related to poverty alleviation, decentralization of decision-making whilst environmental sustainability, social upliftment, promoting collaboration and co-management transformation and economic development. The practices between all stakeholders (Pool, 2013). It is local level in areas adjacent to BR, it is desirable to argued that BR creates a platform of to share have some economic growth from which local knowledge and ecologically sound practice with in people directly profit (Susanne and Tim O’R., 2017). the world network of biosphere reserve that act as Within the South African context the biosphere model regions or “real world laboratories” and reserve concept should be realized as a valuable land therefore play an important role in the gathering of

45 knowledge about the complex processes of culture, interdisciplinary research, monitoring and sustainability transitions (Armin, 2018). evaluation. These sites are laboratories of harmonious The focuses and principle of managing interaction between people and nature, allowing for biosphere reserve in two phases of implementation advances in the sciences and in traditional vary with concept and philosophical arrangement. knowledge. They facilitate the sharing of knowledge, Pre-Seville BRs lays its philosophy on Western form promote the interaction between science and society of conservation focusing conventional ecological and help bring concrete improvements to the lives of learning. Given that strict environmental protection local populations (Stoll and O’Riordan 2018, and and development are not usually mutually exclusive; UNESCO, 2018 b). The program employs science to therefor it can be said strict BR considered to serve harmonize relationships between people and their science while in the second phases (post Seville) of environments to achieve the goal of improving BR program, these functions need to be implemented human livelihoods while safeguarding natural within a defined landscape and delimited according ecosystems. Biosphere reserves encourage research to interconnected zonation system along a into biodiversity loss, climate change, environmental progression from preservation to sustainable monitoring, and sustainable development. This work resource use; in such case it could be defined as develops solutions relevant to local cultures and Biosphere landscape. Therefore, the terminology environments (Stoll and O’Riordan 2018). (Biosphere Reserve Vs. Biosphere Landscape) has to 4.0 Conclusions be an arguing concept with their nature of It is a well-known fact that the future of our comprehensive thoughts arose in the two phases of world as we know it is in jeopardy. If carefully biosphere program implementation. executed, the biosphere reserve concept does have a The finding indicate that three main future with socio-ecological land-management functional factors leads to failure and or success of strategies and biosphere reserves could indeed live biosphere landscape i.e., BR designation, up to their reputation as ‘special places for people participation, and delivery. These challenges and nature. The future of the MAB Programme in specifically arise from local level practice of weak Africa could be more secure if it recognizes that it stakeholder participation and collaboration, addresses the focus areas of national government, governance and institutional arrangement, namely climate change mitigation and adaptation, population pressure and economic structure, finance and social development including poverty alleviation and resources, management, and awareness and and job creation with the realm of multi stakeholder communication are the most influential factors for participation, focus on endogenous knowledge and failure of the biosphere reserves in Africa. Keeping with the Statutory Framework of 1995 periodic

46 review occurs ones every 10 year, to evaluate the Sustainability, 3608; doi:10.3390/su10103608 various functions of the reserve, be it conservation, Andrew Lyon, Philippa Hunter-Jones, and Gary research, education or sustainable development and Warnaby (2017) Are we any Closer to Sustainable Development? Listening to as well as attention to whether management and active stakeholder discourses of tourism governance systems are adequate for assuring that development in the Waterberg Biosphere Reserve, South Africa, Tourism Management biodiversity conservation and sustainable 61, Pp. 234 to 247 development objectives. Globally, until 2018 more Armin Kratzer, (2018), Biosphere reserves as a model region of sustainability transitions? than 370 periodic review reports were received by Insights in to the peripheral mountain area WNBR. Out of pre-Seville sites designated in the Grosses Walsertal (Australia), Applied Geography 90, pp. 321 – 330 regional network of AfriMAB 48.5, 42.9, and Ayele Kebede Gebreyes (2011), Delimiting the 8.6percent of sites two times, one times and never Interface between Garden Coffee Expansion and Forest Coffee Conservation and its been reviewed respectively. While post-Seville sites Implication for Protected Area Management: of it 70.5, 22.7, and 6.8percent of sites never been The Case of Kafa Coffee Biosphere Reserve A Thesis Submitted to the Master of Science reviewed, one time and two times respectively. CR. Programme, University of Klagenfurt In Africa and Rwanda are countries having pre-Seville Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in sites never been reviewed. Management of Protected Areas (MPA, For successful implementation of the BLs University Of Klagenfurt Brian Huntley, Exequiel Ezcurra, Eduardo R. concept needs to be clearly understood and applied Fuentes, Koichi Fujii, and Peter J. Grubb through landscape zoning. Designated reserves then (1992) A Sustainable Biosphere: The Global Imperative the International Sustainable need a management system with inclusive good Biosphere Initiative, Ecological Society of governance, strong participation and collaboration, America, Vol. 73, No.1, Pp.7-14 Christine Alfsen-Norodom and Benjamin D. Lane adequate finance and human resource allocation and (2002) Global Knowledge Networking for stable and responsible management and site Specific Strategies: The International Conference on Biodiversity and Society, implementation. Environmental Science & Policy 5, Pp. 3–8 Chu Van Cuong, Peter Dart, Marc Hockings, (2017), Biosphere reserves: Attributes for 5.0 References success, Journal of Environmental AfriMAB, (2017), Holding at International Institute Management 188, 9 - 17 for Tropical Agriculture, 5TH Session of the Chu Van Cuong, Peter Dart, Nigel Dudley, and Marc General Assembly of the African Network on Hockings (2017) Factors influencing Man and the Biosphere (Afrimab), (Iita), successful implementation of Biosphere Ibadan, Nigeria Reserves in Vietnam: Challenges, Ana F. Ferreira, Heike Zimmermann, Rui Santos and opportunities and lessons learnt, Henrik von Wehrden, (2018), A Social– Environmental Science and Policy 67, pp., Ecological Systems Framework as a Tool for 16–26 Understanding the Effectiveness of Craig Starger (2016) Biosphere Reserves as Living Biosphere Reserve Management, Laboratories for Sustainable Development,

47 Future earth Blog, Research, Innovation and Ltd. World Development Vol. 39, No. 4, Pp. Sustainability 662 -671 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Marion Mehring_ and Susanne Stoll-Kleemann Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH (2016): (2010), Principle and practice of the buffer Biosphere Reserves Inspiring Action for zone in biosphere reserves: from global to Agenda 2030, Bonn and Eschborn, Germany local –general perspective from managers Feyera Senbeta, Tadesse Woldemariam Gole, versus local perspective from villagers in Manfred Denich, and Ensermu Kellbessa Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, Springer- 2013, Diversity of Useful Plants in the Coffee Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, Pp. 413 – 430 Forests of Ethiopia, Ethnobotany Research & Martin F. Price, Jung Jin Park and Meriem Applications Vol11/i1547-3465-049-069 Bouamrane (2010) Reporting Progress on Harold Levrel and Meriem Bouamrane (2008) Internationally Designated Sites: The Instrumental Learning and Sustainability Periodic Review of Biosphere Reserves, Indicators: Outputs from Constriction Environmental Science & Policy, Vol.13,5, Experiments in West African Biosphere pp. 4 9 – 5 5 7 Reserves, Ecology and Society 13 (1), 28 Maureen G. Reed and Felicitas Egunyu (2013), Hermann Lotze-Campen, Fritz Reusswig, and Management effectiveness in UNESCO Susanne Stoll-Kleemann (2008) Socio- Biosphere Reserves: Learning from Ecological Monitoring of Biodiversity Canadian periodic reviews, e n v i r o n m e n Change – Building upon the World Network t a l s c i e n c e and p o l i c y 2 5, Pp. 1 0 7 – of Biosphere Reserves GAIA 17/S1, Pp. 1 1 7 107–115 Maureen G. Reed and Merle M. Massie, (2013), Ishwaran, N., Persic, A. and Tri, N.H. (2008) Embracing Ecological Learning and Social ‘Concept and practice: the case of UNESCO Learning: UNESCO Biosphere Reserve as biosphere reserves’, Int. J. Environment and Exemplars of Changing Conservation Sustainable Development, Vol. 7, No. 2, Practice, Conservation and Society 11(4): pp.118–131. 391 – 405 Kaera L. Coetzer, Edward T. F. Witkowski and Mersha Yilma, Mapping and Cataloguing Barend F. N. Erasmus, (2013), Reviewing Community Resources in Ethiopia, MELCA- Biosphere Reserves globally: effective Ethiopia conservation action or bureaucratic label? Michel Batisse (1985), Action Plan for Biosphere Biological Reviews, 000–000, Cambridge Reserve, Environmental Conservation, 12 Philosophical Society (1), pp. 27 – 27 Katherine Cunningham 2017, The Benefits of Nakileza Bob Roga, Wilem Ferguson, Festus Integrating Biodiversity Conservation and Bagoora (2017) Transboundary Climate Change Adaptation in Global Conservation Areas in African Mountains: Development, A Global Knowledge Portal Opportunities and Challenges for Addressing for Climate and Development Practitioners, Global Change, Earth Sciences, Vol. 6, No. Blog post 6, pp. 117-126, doi: Leticia Durand and Luis Bernardo Vázquez (2011) 10.11648/j.earth.20170606.13 Biodiversity Conservation Discourses. A Natarajan Ishwaran, (2012), Science in Case Study on Scientists and Government intergovernmental environmental relations: Authorities in Sierra de Huautla Biosphere 40 years of UNESCO’s Man and the Reserve, Mexico, Elsevier, Land Use Policy Biosphere (MAB) Programme and its future, 28, 76–82 Environmental Development 1, Pp 91–101. Lisen Schultz, Andreas Duit and Carl Folke (2010) Peter Bridgewater (2016), The Man and Biosphere Participation Adaptive Co-management, and programme of UNESCO: rambunctious child Management Performance in the World of the sixties, but was the promise fulfilled? Network of Biosphere Reserves, Elsevier Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 19:1–6,

48 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.08.0 The World Bank Group, (2019) This is What it’s All 09 About: Protecting Biodiversity in Africa Philip J. Nyhus and Michael S. Adams (1995), UNESCO (1996), Biosphere Reserves: The Seville BIOSPHERE RESERVES of the World Strategy and The Statutory Framework of the Principles and Practice, Department of World Network, UNESCO, Paris Botany and Institute for Environmental UNESCO (2008) Draft Report from the U.S. Studies, University of Wisconsin participants at the Third World Congress of Pool-Stanvliet R. (2013), A history of the UNESCO Biosphere Reserves, What are biosphere Man and the Biosphere Programme in South reserves all about? Madrid, Spain Africa, South African Journal of Science UNESCO (2017), A New Road Map for the Man and 109(9/10), Art. #a0035, the Biosphere (MAB) Program and its World http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/sajs.2013/a0035 Network of Biosphere Reserves MAB Renée Moreaux (2015) Potential of further Strategy (2015 – 2025), Lima Action Plan UNESCO-Biosphere Reserves in Ethiopia, (2016 – 2025), Lima Declaration, ISBN 978- Terrains / Fieldworks 92-3-10020-6-9, Paris, France Ruida Stanvliet (2014) The UNESCO MAB UNESCO (2018), World Network of Biosphere Program in South Africa: New Criteria for Reserves in Africa, Africa: 79 biosphere Future Designation Based on Empirical reserves in 28 countries Ecological Sciences Studies of Existing Biosphere Reserves, for Sustainable Development, Paris, France Inaugural dissertation CapeNature, UNESCO (2018)b, Twenty-four new sites join Stellenbosch, South Africa UNESCO’s World Network of Biosphere Schöller, Matthias (2015) Biodiversity of Beetles Reserves, Mount Huangshan Biosphere (Coleoptera) in Areas under Participatory Reserve, China Forest Management in Kafa Biosphere UNESCO (2018)c, A Standard Framework for Reserve, Ethiopia, Conference on Biosphere Reserve Management Informed International Research on Food Security, by Sustainability Science, Jakarta, Indonesia Natural Resource Management and Rural UNESCO, (1996) Biosphere reserves: The Seville Development organized by the Humboldt- Strategy and the statutory framework of the Universität zu Berlin and the Leibniz Centre World Network, UNESCO, Paris, France for Agricultural Landscape Research UNESCO, (2003), Editor: Cathy Lee, and Samantha (ZALF)Tropentag, Berlin, Germany Wauchope; The Importance of Sacred Stoll-Kleemann S., and O’Riordan T. (2018) Natural Sites for Biodiversity Conservation, Biosphere Reserves in the Anthropocene. In: International Workshop on the Importance of Dominick A. DellaSala, and Michael I. Sacred Natural Sites for Biodiversity Goldstein (eds.) The Encyclopedia of the Conservation Kunming and Xishuangbanna Anthropocene, vol. 3, p. 347-353. Oxford: Biosphere Reserve, People’s Republic of Elsevier. China; United Nations Educational, Susanne Stoll-Kleemann and Tim O’Riordan, (2017) Scientific and Cultural Organization The Challenges of the Anthropocene for (UNESCO), Paris, France Biosphere Reserves, PARKS Vol. 23, pp. 89 Wachira K., Muluka B., & Wepundi M. (2001) Mt – 100 Elgon Conflict: A Rapid Assessment of the Understanding of Socio-Economic, Tesfu Fekensa, Weldemariam Tesfahunegny and Governance and Security Factors, Amani Asersie Mekonnen, (2018) Impact of human Papers. UNDP/OCHA. activities on biosphere reserve: A case study Weldemariam Tesfahunegny, Tesfu Fekensa, from Yayu Biosphere Reserve, Southwest Getachew Mulualem (2016) Avifauna Ethiopia, International Journal of Diversity in Kafa Biosphere Reserve: Biodiversity and Conservation, Vol. 10(7), Knowledge and Perception of Villagers in pp. 319-326 Southwest Ethiopia, Ecology and

49 Evolutionary Biology. Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 7- (20019), Conflicts between biodiversity 13.doi: 10.11648/j.eeb.20160102.11 conservation and development in a biosphere Worku M (2017) Lake Tana as Biosphere Reserve: reserve, British Ecological Society, Journal Review, J Tourism Hospit 6: 310. doi: of Applied Ecology, 46, 527–535, Blackwell 10.4172/2167-0269.1000310 Publishing Ltd Zhijun Ma, Bo Li, Wenjun Li, Nianyong Han, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Networ Jiakuan Chenand and rew R. Watkinson, k_of_Biosphere_Reserves_in_Africa

50

INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT OF CHANGES IN WETLAND TYPES IN THE SONGOR BIOSPHERE RESERVE, GHANA

Richard Adade1*, Denis Worlanyo Aheto1, 2, Dickson Yaw Agyeman3

1Centre for Coastal Management, School of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Coast 2Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Coast 3Songor Ramsar Site, P.O. Box 73, Ada Foah

*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected], Tel: +233 24 2530909

ABSTRACT: The Songor wetlands form an ecolog- for fish and crop production. The study strongly ically valuable resource in Ghana, providing nu- recommends that various stakeholders should be merous support for biological diversity. Despite its involved in the management of the Songor Ramsar relevance, studies have shown that overexploita- site and the regulator should institute stringent tion due to developmental activities and overde- monitoring of the wetland due to the constant an- pendence on their values for livelihood pose a thropogenic pressure. threat to the existence of the wetlands. This study investigated long-term changes that have occurred Key words: Songor wetland, Remote sensing; Per- as a result of human activities in the area over a 25 ceptions, Human disturbances, Biodiversity con- servation year period (1990-2015). Landsat TM and ETM+ and OLI/TIRS images were used to categorize and quantify the changes in the various wetland types. 1.0 Introduction

Local perceptions of the riparian population on the Wetlands are one of the most important ecosys- historical changes and drivers for the changes tems in the world. They occupy about 6 percent of were also sought to complement the assessment. the earth’s surface and vary according to origin, The study revealed that, lagoon/lake and inter- geographical location, hydro-period, chemistry, tidal forested wetland experienced increase in spa- and plant species (Nyarko, 2007). They play an tial extent while seasonal/intermittent and perma- immense role in the survival of man by providing nent marshes experienced a decrease over the 25 services such as water quality maintenance, agri- year period. Among the various land use activities cultural production, and habitat for fish and wild- undertaken in the Ramsar site agriculture was seen life species (Tijani et al., 2011). Communities that to have greatest impact on biodiversity conserva- live around wetlands in many parts of the world tion through truncation of streams in upland areas 51 depend directly and indirectly on them for their the Centre for African Wetlands in 2014 on land livelihoods (Aheto, et al., 2011). use and land cover indicated that between 1990 Despite these advantages, wetlands have been and 2007, there has been an estimated loss of considered “wastelands” (Williams, 1993) and, 57.6% of healthy vegetation cover from 3,087 hec- therefore, subjected to degradation through dredg- tares to 1,308 hectares at the site. Field observa- ing, flooding, filling and excavation for various tions and satellites images analysis of the Songor land use activities. In most places, increasing pop- biosphere reserve depicts that the wetland land- ulation and subsequent demand for more wetland scape show spatially fragmented patches with de- resources to sustain livelihoods have resulted in creasing configuration and composition (Adade et conversion of wetland types to different land uses, al., 2017). The current situation, if allowed to con- thus accelerating their degradation and threatening tinue, is likely to result in biodiversity loss from biodiversity conservation and sustainable devel- the wetland, consequently diminishing both the lo- opment of wetland areas. cal and international significance of the wetland. The Songor wetland serves as a feeding, nesting Therefore, this study investigated long-term wet- and roosting site for water birds, while the coastal land changes that have occurred as a result of hu- stretch serves as nesting sites for marine turtles man and developmental activities in the area for and fish species. The mangroves serve as habitat the periods between 1990 and 2015. This is to im- for diverse wildlife species. To ensure sustainable prove understanding of wetland functions and help use of the site resources and to enhance the bene- decision makers implement policies and adopt fits derived from the wetlands by the local com- management approaches for the protection and munities, it was designated as Songor Biosphere conservation of wetlands. Reserve as part of the World Network of Bio- 2.0 Study Area sphere Reserves in 2011 by the United Nations The study area is the Songor Ramsar Site (5° Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 45′0′′N 0° 30′0′′E) located in the Damgbe East (UNESCO), based on ecological communities in- District in Ghana, as shown in Fig. 1. It is about cluding water bird populations whose presence re- 79 km from the national capital, Accra, and is the late to the international importance of the site second largest Ramsar site along the coast of (UNESCO, 2011). Despite its relevance, the Son- Ghana. The Songor wetland covers an estimated gor wetlands are under increasing threat from area of 51,133.3 ha and is the only natural point over-exploitation and degradation. According to where the Volta River enters the sea. The bounda- Yeboah, Nii-Moe and Nani (2013), there is a per- ries of the site include the West Bank of the Lower ceived loss of the ecosystem services. A study by Volta River estuary and the Songor lagoon. It was 52 designated a Ramsar wetland site of international and Pute (25). The survey targeted residents in the importance number 14 in August 1992. In 2011, communities who have lived in the site for at least UNESCO approved the Songor Biosphere Re- 25 years. The number of selected respondents var- serve as part of the World Network of Biosphere ied between communities because of differences Reserves (UNESCO, 2011). Among several other in populations. Descriptive statistics was em- important functions, the Songor Ramsar Site acts ployed in analyzing the close-ended questions in as a habitat and breeding ground for several nota- the schedule with the help of Statistical Product ble species of water birds such as black winged for Service Solution (SPSS) version 21. The open stilt. Major land use activities in the Songor area questions were categorized under common include farming, livestock grazing, fishing, salt themes. Photographs were taken as part of the ob- production, recreation and settlement. servation to back data collected with the other tools. The interview data are presented primarily using tables, graph, pictures and narrations.

3.2 Secondary data collection and analysis

In addition to the field data, secondary data such as satellite images, aerial photograph and topo- graphic maps of the study area were also used. Three Landsat imageries of the years 1990 (TM),

Figure. 1. Map showing the core and buffer areas of the Son- 2003 (ETM+) and 2015 (OLI/TIRS) were freely gor Biosphere Reserve in Dangme East District of Ghana. downloaded from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) website. Acquisition dates of the 3.0 Materials and Methods multi- temporal satellite data fell within an equiv- 3.1 Field data collection and analysis alent season. Ortho-photos and topographic maps Both primary and secondary data were used for the of the study area were also obtained from the De- study. Data from the field was based on field ob- partment of Geography and Regional Planning servation, informal interviews and field measure- (DGRP) of the University of Cape Coast. ments. The field observations were undertaken to The satellite images were subjected to processing identify physical features such as vegetation types operations such as stacking single bands, radio- and other land use activities. Interviews were con- metric and geometric corrections in ERDAS 2013 ducted in communities and the number of respond- software and subsetted using the boundary poly- ents were Obane (7), Osaya (10), Otrokper (18) gon of the core and buffer areas of the reserve. The 53 subset images were then geometrically registered 4.0 Results to each other before all other image processing and 4.1 Wetland types and distribution in the Core and analyses were performed. In the wetland classifi- Buffer areas cation process, bands 1,2,3,4 and 5 of Landsat TM, The core area is designated to protect rare and sen- EMT+ and bands 2,3,4,5,6 and 7 of Landsat sitive plants and animal species with land use ac- OLI/TIRS were used. The study employed both tivities mostly restricted in the area. As shown in unsupervised and supervised classification algo- Table 3 and Figure 2, Lagoon/lake was the domi- rithms. Unsupervised classification was done to nating wetland type in this area. It occupied aid in the exploration of the wetland types. Nor- 4130.28 ha, 5281.21ha and 5647.23h ha in 1990, malized Vegetation Index (NDVI) were generated 2003 and 2015 respectively. Intertidal forested for 1990 Landsat TM, 2003 Landsat ETM+ and wetland also increased steadily within the core 2015 Landsat OLI/TIR to help in the categoriza- area. From 1990 to 2003 it increased from 343.71 tion of the wetlands. Thereafter, four wetland clas- ha to 569.07 ha and then increased to 574.83 ha in ses were identified on the three images based on 2015. The seasonal/intermittent and permanent the Ramsar classification of wetland type (Table marshes occurring at the eastern and south-eastern 1). The wetland classes include: lagoon/lake, inter- portions of the core area, however, continue to de- tidal forested wetland, seasonal marshes, perma- crease significantly. From 1990 to 2003, sea- nent marshes and non-wetland. sonal/intermittent and permanent marshes reduced Table 1: Description of wetland categories based on Ramsar significantly by 221.85 ha and 141.48 ha respec- classification system for wetland type tively. More so, from 2003 to 2015 they further Wetland class Description reduced by 440.46 ha and 259.29 ha respectively. Inter-tidal forested wet- It includes mangrove swamps and lands tidal freshwater swamp forests. Similarly, considering the Buffer Area (Table 3

Permanent marshes It comprises marshes and swamps and Figure 2), Lagoon/lake was the most prevalent with emergent vegetation water- logged for at least most of the wetland type in the area which permeated the mid- growing season. dle sectors of the study area with small isolated Seasonal/intermittent Its include sloughs, potholes, sea- Marshes sonally flooded meadows, sedge patches occurring in the eastern fringes. It covered marshes. 2886.48 ha, 4281.21 ha and 4625.19 ha in 1990, Lagoon/lake This constitute brackish/sa- line/fresh water lagoons and lakes 2003 and 2015 respectively. The area under Inter- tidal forested wetland increased from 749.07 ha in

1990 to 1328.94 ha in 2003 and 1491.66 ha in 2015. Seasonal/intermittent marshes reduced sig- nificantly in area from 1735.83 ha in 1990 to 54

1498.05 ha in 2003 and 910.53 ha in 2015. Simi- larly, permanent marshes which formed the third most predominant wetland class in 1990, reduced from 1739.07 ha in 1990 1402.29 ha in 2003 and 646.29 ha in 2015. These wetland types remained consistent in the south-eastern part of the buffer area giving way to other land use/cover types.

Table 2: Buffer and Core Area statistics for 1990, 2003 and 2015 (Hectares) Figure 2: Wetland types distribution in 1990, 2003 and 2015 1990 2003 2015

Wetland Core Buffer Core Buffe Core Buffe Type area area area r area area r area 4.2 Total Changes in Wetland types and Trend Lagoon/lake 4130.3 2886.5 5259.6 4281. 5647. 4625. 2 2 2 The trend analysis of the Songor wetlands re- Inter-tidal 343.7 749.1 569.1 1329. 574.8 1491. forested wet- 0 7 vealed some changes in the spatial extent of the land four wetland types over the 25 year period of the Seasonal/in- 1218.6 1735.8 996.8 1498. 556.3 910.5 termittent 1 study (Figure 3). Lagoon/lake experienced the marshes larger increase while permanent marshes experi- Permanent 740.1 1739.1 598.6 1402. 339.3 646.3 marshes 3 enced the large reduction. From 1990 to 2003, la- goon/lake and inter-tidal forested wetland experi- enced an increment in area while seasonal/inter- mittent marshes and permanent marshes experi-

enced a reduction in area. From 2003 to 2015, the

same trend continued with lagoon/lake and inter-

tidal forested wetland experienced an increment in wetland area while seasonal/intermittent marshes and permanent marshes experienced a reduction in area.

55

used the site as pasture for small-scale free range Permanent marshes livestock production. Seasonal/intermittent marshes Inter-tidal forested wetland

Lagoon/lake 60.0 50.0 38.0 -100 -50 0 50 100 40.0 32.0 28.0 30.0 24.0 2003-2015 1990-2003 20.0 10.0 8.0 6.0 10.0 Percentage 0.0 Figure 3: Percentage change in wetland types from 1990-2003 and 2003-2015

4.3 Land Use Activities in Songor Biosphere Re- Land use activities serve Figure 4: Land use activities in Songor Biosphere Human activities have shown to have a significant Reserve influence on all aspects of wetland ecosystems.

Thus it is essential to understand how humans in- terfere with the landscape systems. All the re- 4.4 Perceived Causes of Wetland Degradation and Loss spondents indicated that the reserve was important There are both natural and human causes of deg- for their livelihood and supported a vast number radation in wetland ecosystems. However, the of residents within the catchment areas. Figures 4 Ramsar Convention Secretariat (2007) suggested shows the major land use activities and their sea- that the Ramsar site wetland degradation is mostly sonal calendar in the Songor wetland site respec- as a result of human activities rather than natural tively. The respondents were engaged in seven events. The above assertion was in tandem with main socio-economic activities: These were fish- respondent’s views as they identified a total of ing (26.0%), crop production (21.9%), salt pro- seven human causes of wetland degradation and duction (19.2%), harvesting natural herbaceous loss shown in Table 3. The results presented in Ta- vegetation (16.4%), building and construction ble 3 indicates that wetland degradation in the site (6.8%), tourism (5.5%) and livestock grazing is largely caused by agricultural activities (4.1%). The results indicate a high demand for (36.1%), followed by road construction (26.9%), wetlands goods and services by the residents saltpan construction (15.4%), changing weather within the site. The least of the respondents (4.1%)

56 pattern (11.5%), solid/liquid waste disposal physical extent of Songor lagoon from 1990 to (6.7%), and landfilling (3.4%). 2015 as result of the increase in the level of unsus-

tainable salt mining by small-scale artisanal salt

Table 3: Perceived causes of wetland degradation and loss miners around the lagoon. Salt extraction was also

Perception Frequency Percentage identified as a cause of degradation in the site (Ta- ble 3). The construction of evaporating ponds and Agriculture 75 36.1 crystallising pans in the flatlands lead to biodiver- Road construction 56 26.9 sity losses. This arises from destruction of man-

Saltpan construction 32 15.4 groves and benthic communities as a result of scraping material from the bottom of the lagoon Landfilling 31 14.9 during pan construction (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1992). Solid/liquid waste 14 6.7 The embankment constructed in the lagoon during disposal salt production act as barriers, preventing free Total 208* 100 movement of fish within the habitat. This practice

*Frequency is more than 60 because of multiple responses according to Hanski and Gagiotti (2004) may iso-

5.0 Discussion late the fish species population into sub-popula- tions. It may also lead to the displacement of some 5.1 Driving factors for the observed changes in wetland resources and introduce some invasive Wetland types species into the system. Salt production occurs

The analysis from the satellite images of the Son- during the dry season from November to April, gor wetlands over the 25-year period, revealed which overlaps with the non-breeding season of some changes in the spatial extent of the four wet- migrating shorebirds. land types in both the buffer and core area. From Similarly, the extent of inter-tidal forested wet- 1990 to 2003 lagoon/lake and inter-tidal forested lands also increased throughout the period of 25 wetland experienced an increase in area while sea- years. This increase might be attributed to the sonal/intermittent marshes and permanent awareness of the importance of these forested wet- marshes experienced a reduction. From 2003 to lands and management practices instituted by gov- 2015 the same trend continued, with lagoon/lake ernment agencies, particularly the Wildlife Divi- and intertidal forested wetland experiencing an in- sion of the Forestry Commission of Ghana, tradi- crease in wetland area while seasonal/intermittent tional authorities and environmental NGOs. From marshes and permanent marshes experienced a re- the interviews some respondents indicated that duction in area. The significant increase in the various environmental NGO’s such as the Ruddorf

57 organization have supported initiatives such as but also other agricultural activities such as har- planting mangrove and acacia tree as well as pro- vesting food and construction of irrigation ditches vision of alternative livelihoods for surrounding break the wetlands into smaller fragments. Fur- communities. thermore, livestock grazing also lead to degrada- This reduction in both seasonal and permanent tion of wetlands which would otherwise have been marshes could be attributed to the truncation of the reserved. In recent years, animal husbandry in the streams upland and increase in anthropogenic ac- Songor wetland area has developed greatly to meet tivities such as the construction of irrigation facil- the needs of population growth and economic de- ities, urban expansion and increased livestock velopment, causing conflicts between wetland rearing. Observations made indicated that large conservation and sustainable use of natural re- tracts of these wetland types have been converted sources. Mostly, these marshes are overgrazed and to settlements, farmlands and rangeland. Leachate over-trampled by domesticated animals that re- from solid waste landfills often has high biological sulting in the disappearance of primary plant spe- oxygen demand (BOD), ammonium, iron, and cies, hardening of soils and increased surface run- manganese in concentrations and can be potential off. These activities according to Tian, Lu and threat to aquatic ecosystems and public health (Eg- Chang (2004) results in increased soil erosion, gen, Moeder & Arukwe, 2010). A study by Ye- changes in plant species composition and spatial boah et al. (2013) revealed that the Azizanya com- patterns, eventually altering the entire landscape munity used to be a wetland area, but it was totally pattern of the nature reserve. reclaimed with red sand (laterite) for settlement The residents pointed out that road construction development. Pute, Totope, Anyamam, Goi, can disrupt habitat continuity and drive out more Loloyna and other coastal communities are re- sensitive species. Observation from the site sug- claiming wetland areas with solid waste for con- gests that roads have been constructed throughout struction of houses after being displaced by tidal the wetland connecting various towns and villages waves. and industrial development. These roads impede Majority of the respondents indicated that agricul- movement of certain species or result in increased ture is the major cause of wetland degradation mortality for animals crossing them. According to within the site. This finding clearly affirms Wilson (1998), wetland biodiversity is being USEPA (1994) cited in Aragaw (2013) assertion threatened while many others are at the verge of that agriculture is the major factor in freshwater extinction due to human activities. Thus, wetland and estuarine wetland loss and degradation. This does not only relate to agricultural land expansion,

58 degradation at the site is largely due to these eco- Author Contributions RA‡ took part in the field data collection, analysis and writ- nomic activities as these are the main occupation ing the manuscript. DWA ‡ Supervised the work, developed the layout of the paper, contributed in writing the manu- of the communities around the site. script. DYA‡ took part in the field data collection and con- tributed to the writing the manuscript. All authors read and 6.0 Conclusion and Recommendations approved the final manuscript.

The study indicated that the open access to the ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Songor Biosphere Reserve has made it difficult for The authors would like to take the following persons for their support: Dr. Benjamin K. Nyarko, Mr. Kow Ansah- the authorities in charge to protect the site from Mensah and Mr. Ebenezer Tetteh. over-exploitation and degradation. This has re- sulted in the transformation of wetland ecosystem REFERENCES to other land use activities. Most respondents de- Adade R., Nyarko B.K., Aheto W.D., & Osei N.K (2017) Fragmenta- tion of wetlands in the south eastern coastal savanna of Ghana Regional pend solely on the wetland resources for their live- Studies in Marine Science 12 (2017) 40–48 lihood. They also undertake activities such as crop Aragaw, K.H. (2013). Assessment of spatio-temporal changes of wet- lands using GIS and RS techniques in Dawa Chefa Area in the Northern production, fishing, salt production, and housing Central Ethiopian Highlands (Master thesis), Department of Geogra- phy and Environmental Studies, Mekelle University. construction in the wetland. The intensity of these Eggen T, Moeder M. & Arukwe A. (2010). Municipal Landfill Leacha- tes: A Significant Source for New and Emerging Pollutants. Science of activities if not controlled could affect broader the Total Environ. 408 (21), 5147-5157. ecosystem functioning and biodiversity assem- Falkenmark, M., Andersson, L., Castensson, R., Sundblad, K., Batch- elor, C., Gardiner, J., Lyle, C., Peter, N., Pettersen, B., Quinn, P, blages. The study strongly recommend that vari- Rockstrom, J. & Yapijakis, C. (1999). Water as a reflection of land use: ous stakeholders should be involved in the man- Options for counteracting land and water mismanagement. Sweden: Stockholm Ltd. agement of the reserve to continue monitoring the Hanski I., & Gaggiotti, O. E. (2004). Ecology, genetics and evolution wetland due to the constant anthropogenic pres- of metapopulations, London: Elsevier Academic Press, UK. sure. Secondly, we also propose that further stud- Middleton, B. (2002). Non –equilibrium dynamics of sedge meadows grazed by cattle in southern Wisconsin. Plant Ecology 151(1):89-110 ies should be conducted, combining geographic, Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y. (1992). A Review Of Environmental Impacts Of socioeconomic and ecological information to The Salt Mining Industry In The Coastal And Riverine Lagoons In Ghana, Department of Zoology, University of Ghana, PBAAB246. identify and delineate specific areas of risk. Lastly, Nyarko, B. K. (2007). Floodplain wetland-river flow synergy in the White Volta basin, Ghana, Bonn: Centre for Development Research. sensitization and education to create awareness Ramsar Convention Secretariat (2007). Participatory skills: Establish- among civil society and policy-makers of the eco- ing and strengthening local communities’ and indigenous people’s par- ticipation in the management of wetlands. Ramsar handbooks for the logical and socioeconomic services of wetlands wise use of wetlands (3rd Ed), 5. and the need for their conservation. Sustainable fi- Tijani, M.N., Olaleye, A.O. & Olubanjo, O. O. (2011). Proceedings of the environmental management conference, Federal University of Ag- nancing mechanism need to be explored and de- riculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria. Wang, Z.M., Huang, N., Luo, L., Li, X.Y., Ren, C.Y., Song, K.S., & veloped for effective national wetlands conserva- Chen, J.M., (2011). Shrinkage and fragmentation of marshes in the West Songnen Plain, China, from 1954 to and its possible causes, Int. tion programs. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 13, 477–486

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Williams M. (1993). Wetlands: A threatened landscape. Blackball Pub- lishers, Oxford.

Wilson, D. E. (1998). The Diversity of Life. Massachusetts: Belkanp, Cambridge.

Yeboah, S. A., Nii-Moe, A. A., & Nani, E. (2013) Environmental ef- fects of socio-economic activities on Songor Ramsar Site in Ada, Ghana. Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, 5 (2), 13-15.

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A COMMITMENT CHARTER FOR THE RECOGNITION OF THE SOCIO- ECONOMIC ACTORS OF THE BIOSPHERE RESERVES Catherine Cibien, Arnaud Larade†, Ken Reyna*

MAB France, INRA, 24 chemin de Borderouge, CS 52627, 31326 Castanet Tolosan Cedex. France * Réserve de biosphère du Mont Ventoux, SMAEMV, 830, avenue du Mont-Ventoux, 84200 Carpentras. France products, in order to recognise their commitment ABSTRACT: A commitment charter has been drawn up to the environment. The request also included to recognise the socio-economic actors of the Biosphere Reserves and acknowledge their commitment to the affixing the Biosphere Reserve logo on their environment and sustainable development. This progress strategy complements the labelling of products and products. services and has set up networks of eco-actors, who are Several enterprises also mentioned the partners and ambassadors of the Biosphere Reserves. Biosphere Reserve in their communication and on their packaging, with no specific In order to be recognised models contributing authorisation. to the implementation of Sustainable This situation generated several problems: a Development Goals, the Biosphere Reserves problem regarding the use of the Biosphere must promote green and sustainable initiatives Reserve name and a legal problem for the and the social economy. To do so, they are ensuing allegations, absence of harmonisation advised to encourage comprehensive between the actors as regards the communication development initiatives, the creation of labels for of transmitted values, lack of readability for products and services supporting their goals consumers and the risk of illegitimate image integrating biodiversity conservation and human appropriation by enterprises that do not apply the development (UNESCO 2017). principles of the Biosphere Reserves (Mercier et At the end of the 1990s, this topic developed as al. 2006). part of the global network of Biosphere What mechanisms could be used to promote Reserves, under the green economy label. In enterprises contributing to Sustainable Europe, the Biosphere Reserves of Rhön Development Goals in the Biosphere Reserves? (Germany), Entlebuch (Switzerland) have registered trademarks so that the enterprises of The question of establishing a Biosphere their territories can enhance the promotion of Reserve trademark was thus raised. A trademark their products (especially food) and services is a sign that can be used for graphic (mainly touristic). representation to distinguish the products or services of a natural or legal person, according to In France, socio-economic actors living and article L.711.1 of the Code of Intellectual working in the Biosphere Reserves asked MAB Property in France. France for the authorisation to use the image of the Biosphere Reserve and of UNESCO on their

61 Another possibility explored was the profession. Their purpose is to lead conservation recognition of certification in relation to a actions, to support local development and the standard, i.e., a standard produced by the development of the territory, to educate the professionals, public authorities and consumers public… in view of territorial development concerned (ISO). combining nature, culture and the economic and The inventory of existing labels and trademarks social development of the inhabitants. In this showed that there was a multitude of them in context, the French Biosphere Reserves did not France (Mercier et al., 2006), particularly for seem to be in a position to effectively promote a agricultural and touristic products. As a result of new trademark in order to made it visible and this plethora of trademarks (appellations of desirable for consumers. origin, labels and quality standards…), most The utility of a new trademark (and its logo) consumers no longer understood what they thus appeared to be questionable from several meant. points of view for the Biosphere Reserves, Studies carried out showed that setting up and although they were interested in ways of helping, controlling trademarks and ISO certification was recognising and promoting enterprises in the costly and required the development of Biosphere Reserves, provided that they were specifications and regular audits. involved in local sustainable development. It should be noted that Biosphere Reserves are A decision was thus taken to promote not very visible in France as they do not enterprises in the Biosphere Reserves committed generally have their own legal structure and they to sustainable development approaches. The are often managed by an area protected under mechanism chosen for this is a commitment national law (national park or natural regional charter. park). This overlap is not generally a problem for The Biosphere Reserve commitment charter the implementation of functions, as the objectives The implementation of a commitment charter of these types of protected areas are similar to highlights a common identity around the those of the Biosphere Reserves. However, Biosphere Reserve, as it is based on values readability for the public is often unclear as shared by the designation of the territory in communication generally focuses on the park question as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, on including the Biosphere Reserve rather than on one hand, and on its natural, cultural and social the “UNESCO Biosphere Reserve”. In addition, attributes, on the other. Establishing the terms of their means of communication are relatively this document requires numerous exchanges limited, particularly in comparison to those of allowing each actor to grasp the expectations of a major commercial brands. Finally, the promotion Biosphere Reserve, and to share the issues of the of products or services is not their core

62 territory in question and promote dialogue network. The idea is thus to exclude those who focusing on the notion of local sustainable make no efforts with these points. development. The stakeholders must thus share the Whereas the branding of products and services functioning of the Charter and understand the and certification are governed in a centralised effects of the actions of each participant on the way and correspond to a "top-down" philosophy others. The collective construction of the Charter of action (experts apply a method to the actors of is a phase requiring a lot of time and investment the territories in question), the commitment from the different actors. Each participant is then charter is an approach leading to collective in a position to understand the impacts of their action. The Charter draws up the theoretical actions on the system as a whole. In this process, framework of the management of collective mutual confidence is very important. It is assets (Ostrom, 1990), refers to ways of acting in fundamental during the co-construction of the the domain of cooperation and dialogue in order terms of the Charter. This is the consolidation to preserve a “treasure” together, "all around the phase of a founding group, the phase that table". determines the “membrane” that identifies the It combines the values of the territory that this group in relation to the rest (Servigne and treasure represents (its biodiversity, landscapes, Chapelle, 2017). The solidity of the membrane the uses and traditions that humans have will then be crucial for accepting new members. developed there) and international recognition by It will develop if the group is strengthened by the prestigious UNESCO institution. increased visibility as part of the Charter or the In this way, the charter enables territorial actors Biosphere Reserve. who make efforts to promote the environment Confidence is also essential for the smooth and sustainable development to stand out from running of the commitment charter. Each actor other actors who use the regional image as a sales will be required to make commitments, keep their pitch. Indeed, the image of the site is used by all word, report their activities and observations. kinds of economic actors, regardless of their This may seem logical for the founding members, approach to sustainable development and the but is it not automatically transposable for ecological and social impact of their activity. The members who will ask to adhere at a later stage aim of the Biosphere Reserve Charter is thus to and who will not yet have invested in the indicate this geographic attachment for those who structure. By making commitments and “guarantee” that they respect biological diversity, promoting the Charter of the Biosphere Reserves, that they experiment sustainable development, actors will grow together, and benefit from share experiences and operate as part of the increased visibility. There will be no rivalry between them. If they respect their commitments,

63 their reputation will grow, and thereby strengthen of control consisting of actors from different the collective structure. Finally, these committed sectors. This is clearly the least costly formula for actors can use the rules and trust capital created structures with limited means. by the Charter and supported by the Biosphere Sanctions contribute to lending credibility to Reserve, and its reputation, for personal means. the commitment charter when they are clearly But if the trust capital is overexploited, or not applied to offenders according to shared rules. As maintained or updated, it will collapse. The it can sometimes be problematic to apply them at erosion of trust is a risk in systems of a local level, a mechanism of national exclusion certification such as this one, as it is not based on can be used in case of local conflicts: in this way a structure guaranteed by the State (K. Levin & the Charter is signed by the enterprise, the al, 2009). In other words, the commitment charter director of the Biosphere Reserve in question and is liable to collapse if stakeholders do not by the leader of the MAB at a national level. develop it or if they do not respect their This commitment charter embraces the whole commitments. diversity of enterprises and can also be applied to It is thus essential to set up a system of other actors present in the Biosphere Reserves surveillance and sanctions. The commitment (associations for example): in the domains of charter proposed to the Biosphere Reserve agriculture, tourism, but also services and enterprises is a system of continuous industries, provided that they agree to the aims of improvement: they formally make concrete economic and social development in the region, commitments in relation to their activities, to be while safeguarding its biodiversity, its accomplished within a specified time (2 or 3 landscapes, its natural cultural values and years in general), possibly with the help of ecosystem services. sponsors. They are asked to make their The commitment charter requires an institution commitments known to their clients and the for admitting new members, surveying the public, in order to contribute to strengthen the quality and credibility of the commitments made credibility of the Charter and to breathe new life and their implementation. The charter committee into it. In this way, each one can check whether generally comprises the Biosphere Reserve the commitments made are respected or not. The leaders, founding members representing their total transparency of the commitments made, and values, and personalities representing the main the operating rules of the Charter enable social territorial issues, who are able to critically monitoring and contribute to the trust capital. discuss the terms of the commitments and the Other types of surveillance, in addition to this way they are accomplished. This committee social control, can be envisaged: by an defines the tempo of meetings (generally one to independent outside structure, by a commission two per year) and continues participative work.

64 ASSOCIATED CONTENT The presentation of the commitment charter and examples The networks of eco-actors of its implementation are accessible on http://dwink.pro/86/

The commitment charter thus formalises relationships between the actors of the Biosphere AUTHOR INFORMATION Reserve and its supporting structure, as a means Corresponding Author MAB France, INRA, 24 chemin de Borderouge, CS 52627, of strengthening and sustaining the project. They 31326 CASTANET TOLOSAN CEDEX are designated “eco-actors of the Biosphere Present Addresses Reserve of…”. The sharing of values and † Parc national de la Guadeloupe / Réserve de biosphère, discussions on the sustainable development of Montéran, 97120 Saint-Claude. France. their region results in the construction of Funding Sources networks: they exchange on their practices, help Ministère chargé du développement durable, Agence française pour la Biodiversité each other and can also develop common projects. The supporting structure must contribute ACKNOWLEDGMENTS to the network, by organising meetings and This approach was inspired by Jacques Weber (IFB, vice president of MAB France). encouraging participants to take the initiative to set up formal and informal consultations. In REFERENCES addition to the statutory meetings of the charter Unesco 2017. A new road map for the Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme and its World Network of Biosphere Reserves. MAB committee, training sessions are set up to Strategy (2015-2025), Lima Action Plan (2016-2025), Lima Declaration. UNESCO, Paris. Mercier J., Montély M.A., Scheyer L., Straistaru O. 2006. Une contribute to improving and sustaining actions charte pour les réserves de biosphère françaises. Rapport du Travail en Groupe d’Élèves. ENGREF Paris. and festive sessions are organised in order to OSTROM E. 1990. Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge Univ Press. Eds consolidate the network. Servigne P. Chapelle G. 2017. L’entraide, l’autre loi de la jungle. Les Liens qui Libèrent Ed

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