Title Importance of Leisure Nostalgia on Life Satisfaction and Leisure

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Title Importance of leisure nostalgia on life satisfaction and leisure participation Author(s) Heetae Cho Source The Service Industries Journal, 40(1-2), 90-109 Published by Taylor & Francis (Routledge)

This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Taylor & Francis in The Service Industries Journal on 16/01/2019, available online: https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2019.1567714

Notice: Changes introduced as a result of publishing processes such as copy-editing and formatting may not be reflected in this document. For a definitive version of this work, please refer to the published source.

1 Importance of leisure nostalgia on life satisfaction and leisure 2 participation

3 Nostalgia plays a crucial role in individuals’ psychological and behavioral 4 responses. To identify the influence of nostalgia on leisure participants’ life, this 5 study examined how individuals’ leisure nostalgia influenced their life 6 satisfaction, thereby reinforcing their leisure participation intention. 417 7 responses were collected from leisure participants and analyzed in this study. 8 Results showed that leisure nostalgia positively affected life satisfaction and 9 leisure participation intention. In addition, life satisfaction had a significant effect 10 on leisure participation intention. Further analysis revealed that the indirect 11 effects of nostalgia regarding group identity and personal identity on leisure 12 participation intention were significantly stronger than those of nostalgia 13 regarding leisure experience, environment, and socialization. The theoretical and 14 practical implications of this study are discussed.

15 Keywords: leisure nostalgia; life satisfaction; leisure participation; classification 16 of nostalgia; conceptual model of nostalgia

17 Introduction 18 Leisure of itself gives pleasure and happiness and enjoyment of life, which are

19 experienced, not by the busy man, but by those who have leisure. – Aristotle

20 Service industries are always on the lookout for ways to improve brand reputation,

21 deliver consumer value, and boost future consumer buying intention. In particular,

22 leisure services (e.g., recreational clubs, tour agencies, and resorts) are grounded on the

23 needs of individuals (Wakefield & Blodgett, 2016). Generally, leisure services are

24 required to satisfy and sustain the needs of leisure seeking individuals. A pressing

25 question is how intervention is constructed to encourage individuals to be more

26 involved in leisure, which ultimately promotes life satisfaction. Aristotle, an ancient

27 Greek philosopher, emphasized that, unlike other parts of life such as work, engagement

28 in leisure is a necessity to enhance well-being (Saunders, 1981). Leisure has been

29 known for its integral role in psychological well-being and life satisfaction. Previous

30 studies have also found that people value and view leisure as an important part of their

31 life because leisure participation contributes to positive mood and well-being (Newman,

32 Tay, & Diener, 2014).

33 Participating in leisure activities can also help individuals recover faster from

34 negative life experiences (Janke, Nimrod & Kleiber, 2008; Kleiber, Hutchinson, &

35 Williams, 2002). It provides individuals with an outlet to gain control over their life

36 when they are dealing with chronic health conditions (Nimrod & Hutchinson, 2010). In

37 addition, leisure has a positive effect on well-being as it acts as a buffer to stress

38 (Waker, Halpenny & Deng, 2011; Coleman, 1993). Numerous studies have investigated

39 the relationship between leisure and well-being and found that leisure participation has

40 positive effects on well-being (e.g., Kuylendall, Tay, & Ng, 2015; Newman et al.,

41 2014).

42 After participating in leisure activities, individuals remember their past leisure

43 experience. In this process, individuals can build nostalgic feelings regarding their

44 leisure experience. In a traditional sense, Hofer (1934) defined nostalgia as a sign of a

45 medical condition. However, over the centuries, the concept of nostalgia has changed to

46 an emotional condition, longing for the past associated with a positive experience and

47 memory (Davis, 1979; Schindler & Holbrook, 2003; Sedikides, Wildschut, Arndt, &

48 Routledge, 2008; Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006). Sedikides,

49 Wildschut, and Baden (2004) noted that nostalgia is a “disproportionately positive

50 emotion, with bittersweet elements” (p. 204).

51 Previous research found that emotion plays an integral role in encouraging

52 individuals to participate in leisure (Fullagar, 2008; Kerr, Fujiyamma, & Campano,

53 2002). For example, in an attempt to demonstrate the role of emotions in behavioral

54 intentions, Perugini and Bagozzi (2001) developed the Model of Goal-directed

55 Behaviour (MGB). The affective process in the MGB highlights the importance of

56 emotion as an impetus to a decision-making process. In addition, according to the

57 PERMA (positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment)

58 theory of well-being, positive emotion increases individuals’ optimal level of well-being

59 (Seligman, 2011). Given leisure nostalgia is viewed as a positive emotion attached to

60 leisure-related memories, it can promote life satisfaction and leisure participation

61 intention. Further, individuals may desire to satisfy their nostalgic feeling as they

62 anticipate the positive experience they had while participating in leisure activities.

63 The concept of nostalgia has recently been highlighted to understand its

64 influence on individuals’ behavioral intentions (e.g., Chen, Yeh, & Huan, 2014; Cho,

65 Ramshaw, & Norman, 2014; Kim, Kim, & Patrick, 2017; Leong, Yeh, Hsiao, & Huan,

66 2015; Verma & Rajendran, 2017). Routledge, Wildschut, Sedikides, and Juhl (2013)

67 also mentioned the necessity of empirical research on the relationship between nostalgia

68 and psychological health. However, to date, little research has been conducted on the

69 relationship between nostalgia and psychological well-being in social science (e.g., Iyer

70 & Jetten, 2011; Wildschut et al., 2006). In the field of leisure, the importance of

71 nostalgia on behavioral intention and well-being has not been well-illuminated. In other

72 words, few studies have empirically examined the concept of nostalgia using qualitative

73 methods (e.g., Cheng, Pegg, & Stebbins, 2016; Gvion, 2009), whereas no previous

74 research examined the multidimensional nature of nostalgia in the context of leisure

75 using quantitative methods.

76 To fill the deficiency, Cho, Pyun, and Wang (2018) recently developed a Leisure

77 Nostalgia Scale (LNS). Using this scale, this study examined the influence of leisure

78 nostalgia on psychological and behavioral responses. Specifically, this study used life

79 satisfaction as a psychological outcome because life satisfaction is one key component

80 and the hallmark of well-being (Diener, Emmon, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). Also, to

81 assess leisure participants’ behavioral response, this study employed future behavioral

82 intention which is useful to understand individuals’ actual behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein,

83 2000). In addition, while most previous research emphasized the impact of leisure

84 participation on life satisfaction (e.g., Chen, Petrick, & Shahvali, 2016; Chen, Ye, Chen,

85 & Tung, 2010; Paggi, Jopp, & Hertzog, 2016; Ragheb & Griffith, 1982), the influence

86 of life satisfaction on future intention to participate in leisure has received scant

87 attention in the field of leisure. To address the gap, this study also examined the

88 relationship between life satisfaction and leisure participation intention based on

89 theoretical evidence. Findings of this study contribute to a deeper understanding of

90 leisure nostalgia and to a comprehensive view of how life satisfaction affects leisure

91 participation.

92 Literature Review

93 Nostalgia and leisure participation

94 The concept of nostalgia can be considered a longing for the past (Davis, 1979).

95 Further, Cho et al. (2014) explained that individuals can easily feel nostalgia by

96 comparing their negative current or future situation with positive past moments. That is,

97 when faced with a negative life event, such as one that induces tremendous stress, and

98 there is dissatisfaction with the current situation, nostalgia can be easily evoked as the

99 individual yearns for experiences from a happier time in the past.

100 Considering the definition of nostalgia (Cho, 2014; Davis, 1979; Schindler &

101 Holbrook, 2003), the notion of leisure nostalgia can be understood as a longing for a

102 positive past leisure experience. As stated above, nostalgia is an emotion driven by past

103 experiences (Cho et al., 2014; Connell, 2017), and leisure participation may be induced

104 by nostalgia (Acharya, Paudel, & Hatch, 2009). For example, older rugby players

105 continuously engage in their leisure activity due to “a sense of nostalgia”. In addition,

106 nostalgia helps them maintain a sense of belonging (Cheng et al., 2016). Nostalgia is an

107 impetus for social connectedness (Wildschut, Sedikides, Routledge, Arndt, & Cordaro,

108 2010), and a sense of belonging is a fundamental condition for individuals to maintain

109 their well-being (Palmieri, 2017).

110 Furthermore, according to the PERMA model, positive emotions are important

111 in understanding the concept of well-being (Seligman, 2011). Positive emotions refer to

112 hedonic feelings (e.g., pleasure and happiness), which are a predictor of an optimal level

113 of well-being (Kern, Water, Adler, & White, 2014, 2015; Khaw & Kern, 2014;

114 Seligman, 2011). Recently, Coffey, Wray-Lake, Mashek, and Branand (2016) and Kern

115 et al. (2014) found that positive emotions are significantly related with life satisfaction.

116 In addition, by focusing on the positivity, individuals may strengthen their social

117 relationships as well as take on more opportunities which may elicit positive feelings

118 and contribute to flourishing (Forgeard, Jayawickreme, Kern, & Seligman, 2011;

119 Seligman, 2011). That is, leisure nostalgia, as a positive emotion, not only allows one to

120 stay subscribed to a group membership but also encourages physical involvement,

121 providing a holistic approach to maintaining psychological well-being (Sedikides,

122 Wildschut, & Stephan, 2018).

123 Previous research found that nostalgia influences individuals’ behavioral

124 intention (Chen et al., 2014; Leong et al., 2015; Verma & Rajendran, 2017). In order to

125 understand the features of nostalgia and its influence on behavior, Cho et al. (2014)

126 explored the multidimensional nature of nostalgia and developed a classification that

127 categorized nostalgia into two dimensions: (1) the purpose of nostalgia and (2) the

128 structure of nostalgia. The purpose of nostalgia centers on what individuals intend to

129 seek and value based on their past experiences. Past experiences that carry positive

130 memories elicit nostalgia. These positive memories include those that boost an

131 individual’s identities; thus, there is identity-based nostalgia and experience-based

132 nostalgia. The second dimension, the structure of nostalgia, reflects the source of

133 nostalgia that can be either object-based or interpersonal relationship-based. Object-

134 based nostalgia is evoked by physical properties, such as memories of a venue, an

135 iconic symbol, or facilities. On the other hand, interpersonal relationship-based

136 nostalgia involves intangible features, such as the memory of a social experience with

137 group members.

138 The two by two matrix leads to four sub-dimensions: (1) experience, (2)

139 socialization, (3) personal identity, and (4) group identity. Nostalgia as experience

140 refers to the nostalgic feelings evoked by past experiences. It represents a sentimental

141 attachment to the details of past experiences, such as people, places, or facilities.

142 Second, nostalgia as socialization underscores the features of social settings. The

143 positive feelings felt while interacting with people and building new relationships evoke

144 nostalgic feelings. Third, nostalgia as personal identity refers to factors that address an

145 individual’s identity; for example, attending a game to support an individual’s favorite

146 team adds credit to their role as a fan. The pride of being a loyal fan evokes nostalgic

147 feelings as well. Lastly, group identity refers to the sense of belonging to a group as a

148 member. The unique characteristics that set a group apart from another boost group

149 identity. Features like unity within the group members evoke the longing to return to the

150 moment of experience. In addition, Cho et al. (2014) extended the classification of

151 nostalgia by constructing a conceptual model. This conceptual model explained that

152 individuals have their own memories based on their direct and indirect experiences, and

153 only the memories that have positive emotions attached evoke nostalgia.

154 Based on the classification of nostalgia, Cho et al. (2018) developed the Leisure

155 Nostalgia Scale (LNS), which consists of five factors: leisure experience, environment,

156 socialization, personal identity, and group identity. Leisure experience and environment

157 stem from nostalgia as experience. Although nostalgia as experience is the umbrella that

158 holds the two factors, these two factors are unique in their nature. Leisure experience

159 includes various elements in an entire experience, while environment refers to the

160 sentimental attachment to the surrounding features, such as facilities.

161 Leisure participation is a voluntary act with differing interests and purposes

162 across people, culture, and countries. It has been highlighted that leisure activities are

163 vital for physical and mental well-being (Argan, Argan, & Dursun, 2018). In addition,

164 leisure participation has a positive correlation with subjective well-being (Kuykendall,

165 Boemerman & Zhu, 2018; Kuykendall, Tay, & Ng, 2015). To understand individuals’

166 leisure behavior, previous studies have widely used the Theory of Planned Behavior

167 (TPB) (e.g., Ajzen & Driver, 1992; Esposito, Van Bavel, Baranowski, & Duch-Brown,

168 2016). However, the most important shortcoming of the TPB was the exclusion of the

169 affective component (Ajzen, 2011).

170 To fill the missing piece (i.e., affective process), Perugini and Bagozzi (2001)

171 developed the MGB and provided a more in-depth understanding of the role of

172 emotions in behavior. Mohiyeddini, Pauli and Bauer (2009) supported placing more

173 importance on emotion than attitude. In accordance to the MGB, emotions shape

174 intentions to carry out behavior, as well as execute and control it (Zhu & Thagard,

175 2002). It also helps individuals maintain the behavior in the long term (Carver, 2006;

176 Carver, Sutton, & Scheier, 2000). Previous studies also found that emotion is a catalyst

177 in promoting leisure participation intention (Janke et al., 2008; Patterson, 1996;

178 Patterson & Carpenter, 1994), and the intention based on emotion is a critical predictor

179 of behavior (Conner, McEachan, Lawton, & Gardner, 2016; Keer, Conner, Putte, &

180 Neijen, 2014). For example, participating in leisure after experiencing a negative life

181 event, such as the loss of a spouse, has been proven to heighten the level of well-being

182 (Utz, Carr, Nesse, & Wortman, 2002). This suggests that an emotional factor plays an

183 integral role in leisure intention and participation.

184 The evidence of previous studies shows nostalgia is significantly related not

185 only to individuals’ life satisfaction but also to behavioral intention. Therefore, this

186 study proposes the following hypotheses:

187 H1: Leisure nostalgia has a positive effect on leisure participation intention.

188 H2: Leisure nostalgia has a positive effect on life satisfaction.

189 Life satisfaction

190 Life satisfaction can be defined as an emotional assessment of various aspects of

191 individuals’ lives (Woo, Kim, & Uysal, 2016; Sirgy, Widgery, Lee, & Grace, 2010) and

192 is closely linked to positive well-being (Grant, Wardle, & Steptoe, 2009; Lyubormirsky,

193 King, & Diener, 2005; Pressman, & Cohen, 2005). In addition, previous research found

194 that the concept of life satisfaction is strongly related to leisure (Lin, Chen, & Kuo,

195 2014). For example, Chen and colleagues (2014) examined the effect of leisure tourism

196 on life satisfaction and found that there are positive effects of a leisure trip on life

197 satisfaction. In addition, not only does a leisure trip combat work stress, but it was also

198 found that the longer a leisure trip was taken, the higher the level of life satisfaction

199 experienced. The positive influence of leisure participation on life satisfaction is also

200 consistent among older age groups, such as elderly tourists and retirees (Woo et al.,

201 2016; Nimrod, 2007). This demonstrates that individuals who have good coping skills

202 and invest a healthy amount of time in leisure can generally enjoy a high level of life

203 satisfaction.

204 Further, the notion of life satisfaction is closely associated with the experience

205 of positive emotions (Bastian, Kuppen, De Roover, & Diener, 2014; Cohn, Fredrickson,

206 Brown, Mikels, & Conway, 2009). Individuals are dependent on their emotional

207 experiences when evaluating their level of life satisfaction. That is, the level of positive

208 and negative emotions alters the level of life satisfaction (Iyer & Jetten, 2011; Kuppens,

209 Realo, & Diener, 2008). For instance, more stress inducing situations cause high levels

210 of negative emotions and a decrease in positive emotions. This, in turn, negatively

211 affects the level of life satisfaction. That is, leisure nostalgia, which is a positive

212 emotion (Sedikides et al., 2004), can play an important role in achieving high levels of

213 life satisfaction. In addition, it has been found that environment, such as culture, can

214 help set up conditions that promote the emotions that participants value. If positive

215 emotions have a causal influence on life satisfaction and leisure participation possesses

216 the capability to increase positive affect, leisure service providers should aim to

217 maximize nostalgic features in their events.

218 Next, intention reflects the willingness to execute the behavior. That is, leisure

219 participation intention can be considered the willingness of an individual to take part in

220 any form of leisure. Understanding leisure participants’ willingness to participate in

221 leisure activities is important, as the level of willingness is a strong predictor of an

222 individual actually carrying out a behavior (Ajzen, 1991). The relationship between life

223 satisfaction and behavioral intentions has been studied in various fields. For example,

224 life satisfaction is positively related to the use of social networking services (Oliveira &

225 Huertas, 2015), intention to marry (Luhmann, Hofmann, Eid, & Lucas, 2012), physical

226 exercise (Grant et al., 2009), and staying in college (Frisch et al., 2005), whereas it has a

227 negative relationship with suicidal ideation (Chang & Sanna, 2001) and intention to quit

228 (Rode, Rehg, Near, Underhill, 2007). That is, life satisfaction predicts individuals’

229 future behavior (Diener, Inglehart, & Tay, 2013).

230 An extensive body of studies has identified a connection between emotions, life

231 satisfaction, and leisure participation (e.g., Agyar, 2014; Mathieu, 2008; Mitas, Yarnal,

232 Adams, & Ram, 2012; Sirgy et al., 2010; Spiers & Walker, 2008). Given that nostalgia

233 is an emotional factor and plays a significant role in psychological health (Routledge et

234 al., 2013) and human behavior (Kim et al., 2017; Leong et al., 2015), this study

235 proposes the following hypotheses:

236 H3: Life satisfaction has a positive effect on leisure participation intention.

237 H4: Life satisfaction positively mediates the relationship between leisure

238 nostalgia and leisure participation.

239 H4-1: Each subfactor of leisure nostalgia has a significant relationship with

240 leisure participation intention through life satisfaction.

241 [Insert Figure 1 about here]

242 Method

243 Study sites and data collection

244 Using a convenience sample method, this study collected data from leisure participants

245 at one of the popular leisure events in Singapore, DBS Marina Regatta 2018. This event

246 provides diverse programs and activities in which all people can participate, such as

247 yoga and fitness classes, dragon boat competition, music festival, sailing, and obstacle

248 race. This study, therefore, expected to collect data from various types of event

249 participants. Research team members collected data near the event site through face-to-

250 face contact. Specifically, research assistants briefly introduced the purpose of this

251 research to leisure participants and asked them to participate in the survey. Finally, this

252 study collected 450 responses, and the response rate was 92.98%.

253 Survey instrument

254 This study measured leisure event participants’ leisure nostalgia, leisure participation

255 intention, and life satisfaction. The three constructs were measured using a 7-point

256 Likert scale, ranging from 1- strongly disagree to 7-strongly agree. First, Cho et al.’s

257 (2018) scale was employed to measure leisure nostalgia. The scale features 33 items

258 across five factors of leisure experience (five items), environment (seven items),

259 socialization (six items), personal identity (seven items), and group identity (eight

260 items). For example, each subscale of the leisure nostalgia scale included questions,

261 such as “Remembering my leisure activity that I enjoyed evokes my nostalgic feelings”

262 (leisure experience), “The appearance of my favorite leisure place evokes my nostalgic

263 feelings” (environment), “Friends participating in leisure activity with me evoke my

264 nostalgic feelings (socialization), “Pride in being a lover of my favorite leisure activity

265 evokes my nostalgic feelings” (personal identity), and “Unique characteristics of my

266 leisure social group evoke my nostalgic feelings” (group identity).

267 To measure the intention to participate in leisure, this study borrowed from a

268 behavioral intentions scale developed by Carroll (2009). There are three items included

269 in this scale, such as “I intend to participate in my leisure”, “I plan to participate in my

270 leisure”, and “The probability that I will participate in my leisure is high”.

271 This study employed Diener et al.’s (1985) satisfaction with life scale to

272 measure leisure participants’ life satisfaction. The scale has five items, including “In

273 most ways, my life is close to my ideal”, “The conditions of my life are excellent”, “I

274 am satisfied with my life”, “So far I have gotten the important things I want in life”, and

275 “If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing”.

276 Data analysis

277 This research first conducted data screening, using the expectation maximization (EM)

278 algorithm for missing values and z-scores and Mahalanobis distance for univariate and

279 multivariate outliers (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2010). In addition,

280 Mardia’s (1985) multivariate kurtosis coefficient was employed to identify the

281 normality of the data. In case of non-normality, this study used Satorra-Bentler scaled

282 chi-square (Satorra & Bentler, 1994) and robust standard errors (Bentler & Dijkstra,

283 1985).

284 Next, this study conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to evaluate the

285 reliability and validity of the three constructs by examining model fit indices, including

286 root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), standardized root mean squared

287 residual (SRMR), comparative fit index (CFI), and non-normed fit indices (NNFI).

288 Then, this study examined the reliability by testing Rho coefficients. In addition,

289 convergent validity was evaluated by measuring Average Variance Extracted (AVE)

290 values, and discriminant validity was assessed by comparing all correlations with square

291 root of AVEs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

292 Lastly, this study conducted structural equation modeling (SEM) to test model

293 fit indices and the five hypotheses (H1-H5). In the structural model of this study, leisure

294 participation intention played a mediating role in the relationship between leisure

295 nostalgia and life satisfaction. To assess the indirect effect, this study employed a Monte

296 Carlo simulation approach (Preacher & Selig, 2012). SPSS 23.0 and EQS 6.3 programs

297 were used for the data analyses.

298 Results

299 Respondents’ demographic characteristics

300 This study deleted outliers as they can affect the result of analysis and cause problems

301 (Rousseeuw & Hubert, 2011). Specifically, out of the 450 responses collected, 25

302 responses were deleted from the results of the z-scores test (i.e., -3.29 < z-score < 3.29,

303 Larson & Farber, 2007), and based on Mahalanobis distance, eight multivariate outliers

304 were deleted (Hair et al., 2010). In total, 417 responses were utilized for further data

305 analyses. As for age groups, 21 to 29 (70.7%) showed the highest percentage, followed

306 by 30 to 39 (19.4%), 40 to 49 (2.9%), 50 to 59 (5.0%), and over 60 (1.7%), and the

307 average age was 28.15. Males comprised 59.0% and females 41.0% of the sample. As

308 for the education level, 44.3% of the respondents with a junior college degree reported

309 the highest portion followed by 41.5% of respondents with a university degree, 7.5% of

310 respondents with a master’s or doctorate, and 6.7% of respondents with high school

311 degree, showing most respondents were well-educated. Most of the respondents were

312 single (85.9%), followed by married (13.2%), divorced (0.7%), and widowed (0.2%)

313 (Table 1).

314 [Insert Table 1 about here]

315 Measurement model

316 This study verified the structure of the three constructs. The Mardia’s standardized

317 coefficient was 81.30. Thus, Satorra and Bentler’s (S-B’s) method (Satorra & Bentler,

318 1994) and robust standard errors (Bentler & Dijkstra, 1985) were used to analyze

319 multivariate non-normally distributed data (Byrne, 2006). From the result of CFA, the

320 measurement model fit indices were good: S-B χ2(df) = 1508.85(755), comparative fit

321 index (CFI) = 0.933, non-normed fit index (NNFI) = 0.927, root mean square error of

322 approximation (RMSEA) = .049, and standardized root mean residual (SRMR) = 0.069

323 (90% CI of RMSEA: 0.045 – 0.053).

324 Next, this study tested internal consistency, convergent validity, and

325 discriminant validity of the measurement model. First, the Rho coefficient of the total

326 measurement model was 0.954, and Rho coefficients of each factor were 0.832 for

327 leisure experience, 0.879 for environment, 0.925 for socialization, 0.922 for personal

328 identity, 0.936 for group identity, 0.930 for leisure participation intention, and 0.899 for

329 life satisfaction, indicating good internal consistency (Table 2). To test convergent

330 validity, this study examined the average variance extracted (AVE) values of seven

331 factors. The results showed the AVE values ranged from 0.504 for leisure experience to

332 0.816 for leisure participation intention. That is, the AVE values of the seven factors

333 were greater than 0.5, indicating acceptable convergent validity. Lastly, this study

334 assessed discriminant validity for the measurement model by comparing the square root

335 of AVE values of each construct and correlations. This study found the correlations

336 between constructs were less than the square root of AVE values of corresponding

337 constructs in the model, indicating good discriminant validity (Table 3).

338 [Insert Table 2 about here]

339 [Insert Table 3 about here]

340 Structural model

341 In the structural model, this study measured the relationship among leisure participants’

342 nostalgia, life satisfaction, and intention to participate in leisure activities, by using the

343 maximum likelihood method. Given the LNS has a multidimensional structure with the

344 large number of items (i.e., 33 items, Cho et al., 2018), this study employed item

345 parceling as it can be used to understand the relationship between constructs (Little,

346 Cunningham, Shahar, & Widaman, 2002) and conforms to the assumption of

347 multivariate normality (Bridgeman & Rock, 1993). According to the result of SEM, the

348 model fit indices were acceptable: S-B χ2(df) = 153.145(62), CFI = 0.969, NNFI =

349 0.960, RMSEA = 0.059, and SRMR = 0.040 (90% CI of RMSEA: .048 – .071). Next,

350 this study performed an examination of z statistic to test the hypotheses. First, leisure

351 nostalgia had a positive effect on life satisfaction. The standardized path coefficient

352 from leisure nostalgia to leisure participation intention was significant (β = 0.534, SE =

353 0.062, z = 7.29, p < 0.001), supporting H1. Second, there was also a significant positive

354 effect of leisure nostalgia on life satisfaction (β = 0.360, SE = 0.052, z = 6.52, p <

355 0.001), supporting H2. Third, life satisfaction significantly affected leisure participation

356 intention (β = 0.210, SE = 0.053, z = 3.57, p < .001), supporting H3. The results of

357 indirect effects of the mediation model showed that leisure nostalgia has an indirect

358 effect on leisure participation intention (β = 0.076, SE = 0.019, Monte Carlo confidence

359 intervals = [0.03, 0.106], p < .01), and the direct path coefficient from leisure nostalgia

360 to life satisfaction was also significant (β = 0.458, SE = 0.050, z = 7.74, p < .001),

361 indicating partial mediation and supporting H4 (Table 4).

362 [Insert Table 4 about here]

363 This study further tested the relationships between each sub-factor of leisure

364 nostalgia and leisure participation intention. Leisure experience (β = 0.054, SE = 0.013,

365 z = 3.07), environment (β = 0.052, SE = 0.015, z = 3.06), socialization (β = 0.053, SE =

366 0.013, z = 3.07), personal identity (β = 0.064, SE = 0.016, z = 3.10), and group identity

367 (β = 0.057, SE = 0.016, z = 3.08) had significant effects on leisure participation

368 intention, exceeding the cutoff criterion (z-value > 1.96). Therefore, H4-1 was accepted,

369 and it can be said that there were significant relationships between five sub-factors of

370 leisure nostalgia and leisure participation intention mediated by life satisfaction (Tables

371 5).

372 In addition, this study compared each path through the constraints test. That is,

373 the paths from the five subfactors of nostalgia to the latent variable of nostalgia were

374 equally constrained to compare the effect of each subfactor. This study found that the

375 indirect effect of personal identity on leisure participation intention was significantly

376 greater than the effects of leisure experience, environment, and socialization (i.e.,

377 personal identity > leisure experience, environment, and socialization); the indirect

378 effect of group identity on leisure participation intention was significantly greater than

379 the effects of leisure experience and socialization on leisure participation intention (i.e.,

380 group identity > leisure experience, environment, and socialization) (p<0.05).

381 [Insert Table 5 about here]

382 Discussion

383 In the field of leisure, research on nostalgia is limited. In addition, the extent of

384 literature has not provided sufficient empirical findings on the relationships among

385 nostalgia, psychological well-being, and behavior. To address this gap, this study

386 examined the influence of leisure nostalgia on life satisfaction and leisure participation

387 intention. Furthermore, based on the theoretical considerations, the relationship between

388 life satisfaction and leisure participation intention was examined. The results obtained

389 from this study demonstrated the important role of nostalgia in leisure participants’ life

390 and behavior. Particularly, the proposed research model identified the direct

391 relationships between: (1) leisure nostalgia and leisure participation intention; (2)

392 leisure nostalgia and life satisfaction; (3) life satisfaction and leisure participation

393 intention. In addition, this study examined (4) a mediating effect of life satisfaction

394 between leisure nostalgia and leisure participation intention and (5) compared the

395 differences between the subfactors of nostalgia in the structural model. This study found

396 that leisure nostalgia is a significant predictor of leisure participation intention both

397 directly and indirectly.

398 Specifically, recognizing the necessity of research on nostalgia in the context of

399 leisure, the current study identified the role of leisure nostalgia in promoting leisure

400 participants’ life satisfaction and behavioral intention. Based on the MGB (Perugini &

401 Bagozzi, 2001) and the PERMA model (Seligman, 2011), leisure nostalgia, which is an

402 emotional factor, was considered as an antecedent of life satisfaction and leisure

403 participation intention. First, the result of this study revealed that leisure nostalgia has a

404 positive effect on leisure participation intention (hypothesis 1). Consistent with the

405 findings of this study, the impact of nostalgia on behavioral intention has also been

406 proven in previous research (e.g., Chen et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2017; Leong et al.,

407 2015; Verma & Rajendran, 2017). This finding supports the theoretical premise of the

408 MGB (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001) that underscored the integral role of emotion in

409 decision-making. Moreover, positive emotion has a significant effect on social behavior

410 (Fredrickson, 2001; Isen, 2002). Gammon and Ramshaw (2012) noted that nostalgia is

411 an emotional variable, which is evoked by past experiences and memories and can

412 eventually influence individuals’ future behavior (Cho et al., 2014). That is, it indicates

413 that leisure participation experience is important, as it acts as a vehicle to bridge past,

414 present and future experiences of leisure activities (Sedikides et al., 2008).

415 Fredrickson and Joiner (2002) noted that positive emotion increases emotional

416 well-being. According to the PERMA model, positive emotion is an integral indicator

417 of well-being (Coffey, Warren, & Gottfried, 2015; Cohn & Fredrickson, 2009) and

418 plays an integral role in flourishing (Kern et al., 2015; Khaw & Kern, 2014; Seligman,

419 2011). In addition, positive emotions are positively associated with life satisfaction

420 (Coffey et al., 2016; Kern et al., 2014). Given nostalgia is a positive emotion (Sedikides

421 et al., 2004), it can be inferred that nostalgia has a positive effect on life satisfaction.

422 Therefore, based on previous studies, this study established the second hypothesis and

423 examined the relationship between nostalgia and life satisfaction. The results showed

424 that leisure nostalgia had a positive effect on life satisfaction. Sedikides et al. (2004)

425 defined nostalgia as a “disproportionately positive emotion, with bittersweet elements”

426 (p. 204). In other words, while nostalgia is mostly a positive emotion, it is related to a

427 negative emotion as people cannot return to the past to have the exact same experience

428 as they did previously. However, similar to Sedikides et al. (2004), Stephan and

429 colleagues (2014) illustrated that the concept of nostalgia is a predominantly positive

430 emotion that positively influences individuals’ motivation. In addition, previous studies

431 found that nostalgia maintains physiological equanimity (Stephan et al., 2014) and

432 physiological comfort (Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Chen, & Vingerhoets, 2012) and

433 positively influences meaning in life and intention to pursue individuals’ most important

434 goals (Sedikides, Cheung, Wildschut, Hepper, Baldursson, & Pedersen, 2018). Further,

435 nostalgia can alleviate negative emotions and enhance psychological well-being

436 (Routledge et al., 2013). That is, consistent with prior research, this study found

437 nostalgia plays a significant role in psychological responses.

438 This study identified a positive relationship between life satisfaction and leisure

439 participation intention. Apparently, leisure has various benefits, including physical (e.g.,

440 Hannan, Moffitt, Neumann & Thomas, 2015; Paggi et al., 2016) and mental health (e.g.,

441 Chang, Wray, & Lin, 2014; Schüz et al., 2015). Therefore, traditionally, prior studies

442 have tested and found a positive influence of leisure participation on life satisfaction

443 (e.g., Chen et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2010; Ragheb & Griffith, 1982). However, the

444 study on the impact of leisure participants' life satisfaction on their future behavioral

445 intention is limited, although Diener et al. (2013) noted life satisfaction can be an

446 antecedent of individuals’ behavioral intentions. Further, Lin et al. (2014) noted that

447 individuals’ life satisfaction is related to leisure. Based on previous studies, this study

448 examined the relationship between life satisfaction and leisure participation and found

449 there is a positive relationship between them. In other words, if individuals are satisfied

450 with their life, they are more likely to have strong intention to participate in leisure

451 activities. In addition, strong intention to participate in leisure can lead to actual

452 participation, and eventually, people can enjoy diverse benefits of leisure and build

453 positive experiences and memories. Therefore, life satisfaction is critical for leisure

454 participants to maintain their leisure activities and to live a better life.

455 This study found that leisure nostalgia directly and indirectly influenced leisure

456 participation intention, indicating partial mediation. That is, even with the inclusion of

457 life satisfaction in the model, there was still a significant relationship between nostalgia

458 and leisure participation intention. Thus, this indicates that nostalgia is a strong

459 predictor of leisure participation intention. In addition, life satisfaction played a

460 mediating role in the relationship between leisure nostalgia and leisure participation

461 intention. In other words, life satisfaction, which was influenced by nostalgia, positively

462 affected the intention to participate in leisure. In accordance to this, Stephan et al.

463 (2014) affirmed that the trigger of nostalgia is a key domain in inculcating and

464 enhancing many positive psychological components. Additionally, in stress-inducing

465 situations, nostalgia acts as a counteractive variable by encouraging individuals to boost

466 their psychological well-being. This suggests that nostalgia serves a restorative function

467 to psychological well-being (Sedikides et al., 2004; Sedikides et al., 2008; Sedikides et

468 al., 2009). In addition, nostalgia evoked by past leisure experiences promotes positive

469 effects that, in turn, increase life satisfaction. This would encourage continuous

470 behavior by increasing future intention (Diener et al., 2013). To elaborate, the

471 experience of positive emotions while carrying out behavior instils an appetite for future

472 behavioral intention (Carver et al., 2000). That is, the positive feelings experienced in

473 past leisure participation not only play a role in life satisfaction but also encourage

474 individuals to set their mind on the intention to participate in the future, and this

475 produces a loop of continuous psychological benefits.

476 Lastly, although the result from this study showed that nostalgia significantly

477 influenced leisure participation intention, further analyses were conducted to compare

478 the indirect effects of the five subfactors of nostalgia on leisure participation intention.

479 This study found that, while all subfactors of nostalgia significantly influenced leisure

480 participation intention, nostalgia regarding personal identity and group identity had

481 relatively stronger indirect effects on leisure participation intention. Specifically, both

482 personal identity and group identity showed a higher effect on leisure participation

483 intention than leisure experience, environment, and socialization. This is particularly

484 interesting, as it stressed the importance of identity in leisure participation. Through

485 leisure, individuals can have positive self-regard and a sense of belonging (Cheng et al.,

486 2016) and form personal and collective identities that, in turn, evoke nostalgia (Gvion,

487 2009). Further, nostalgia elicits features of positive self-concept and social

488 connectedness in particular. These features often connect the past and the present and

489 play an important role in daily life (Sedikides et al., 2016; Wildschut, et al., 2010).

490 Theoretical and practical implications

491 This study identified the underpinnings of leisure participation and demonstrated the

492 impact of nostalgia on psychological well-being and behavioral intention. Nostalgia is

493 generated from sentimental attachment to positive past experiences. Contributing to the

494 growing body of literature, Routledge et al. (2013) stressed the benefits of nostalgia on

495 psychological well-being. They encouraged that future research should focus on

496 understanding and providing empirical evidence on nostalgia as a positive emotion and

497 its influence in diverse fields. Further, Cho et al. (2018) suggested seeking further

498 understanding of nostalgia in the context of leisure.

499 Extending the existing body of literature, this study identified that high nostalgia

500 directly influences intention to participate in leisure. This suggested that individuals set

501 their intention for leisure participation when there is a high urge to relive the positive

502 feelings from a leisure time in the past. In addition, past studies highlighted the

503 experience of nostalgia as a stabilizing factor in strengthening identity (Sedikides,

504 Wildschut, Routledge, & Arndt, 2015). Consistent with this, the findings of this study

505 provided substantial evidence within the context of leisure that underscores higher

506 indirect effects of identity-based nostalgia on leisure participation intention than other

507 subfactors of nostalgia.

508 Life satisfaction has been used as a dependent variable in many previous studies.

509 However, this study examined the role of life satisfaction in leisure participation based

510 on theoretical evidence (Lin et al., 2014; Woo et al., 2016; Nimrod, 2007). Participating

511 in leisure provides individuals with a platform that induces positive emotions and

512 memories that play a big role in determining life satisfaction (Grant et al., 2009). For

513 this reason, life satisfaction has been found to be closely linked to leisure. When

514 participation in leisure proves to contribute significantly to a happier self and a rise in

515 life satisfaction, individuals are more likely to continue taking part in it. In other words,

516 leisure nostalgia positively affects life satisfaction, which affects the likelihood of

517 leisure participation. Further, previous studies built the groundwork in establishing life

518 satisfaction as a good predictor of behavioral intention (Diener et al., 2013; Luhmann et

519 al., 2012; Oliveira & Huertas, 2015; Grant, et al., 2009; Chang & Sanna, 2001; Rode et

520 al. 2007). Taking these findings into account, this study took a step further in

521 understanding the role of life satisfaction on leisure participation intention. It identified

522 life satisfaction to have an effect on leisure participation intention.

523 Another finding of this study was the integration of an affective component in

524 the structural model. There was a parallel line between this study and the MGB. The

525 MGB successfully included the emotional aspects in a decision-making process

526 (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). Specifically, the most essential determinants of the

527 intention in the MGB are the emotional factors. Consistent with this, this study

528 identified leisure nostalgia as a positive emotion that steered leisure participation

529 intention. However, by possessing the elements of both positive and negative emotions,

530 nostalgia has been proven to be a much more complex emotion than others (Cho et al.,

531 2014). Therefore, future research needs to examine how negative emotion in nostalgia

532 influences individuals’ psychological and behavioral outcomes and to identify its role.

533 The practical implications of this study are diverse and applicable in many

534 industries. Nostalgia boosts psychological well-being and produces positive outcomes,

535 such as increasing individuals’ self-esteem, social belonging, and psychological growth

536 (Routledge et al., 2013). In particular, this study found that nostalgia increases

537 individuals’ life satisfaction. Therefore, practitioners and leisure service providers can

538 use nostalgia as a tool to increase individuals’ well-being. For example, they can use

539 nostalgia evoking features in a campaign to retain and restore customers’ life

540 satisfaction, as nostalgia helps people remind that their life is worth living and has

541 meaning. In addition, drawn from the findings of this study, leisure service providers

542 may design events that create platforms for individuals to form teams, socialize, and

543 build relationships. Besides the benefits to the field of leisure, this is also applicable in

544 empowering local communities. The identity evoking nostalgia features can be used as

545 strong tools in strengthening identity continuity that is a part of psychological well-

546 being and contributes to life satisfaction. Other ways to increase leisure participation is

547 the preservation of environmental features, which may evoke nostalgic feelings. In other

548 words, new leisure facilities do not always increase leisure participation as the

549 underlying nostalgic feelings are associated with old leisure facilities used in the past.

550 This indicates that selective improvement is necessary. The findings from this study

551 allow public organizations or industries that are trying to improve individuals’ leisure

552 participation and boost their psychological well-being to construct comprehensive

553 events with the intent of instilling nostalgia into the consumers.

554 Limitations and future research

555 This study has several limitations. First, this study employed a cross-sectional

556 observation. The limitation of using a cross-sectional observation is that it provides

557 findings based on a particular moment. However, the levels of nostalgia, life

558 satisfaction, and leisure participation intention may change across different periods.

559 Therefore, future research may extend this model by conducting a longitudinal study to

560 validate the results of this study. Further, it can provide better insight into the role of

561 nostalgia and its influence and determine the reliability of the leisure nostalgia scale.

562 Another limitation of this study is the lack of control variables that may influence

563 leisure participation. For example, the levels of income and education can play a part in

564 limiting or increasing the choices of leisure activities presented to individuals (Bauman

565 et al., 2011). Thus, this study calls for future research to control the moderating effects

566 of the socioeconomic variables. Third, this study initially expected to collect data from

567 various types of event participants. However, the results showed that the majority of the

568 respondents were in their 20s and single. Future research needs to collect data from

569 different age groups. Lastly, this study followed the definition of nostalgia suggested by

570 Sedikides et al. (2004), meaning that it mainly focused on the positive aspect of

571 nostalgia and successfully proved nostalgia to be a predominantly positive emotion.

572 However, it overlooked the element of negativity carried in nostalgia. With reference to

573 it being considered a bittersweet feeling, its sweet aspect comes from remembering the

574 positive feelings experienced. However, the bitter aspect of nostalgia implies that,

575 though it is possible to replicate the experience, it is impossible to turn back time. This

576 also suggests that the present situation of nostalgia experienced may be less satisfying

577 for the individuals. As such, it is important to study the negative aspect of nostalgia and

578 its influence on behavioral intention and behaviors. Thus, future studies should provide

579 a holistic approach on nostalgia that includes the negative aspect and its consequences.

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870 19-36.

871

872

873

874

875

876

877

878

879

880

881

882 Table 1. Descriptive summary of participants

Variable n %

Age (year; n = 416, M = 28.15, SD = 9.74) 21-29 295 70.7 30-39 81 19.4 40-49 12 2.9 50-59 21 5.0 60 and over 7 1.7 Gender (n = 417) Male 246 59.0 Female 171 41.0 Education (n = 417) High school 28 6.7 Junior college 185 44.3 University 173 41.5 Graduate school 31 7.5 Marital status (n = 417) Single 358 85.9 Married 55 13.2 Divorced 3 .7 Widowed 1 .2 883

884

885

886

887

888

889

890

891

892

893

894 Table 2. Factor loading (λ), Rho, and AVE of the measurement model Factors and items Cronbach’s λ SE Rho Alpha AVE Leisure nostalgia

______evoke(s) my nostalgic feelings. Leisure experience (M = 5.52) .832 .846 .504 Remembering my leisure activity that I enjoyed .815 .038 My exciting leisure experience in the past .810 .039 Remembering the freedom I experienced during my favorite .717 .046

leisure activity Free time I had during my favorite leisure activity .626 .053 Recharging myself through leisure activity .541 .052 Environment (M = 4.88) .879 .882 .516 The food I ate during my favorite leisure time period .557 .072 The appearance of my favorite leisure place .636 .063 Memorable weather during my favorite leisure time .719 .062 The practical design of my favorite leisure place .879 .053 The architectural design of my favorite leisure place .847 .056 The leisure activity equipment I used .600 .065 The size of my favorite leisure place .730 .063 Socialization (M = 5.70) .925 .924 .676 Friends participating in leisure activity with me .820 .045 Positive memories shared with others during my favorite leisure .888 .035

activity Memories of building friendships with others during my favorite .905 .035

leisure activity Memories of socializing with others during my favorite leisure .860 .036 Memories of making new friends during my favorite leisure .796 .041 Entertainments enjoyed with others during my leisure activity .636 .043 Personal identity (M = 5.47) .922 .931 .629 Identifying myself as a lover of my favorite leisure activity .774 .046 Pride in being a lover of my favorite leisure activity .840 .038 A feeling of satisfaction as a loyal leisure participant of my .896 .036

favorite leisure activity Positive feelings about myself as a lover of my favorite leisure .864 .039

activity My value as a leisure participant .725 .048 Sense of accomplishment as a leisure participant .707 .045 Being loyal to my favorite leisure activity .725 .052

Group identity (M = 5.16) .936 .940 .649 Unique characteristics of my leisure social group .709 .053 The traditions of my leisure group .687 .062 Group rituals at the leisure place .691 .059 Shared memories which affected my group identity at the leisure .890 .045

place History of my group that shared a lot in common with my group .879 .050

members Pride of being a part of my group at the leisure place .878 .042 Experiences of group bonding during my leisure activity .856 .046 How important I was to the members of my leisure group .818 .049 Leisure participation intention (M = 5.91) .930 .935 .816 I intend to participate in my leisure .899 .033 I plan to participate in my leisure .920 .031 The probability that I will participate in my leisure is high .890 .036 Life satisfaction (M = 4.91) .899 .890 .644 In most ways, my life is close to my ideal .848 .046 The condition of My life are excellent .860 .048 I am satisfied with my life .897 .050 So far I have gotten the important things I want in life .754 .056 If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing .624 .073 895

896

897

898 Table 3. Correlations among all factors

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

(1) Leisure experience .7101 (2) Environment .564 .7181 (3) Socialization .616 .356 .8221 (4) Personal identity .651 .610 .581 .7931 (5) Group identity .525 .472 .661 .649 .8061 (6) Leisure participation intention .504 .297 .395 .463 .355 .9031 (7) Life satisfaction .313 .297 .224 .301 .236 .375 .8021 899 1Square root of AVE

900 Table 4. Results of regression and mediation analyses in the structural model Regression Path Coefficient Unstd. Std. SE z-value Path 1 (H1): Leisure nostalgia (IV) → Leisure participation intention .452 .534 .062 7.29*** (DV) Path 2 (H2): Leisure nostalgia (IV) → Life satisfaction (MV) .338 .360 .052 6.52*** Path 3 (H3): Life satisfaction (MV) → Leisure participation .189 .210 .053 3.57*** intention (DV) Path 4 (H4): Leisure nostalgia (IV) → Life satisfaction (MV) → .064 .076 .019 2.98** Leisure participation intention (DV) (H4-1): Leisure nostalgia (IV) → Leisure Participation .388 .458 .050 7.74*** Intention (DV) 901 Note. IV: Independent variable; DV: Dependent variable; MV: Mediating variable 902 **Significant at an alpha = .01; ***Significant at an alpha = .001 level (2-tailed).

903

904

905

906

907

908 Table 5. Results of three-path relation in the structural model Regression Path Coefficient Unstd. Std. SE z-value Path 1: Leisure experience – Nostalgia – Life satisfaction – Leisure .039 .054 .013 3.07** participation intention Path 2: Environment – Nostalgia – Life satisfaction – Leisure .045 .052 .015 3.06** participation intention Path 3: Socialization – Nostalgia – Life satisfaction – Leisure .039 .053 .013 3.07** participation intention Path 4: Personal identity – Nostalgia – Life satisfaction – Leisure .051 .064 .016 3.10** participation intention Path 5: Group identity – Nostalgia – Life satisfaction – Leisure .050 .057 .016 3.08** participation intention 909 Note. **Significant at an alpha = .01