ISSN 0970 - 3101 THE JOURNAL OF THE MUSIC ACADEMY

DEVOTED TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF THE SCIENCE AND ART OF MUSIC

Vol. LXXII 2001

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“I dwell not in Vaikunta, nor in the hearts o f Yogins nor in the Sun; (but) where my bhaktas sing, there be 1, !”

- Naradiya Sutra

Edited by T.T.

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Place of Publication The Music Academy, Chennai - 14. Periodicity of its publication Once a year. Printer’s Name S. Mani Nationality Indian Address 27, Sydoji Street Triplicane, Chennai - 5. Publisher’s Name Sri. T.T. Vasu Nationality Indian Address 306, T.T.K. Road Chennai - 600 004. Name and Address of The Music Academy individuals who own the 306, T.T.K. Road newspaper and partners or Chennai - 600 014. shareholders holding more than one percent of the total capital I, T.T. Vasu, hereby declare that the particulars given are true to the best of my knowledge and belief. Dated : April 2000 Sd / (T.T. VASU) (Signature of the publisher)

V______J /— ...... \

[CONTENTS S.No. Page 1. From the Editor’s Desk...... 5 2. The 74th Madras Music Conference...... 7 Official Report 3. Advisory Committee Meetings...... 20 4. The Sadas...... 49 5. Tiruppugazh - Tiruvaguppu padalkalin Chanda Koorukal - Ora Oppidu...... 68 Dr. E. Angayarkanni 6. Deiva Tamizhisaiyin Thai Karaikkal Ammayar Dr. Sister Margaret Bastin...... 84 7. Tamizhagathil Isai Valartha Penmanigal...... 97 B.M. Sundaram 8. Adapting Traditional Themes in Dance Theatre...... 100 Anita R. Ratnam 9. Akkamahadevi as a Saint Singer of 'Virasaiva Cult’...... 107 Dr. M.B. Vedavalli. 10. Lesser known composers Post- Period...... 118 K. Seshadri 11. The Contribution of Women to with Focus on Gayanapatu Kirtanapatu Smt. Saraswati Bai...... 123 Dr. Prameela Gurumurthy 12. Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present.....136 Dr. S.R. Janakiraman 13. Fretting of the vina based on scientific principles...... 161 Smt. Vidya Shankar 14. The Contents of the of Patnam Subrahmanya Iyer...... 170 Dr. S. Mallika 15. Multilingual of K..C. Kesava Pillai...... 177 Dr. S. Bhagyalekshmy 16. Music Theory Spectrum...... 187 Lewis Rowell 17. Book-Reviews...... 228

*______J From the Editor’s Desk . . . Music is eternal - Music is a living art that has evolved, developed and changed with the times bringing in new forms and popularising a completely different range of and talas. The Pallavi which seemed to be vanishing has survived, with age being no bar to its rendering - a challenge that has been accepted and overcome by the present generation of young musicians.

By a happy coicidence the papers chosen for this issue of the journal range from the ancient to the modem; from the Silappadigaram, and Tiruppugazh to the modem kritis and composers in , , Telugu and ; from Karaikal Ammaiyar, Akkamahadevi of to and Gayanapatu Keertanapatu Saraswati Bai and the lady musicians of the 20th Century. This is indeed a fascinating glimpse of the history and development of . Reading some of the informative articles, gives one a feel of the past glory and nostalagia about recent events.

The theme of the 74th Conference was the contribution of women as composers, musicians and harikatha artistes etc., Several papers were presented at the Conference some of which find place. In addition, three papers which won prizes have also been included. An elaborate paper on 'Adapting Traditional themes in Dance Theatre’ by Natya Choodamani Anita Ratnam, Karaikal Ammaiyar’ by Sister Margaret Bastin and 'The rhythmic structure of Tiruppugazh and different Tiruvagauppus by Dr. E.Angayarkanni have been included. Lesser known composers of and one from have also been included. Patnam Subramania Iyer who is a direct descendant in the Tyagaraja Sishya parampara seems to be yielding ground to modem compositions. We therefore thought it might be useful to recall his contribution. Prof. Janakiraman, a well known musicians cum musicologist has written an erudite article on 'Suddha Vikruta theory of the past and the present’. Smt. Vidya Shankar who has long been associated with the Advisory Experts Committee has written a detailed illustrated paper on the fretting of the Vina based on -scientific principles.

The feature of Gayanapatu Kirtanapatu Smt. Saraswati Bai is a reflection of the status of women in her time. Another musicologist Sri. B.M. Sundaram in his usual inimitable style has covered nearly 20 lady artistes from the last 2 centuries. Prof. Louis Rowell’s article takes us back to the Silappadigaram while the feature by Sister Margaret on Karikkal Ammaiyar recalls the women composers during the period of Tevaram and that she was known as Isaittamizhin Thai Karaikkal Ammaiyar.

We offer this collection hoping that it will be of interest to the connoisseurs, research scholars and the lay listener too as we feel there is something for every category. As usual we have included a fully notated ragamalika of Kesava Pillai on whom an article has been featured.

Even as one cannot separate the many drops of water that make the mighty ocean one can delve deep and yet not acquire complete knowledge. We hope that this issue will make you curious to learn more of this great art. O

- Editor THE 74th CONFERENCE OFFICIAL REPORT WELCOME SPEECH Smt. Ranjana Kumar, Vidushi R. Vedavalli, members of the Academy’s Advisory Committee, Vidwans and Vidushis, distinguished invitees, ladies and gentlemen : I have great pleasure in extending to all of you a warm welcome to the inauguration of the 74th Annual Conference of this Academy. It is a matter of gratification to all of us that this institution, started in 1927 by a handful of visionaries, has successfully completed 73 years of meaningful service to the advancement of the arts and science of music and allied performing arts and has been fulfilling in a large measure the expectations of its founding fathers. Over the decades, dedicated bands of office bearers have laboured hard to achieve our ideals and we remember them with gratitude today.

It is a happy augury that cultural activities in the city of Chennai are increasing year after year and its annual music and dance festival in December has been hailed as the biggest of its kind in the world. Lavish sponsorship by business houses and indivduals enabled about 70 organisations last year to present over 2000 performances and this year the number is expected to be more. The marathon event is, however, not without its problems to organisers and the public although it gives exposure to the ever-increasing number of performing artistes.

I extend a warm welcome to Smt. Ranjana Kumar who so readily agreed to inaugurate this Conference despite heavy demands on her time. Presently the Chairperson and Managing Director of Indian Bank, Smt. Ranjana Kumar has to her credit a distinguished record as a banker and financial expert. In her 34 years in the banking field she has held various responsible positions in and abroad 8 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII and achieved excellent results. She is the recipient of the prestigious 'National Banker Shiromani Award’ from the Conference of Intellectuals at Dehradun and the Vocational Excellence Award from the Rotary Bangalore City Centre. We are fortunate in having such a personality to inaugurate our Conference today.

I welcome Vidushi R. Vedavalli who will shortly be elected as the President of the 74th Conference. Her choice this year was widely welcomed by the music world for several reasons. She is a student of our Teachers’ College of Music, and the only alumna of the institution in its history to receive this distinction. She was groomed by Srirangam Iyengar and Mudicondon Venkatarama Iyer, both of whom were Kalanidhis.

Vedavalli was on the teaching staff of our music college for 13 years from 1967 before joining the Tamilnadu Government Music College. For a short period she also served as staff artiste in All India Radio. She is the recipient of several Fellowships from the Government of India and the Akademi, New Delhi.

As a musician, Vedavalli is noted for her uncompromising adherence to traditional values in music, vast repertoire which includes rare compositions, and for her expertise in pallavi singing. She is also a musicologist of merit and her lecture-demonstrations are illuminating and educative. I am sure that with her close contact with this Academy in several capacities she will conduct the proceedings of this Conference in an exemplary manner. In addition to Vidushi Vedavalli, we shall be honouring four eminent persons in the performing arts and these include a vocalist, a vina artiste, a Tavil maestro and a vidvvan. Vidwan S. Ramachandran. known as Bombay Ramachandran, has had training under Chittoor Subramania Pillai, Tiruppamburam Swaminatha Pillai, Brinda and Mukta. He taught at the College of Music of the Shanmukhananda Sabha. Mumbai for 30 years and is THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 9

presently coaching students and publishing books at Chennai. His work comprising tala variants for the 35 talas and 32 vamams in rare ragas is a valuable publication. Vidwan Ramachandran will be receiving the title of Sangita Kala Acharya.

Vidushi Ranganayaki Rajagopalan, who will also be receiving the Sangita Kala Acharya title, is the chief disciple of the late Karaikudi Sambasiva Iyer and has taught Vina for 10 years at our College from 1978. She is a veteran vina artiste and a recipient of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award.

Tavil vidwan Haridhwaramangalam A.K. Palanivel and Kanjira vidwan V. Nagarajan have been chosen to recive the the T.T.K. Memorial Award. Vidwan Palanivel is a boy prodigy in Tavil and is presently one of the most renowned and respected artistes in the field. His speciality is his handling of Thani Avartas for the Chanda Talas of Tiruppugazh. Vidwan Nagarajan is the son of Violin vidwan Papa K.S. Venkataramayya and has undergone training in laya under Thanjavur Vaidyanatha Iyer and Palghat Mani Iyer. Nagarajan has served on the faculties of the Wesleyan and Berkeley Universities in U.S.A. and coached a number of visiting scholars with grants from the Fulbright foundation. The Spirit of Youth Series, which was held during October last featuring 11 dancers and 30 musicians, was gratefully appreciated by the young and upcoming artistes who participated in it. The event’s popularity can be gauged from the fact that requests to participate in this festival are received from the Southern States in addition to Delhi and Mumbai and this year we had a participant in Dance who Hew all the way from USA just to participate in this festival. I am thankful to Mr. Suresh Krishna. Chairman and Managing Director, Sundram Fastemers Ltd., for sponsoring this programme for the tenth 10 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII year in succession, in memory of his mother, Smt. Ambujam Krishna, who was well known as a composer. Mythili Prakash won the MGR Award for the best dancer while Rajesh won the T.S. Parthasarathy award for the second best dancer. Smt. Viji Prakash won the P.Obul Reddy award for the Dance Guru. The awards in the music section were won by S. Saketaraman (Vocal-Gents), Sai Sisters, Sri Vidya and Krishna Priyadarsini and R. Anaga tied for the top slot in the Vocal section for ladies. The awards for instrumentalists were won by Ashwin (), Amrita Murali (Violin), R. Sankara Narayanan ().

You would have noticed that the interior of the Auditorium sports a new look. The ceiling and sidewall panelling have been engaging our attention for sometime now since they have not been changed for the last three decades. We were fortunate to have the services of a consultant, Prof. Natarajan, formerly of IIT, Chennai, who advised us to redesign the interior to improve the acoustics not only in the auditorium but also the stage. The Air conditioning equipment was also revamped with the commissioning of a new Air Handling Unit. The comfort of the senior citizens and physically disabled persons to reach the Kasturi Srinivasan Hall was also taken care of by our decision to install a lift. This facility will be commissioned before the end of the season. The entire renovation work posed a challenge not only to us but also the organisations entrusted with these works. I am particularly happy that M/s. Larsen and Toubro executed the jobs of interior within the time frame allotted to them. I particularly commend the L & T team, headed by the President of Operations, Mr.A. Ramakrishna, Assistant General Manager, Mr. S. Ramasubramaniam and Mr. L. Balakrishnan and Mr. Govind Tiwan of Premier Agencies who were totally involved in this renovation project. I also thank M/s. Blue Star for the speedy execution of work entrusted to them. Sri. G. Srinivasan, popularly THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 11 known as Aerocool Srinivasan, our honorary adviser for air conditioning matters, practically spent most of his time in the Academy and ensured that the air conditioning plant was commis­ sioned on time. The renovation work has been completed in a record time spanning six weeks and I thank profusely all those who made this stupendous task possible. I will be failing in my duty if I do not take this opportunity to express our grateful thanks to Sri. T.S. Santhanam, Chairman, Sundaram Finance Ltd., for spontaneously donating a sum of Rs. 5 lakhs towards the cost of the projects which were taken up during the centenary year of Sri. T.T. Krishnamachari, after whom this auditorium has been named. Incidentally, it is indeed a pity that my request to the Communications Ministry in New Delhi, made last year itself, for the release of a commemoration of stamp in memory of TTK during his birth centenary year, is yet to be acted upon.

Welcoming all of you once again, I request Ms. Ranjana Kumar to inaugurate our 74th Conference.

The 74th Annual Conference was inaugurated by Ms. Ranjana Kumar, Chairman, Indian Bank on Dec. 15, 2000. She said :

It is indeed a great privilege to be with you this evening in this august assembly of distinguished musicians and music lovers. I am overwhelmed by the honour given to me to inauguarate the 74th Conference of the Music Academy.

The Chennai Music Festival has always been a social event eagerly awaited by the millions of music lovers all over the world. As all of you are aware, Music Academy has been doing yeoman service to all forms of fine arts in general and Carnatic music in particular. As I could see from the Souvenir and the Photographs displayed outside, many stalwarts have been at the helm of affairs. These great souls have left an indelible mark in the annals of Carnatic 12 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

Music and the Academy can be rightfully proud of its illustrious leaders and the glorious service being rendered by it over the years. Many upcoming and talented youngsters are being encouraged by giving them opportunities to display their talent and also by awarding scholarships to deserving candidates, so as to preserve and nourish the rich heritage of Carnatic music.

At this juncture, I must appreciate the indomitable spirit displayed by Sri T.T. Vasu who has been making every effort to realise his illustrious father’s cherished dream towards music. Sri. T.T. Krishnamachari, popularly known as TTK was a diamond among men who shed brilliance, light and lustre into every one of his wide and varied interests in life. It would not be out of place to recall our Bank’s relationship with the TTK family for several decades. In the past our Bank has sponsored several programmes in the Academy and also various cultural festivals like Tiruppavai festival, Christmas Carols etc., in the City as well as other parts of the country.

Music is divine whether it is Western or Indian. It has neither language barrier nor any constraints like caste, creed, colour etc., A good music is always a pleasure to listen. It has a soothing effect on the listener as well as the singer. Besides, there will be a sure change-over of mind to nobler thoughts when you continue to listen to good music. Man who is constantly under pressure in this rat race of a life, finds solace when he plunges into relaxation mode through Music. You would have observed that when a melodious song caresses your ears, you forget yourself for a while and if you are a connoisseur of good music, you tend to pause a while savouring the moment. It brings out a tremendous amount of peace and tranquility which cannot be described in words. Music is a great stress reliever. I have found in my life that even when I am extremely busy, listening to music has eased my pressure. THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 13

Music is like a perennial river in which any number of people can quench their thirst and yet it would continue to overflow. Carnatic Music especially is divine music which takes one, a step nearer to God. It is essentially a music dedicated to God. If rendered with the requisite Bhakti and Bhava there is no match to Carnatic Music.

Music is nothing but an embodiment of melody and rhythm. And melodious music, sung with the heart and soul in it, can move the mountains. You would have experienced that an all-pervading peace descends on the performers as weil as the listeners. In fact, music is a means to communicate with God. Research has proved that good music can heal many ailments. Even rains can be brought by a soul-stirring rendition of the “Amirthavarshini”.

Like all other fields, the music world has also gone hitech. The internet has brought Carnatic Music lovers the world over together. Through several web pages, they can listen to music, talk music, learn music and interact with musicians. A concert in Chennai can be heard live in California. CD Roms have been brought out as teaching aids for Carnatic Music.

Even though all these developments augur well for propagating Carnatic Music, I am certain you would agree with me that nothing can replace the charm of a live concert before an appreciative audience. I appeal to the youngsters to attend these concerts in large numbers which will only ensure that the rich heritage of music, whether it is Carnatic or Hindustani, is perpetuated and nurtured.

Thus 1 can go on for hours together exclaiming the values of music and its divinity.

I learn that Sangita Kalanidhi award being conferred by the Music Academy is the ultimate an Artiste aspires for in his or her pursuit for excellence in Music. It is the highest honour being given by the foremost institution. It goes to prove that the title is being 14 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII conferred on the most deserving person and there can’t be two opinions on that.

I heartily congratulate this year’s recipient, Smt. R. Vedavalli who has earned a name for herself as a rare musician who has been putting in tireless efforts to uphold the values of tradition. She is a well respected musician, musicologist, researcher, commentator, writer, teacher and presenter of innumerable expositions on cultural platforms. In short, she is an embodiment of pure and pristine music.

It is my pleasure to inaugurate this festival which marks the beginning of the music season which is being celebrated with great fervour in the City of Chennai, known for its great love for music and other arts. I take this opportunity to thank the Organisers for giving me this excellent opportunity to be with you all on this auspicious occasion. I congratulate the Academy for its splendid contribution to promote music and other arts and wish them all success in their future endeavours in this regard. The 74th Annual Conference was presided over by Smt. R. Vedavalli. In her presidential speech she said :

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MEETINGS OF THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE

16th December 2000

The 74th Annual Conference sessions began at the Kasturi Srinivasan Hall with Vidushi R. Vedavalli who was elected the previous evening at the inaugural, in the Chair. Welcoming Vidushi Vedavalli, Sri. M.S. Venkataraman, Secretary and Convenor of the Conference, outlined the highlights of the morning sessions, the agenda for which was finalised by the Advisory Committee. He further mentioned that the focus of the current year’s sessions will be on the contribution of women for the promotion and propagation of Carnatic Music. He observed that four speakers will present this topic.

The devotionals began on 16th Dec with the rendering of Kulasekara Azhwar’s Ramayanam by Vijayashree Group led by P. Bhanumathi.

Vidvan B. Krishnamurthi made a presentation on the compositions of Mazhavarayanendal Sri Chidamabara Bharathi under the Chellammal Natarajan Endowment. The speaker said that Chidambara Bharati was bom in Mazhavarayanendal near Madurai. Chidambara Bharati was also known as Chinnaswamy; he was a contemporary of Kavikunjara Bharati. Sangita Kalanidhi Mazhavarayanendal Subbarama Bharathi was a grandson of Chidambara Bharati. Music Academy has brought out a publication THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 21 in 1964 on songs of Chidambara Bharati. Mazhavai Chidambara Bharati has composed Charitams and was also rendering Sivakathas and . B. Krishnamurthi demonstrated some of the com­ positions of the composer.

Dr. Padma Murthy gave a lecture on the compositions of Bidaram Krishnappa (1866-1931) who was a great Vidvan but little known outside Karnataka. Although he is credited with many compositions, only three are available. The three compositions are Amba Brovave (Raga ), Dasarathi in (in Telugu) and a Dasavatara Ragamalika. Veena Seshanna, Veena Kuppanna and Bidaram Krishnappa are referred to as the Trinity of Karnataka region. The title of Bidaram was conferred on Krishnappa. A member of the Advisory Committee of the Music Academy in 1928, Bidaram Krisnappa has tuned several Devamamas. He used music for therapeutic treatments. Kolar Nagaratnamma, T. Chowdiah and Anandakrishna Sarma are some his disciples. Krishnappa was noted for his expertise in Pallavi singing. He paid importance to Swara Suddham. Padma Murthy rendered the compositions of Bidaram Krishnappa which she had learnt from the direct disciples of Krishnappa.

Dr. V.V. Srivatsa complimented the speaker and pointed out that the in Harikhamhoji attributed to Krishnappa was not composed by him but rendered by him since he was known for his exclusive skill of rendering of this particular raga.

17th December 2000

Sunandha vinodhini, led by Savilri Bangaruswamy, rendered Devamamas of Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa, at the commence­ ment. Dr. Lakshmi Poduval, Reader in Carnatic Music, Sri Sadguru Vrdyalaya, Madurai, made a comparative presentation on the 22 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

compositions of Gopalakrishna Bharati and Nilakanta Sivan. Citing references, the speaker said that they both lived during the latter half of 19th Century and the first half of 20th Century and composed in Tamil on Lord Siva. Gopalakrishna Bharati had initiation to vedic studies from his spiritual guru Govinda Sivan. His compositions reflected philosophical themes. His Tamil Opera Nandanar Charitram, based on Seikizhar’s. Peria Puranam, made the holy place of popular among the masses. The composition Sabhapathikku in Raga was scripted at the request of saint Tyagaraja. The Pancharatna kritis of Tyagaraja inspired him to compose five kirtanas in Ghana Panchaka Ragas. He has also composed narratives, on the lives of Saivaite Saints. These narrative compositions were enriched by including in them Ragamalikas, Viruttams, Dandakam etc.,

Nilakanta Sivan composed innumerable devotional songs. It is believed he had a vision of Siva and Parvati and this inspired him to compose his first poetry on Sri Neelakanta Swamy in ten stanzas and from then on he chose his name as Nilakanta Dasa. He composed, Sivancii Ninai Maname in Hcimirkalyani, in which he addresses his mind to meditate constantly upon Siva for protection from Samsara and lead to attainment of Moksha. His compositions include Nalvar Charitram comprising anecdotes about , and and Manickavasakar.

Both Bharati and Sivan composed in Tamil on the life of Iyarpagai Nayanar. These two composers have composed kirtanas with the format of Pallavi, Anupallavi and Charanam with their signatures at the conclusion. Another similarity is the presence of Madhyamakala Sahitya in the compositions. Jatis and Sollukattus also figure in the compositions of these two composers. While Gopalakrishna Bharati made use of rare ragas like Maiiji, Navroj, Sivan mostly handled common ragas with a few exceptions like Dvijavanti and THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 23

Nagcmandini. Both the composers adopted Swanama mudras in their compositions. Gopalakrishna Bharati’s tactful inclusion of proverbs interwoven in his compositions is another striking feature. Another commonality between these two composers is that they were elevated souls without any interest in the materialistic world.

Dr. S.A.K. and Smt. P.L. Saraswati Ram (great grand daughter of Nilakanta Sivan) made their observations. President of the Conference, Vidushi Vedavalli observed that the Ghanaraga Panchaka quoted by the speaker as referring to Lord Siva actually refer to different deities, that have been chosen to form this group of five songs.

Thanjavur Rarnasubrahmanya Sarma gave a talk on the dramatic elements in Harikatha under the aegis of Narayana Sarma endowment. The speaker at the outset observed that the Harikatha exponents, with a certain amount of exaggeration and imagination, extensively used the dramatic element in Harikatha. He demonstrated excerpts from Nandanar Charitram and the story of Bhadrachala Ramadas.

18th December 2000

The Bhaktidhara Group rendered in Marathi, Ovyas of Samartha Ramdas, Abhangs of Saint Tukaram and two folk tunes, a Goulam in Praise of Goddess Bhavani.

Kumara Sambhavam of Kalidasa was presented by Smt. P. Vijayalakshmi, a lecturer in the Sarvaraya Harikatha Patashala at Kapileswarapuram under the endowment instituted by P.B. Sarvarayulugaru Sri. C.V. Narasimhan, chairman of the Conference Committee, complimented the artiste.

The Sukshma Srutis revealed as Ragachaya was the topic dealt by Sangita Kalanidhi B. Rajam Iyer. The speaker cited the definition Sangita Ratnakara has defined raga elaborately. He 24 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

analysed the ragas, , Begada, , , and and pointed out that raga swaroopas are established by the oscillations of specific svaras. The speaker clarified the points raised by Chingleput Ranganathan on the and of raga Bhairavi and by Dr. N. Ramanathan whether the oscillations can be stressed upon. Smt. R. Vedavalli in her concluding remarks observed that the nomenclature of moorchanas for ragas during the 18th Century did not have any relevance now. 19th December 2000

Led by Akhila Mani, Tiruppugazh Anbargal group rendered on Tiruppugazh songs on Panchabhootha Sthalas.

This was followed by an illustrated talk by Sri. C.S. Sundaram on the musical comments of Sri Tyagaraja Vijaya by Harikesanallur Sri and Sri Tyagaraja Charitram by T.S. Sundareswara Sarma. This lecture was presented under the auspices of the Dr. V. Raghavan Sashtiabdapurti Endowment.

Sri. Sundaram observed that according to Sanskrit rheotiricians, a kavya or maha kavya, should deal with the life of a noble hero and these two poems qualify as mahakavyas since they dealt with the compositions of Saint Tyagaraja. The speaker observed that the two kavyas described in detail the life history of Tyagaraja and several important incidents, which occured in his life and the occasions when they composed the songs. These kavyas also made references to ragas, musical terms like Alankara and Nada and forms of Bhakti. Muthiah Bhagavatar’s Tyagaraja Vijaya comprised seven cantos and references are made to Sarafoji Maharaja as a patron of fine arts. The saint is said to have picked up the nuances of music from Sonti Venkataramanayya. The saint, being initiated into the Tarakamantra, getting the manuscript of the Svaramava from Narada, meeting with Govinda Marar and Varanasi Ramadas, refusal to sing in praise of THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 25

Sarafoji, Tyagaraja’s visit to kshetras are some of the events described in the Kavya. The concluding canto seven describes Saint Tyagaraja entering Samadhi.

Sundareswara Sarnia’s kavya Sri Tyagaraja Carita is in 15 Sargams or Cantos. A Sanskrit Scholar, Sundareswara Sarma, has laid stress more on the legendary details such as the throwing away of the idols in the river Cauvery, the anguish suffered by him and his recovering the idols. His tutelage under Sonti Venkatanarayana is also described. Tyagaraja’s proficiency in vedas, Vedanta as well the religious and philosophical doctrines is described in detail in this kavya. Muthiah Bhagavatar opens his kavya with a salutation to nadabrahmam and refers to the five varieties of Nada as sung by Tyagaraja. The vamas, four in number, and alankaras 33 in number are dealt with in detail. Tyagaraja Vijaya refers to festivals Ramanavami, Dolotsava and Vasantotsava. The speaker concluded by remarking that the two kavyas almost follow a similar format with both the authors dwelling in detail on the concept of music.

Dr. Angayarkanni, Head of the Dept, of Music in the Tamil University, Thanjavur spoke next on the rhythmic structure of Tiruppugazh and different Tiruvaguppus. The two texts are the foremost in metrical composition and they are responsible for the evolution of tala types for Carnatic music. The hymns of Tiruppugazh are distinctly different from the usual format of Carnatic music like Vamam, Kirtanas, Kriti, Padam etc., The speaker observed that although extensive research has been carried on Tiruppugazh, the metrical composition in Tiruvaguppu has not been taken up yet for any serious study and research. The speaker said that for her presentation she would deal in three aspects : 1) The grammar in talas of Tiruppugazh as revealed in the Tiruppugazh chandams. 26 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

2) To discuss selected chandams. 3) A comparative study of the Tiruvagappu songs and the Tiruppugazh.

Tiruppugazh can be broadly divided into two parts. One dealing with wordly affairs and the other on the greatness of Lord Muruga. The Tamil word Chandam denotes beauty and is stated to have been derived from the Sanskrit word Chandas. Like Jayadeva’s Ashtapadi, the Tiruppugazh songs have eight divisions. All songs end with a Chandam, “Tana Tana’’, which is described as Tongal. The Tongal, which is distinct to Tiruppugazh, is like an ornament to Tiruppugazh. In camatic music, besides the universal rhythms of Tisram and Chatusram, the derivatives Misram, Jampa and Sankeernam form are known as Jati and Gati. Similarly the Tiruppugazh Chandas follow the above grammar exhaustively. Of the 24 Tiruvaguppu songs only 18 are sung by Arunagirinathar while the remaining 8 are attributed to other composers. The speaker presented Seerpada Vaguppu, Devendra Sanga Vaguppu, Vel Vaguppu, Tiruvelaikkaran Vaguppu, Bhoota Vedala Vaguppu and demonstrated the various . However most of the Tiruvaguppu do not contain the Tongal and even in those songs where the Tongal is existent, the Chandam Tana Tana, is not to be seen. The speaker mentioned that currently Kausikam is considered as corresponding to Bhairavi although in the 15th Century Bhairavi (Kaisiki) and Kausikam were considered as different ragas and the speaker cited references to support this view point.

Reacting to this, S.R. Janakiraman observed that Raga Kaisiki might have been mentioned instead of Pann Kausikam since there was already mention of Bhairavi. R. Vedavalli mentioned that Kaisiki pann is named after Nammazhvar. Chingleput Ranganathan observed that Tiruppugazh can be called as Tala Nool while S.Rajam said that Kachipuram Naina Pillai was mainly responsible for popularizing Tiruppugazh. THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 27

20th December 2000 Songs composed by the Sringeri Acharya, His Holiness Bharati Teertha Swamy and Jagadguru Chandrasekara Bharati and tuned by Vidvan V. Subrahmanyam, were rendered by Bhakti Kusuma Manjari, led by Smt. Gayatri Venkataraghavan. Smt. R. Ramani brought out exhaustively the techniques in Veena playing by the Karaikudi Veena tradition formulated by Karaikudi Sambasiva Iyer under whom Ranganayaki Rajagopalan had her tutelage. The special strings used, the method of playing swaras and with sangatis were explained and they were demonstrated by Ranganayaki Rajagopalan. The perfect synchronisation between voice and veena playing and the madhyama kala adopted by this tradition was referred to by Chingleput Ranganathan and R. Vedavalli. Premeela Gurumurthy in her lecture stated that Kalakshepam was performed in Tamilnadu even before the advent of the Harikatha, which was due to the influence of the Mahratta kings in Tanjore. After tracing the origin of Thanjavur Harikatha tradition formulated by Krishna Bhagavatar, Dr. Premeela Gurumurthy spoke about Saraswati Bai (1894-1974), who after initial training under T.B. Krishnachar came under the tutelage of Thanjavur Panchapakesa Bhagavatar, a disciple of Krishna Bhagavatar. Saraswati Bai was well versed in both camatic and Hindustani music. Nandanar Charitram, Valli Kalyanam, Bhadrachala Ramdas were some of the masterpieces of Harikatha rendition by Saraswati Bai. Digambar and Sri Bala Gangadar Tilak who conferred on her the title of Gayanapatu in 1916 and Keertanapatu in 1920. Premeela Gurumurthy also spoke on the contribution by Banni Bai, Padmasini Bai, Tirukokamam Kanakambujam and Kamala Murthi and others. Dr. T. Viswanathan made a suggestion that the speaker should analyse the methods of story techniques around the globe and make 28 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII a compilation. B.M. Sundaram complimented the speaker R. Vedavalli after complimenting the speaker observed that Harikatha expositions inculcated discipline. 21st December 2000

Periyasami Tooran’s songs were rendered by Soundary a Ladies Association, led by Mrs. Devaki Santhanam.

Dr. V.V. Srivatsa’s presentation was on Tiruneduntandagam, by Tirumangai Azhwar, was under the auspices of the endowment institued by Nachimuthu Rukmini Ammal Trust. Consisting of thirty pasurams, the first ten pasurams refer to the philosophical contents while in the second Padigam, Tirumangai Azhwar adorns the role of a mother who has lost her daughter, while in the last ten stanzas the Nayaki expresses her own state of mind. Dr. Srivatsa commenced his presentation with a rendering of the first pasuram “Minnuruvai” where the Lord makes his appearance in brief like a lightning. Just as one cannot make out the beginning or end for a lightning, the Lord’s origin and end cannot be determined. In all the pasurams of Tiruneduntandagam, the core meaning is brought out in the last stanza. This is the likely reason for Arayars to emphasize on the last stanza while rendering Seva to the Lord. The musical support to the presentation was provided by Sri. T.M. Krishna. R. Vedavalli remarked that Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar was responsible for formulating the musical shape to the Pasurams.

Dr. Saskia Kersenboom demonstrated on Marabu, the text and context of Bharata Natyam. She said that the ongoing discussion in solo dance is whether to adhere to tradition or to change. If tradition, “what is tradition, its standards, norms and format” and if change, change into what, about what and formed by which qualitative principles? THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 29

She said according to veterans in the field o f Bharatanatyam, tradition is different from statis and different from change. She said that instead o f change it could be said that tradition facilitates. It should be approached from the view point o f what tradition is capable of, its tenacity and vitality and where it draws its potential. This potential, the speaker said, can be considered as Marabu. In contemporary terms, Marabu equals a strategy for survival that combines solid structures with flexible processes of application in an even unique environment of time space users and their perspectives. In other words it denotes structure (Ilakkanam) process (Ilakkiyam) and environment. The contrast between Ilakkanam and Ilakiyam was substantiated by the example of Bhairavi vamam 'Mohamana’. She concluded her demonstration by stating that Marabu in the text and context of Bharatanatyam should adhere to certain principles while communicating. These principles are abstract and at the same time pragmatic, the creative tension between form and content, between codification and structure and flexible dynamic application. The convenor M.S. Venkataraman complimented the speaker while B.M. Sundaram, Dr. T. Viswanathan and R. Vedavalli referred to those who had worked for the preservation of tradition in dance and promotion of Bharatanatyam in general.

22nd December 2000

Led by Smt. Shyamala Kumar, Abirami Andadi was rendered by Thiruvarul Tiruppani Mandram.

Sister Bastin in her presentation said that music was a vehicle by which bhakti was expressed and cited the famous expression where the Lord tells Sundarar that for him music was the archana. Karaikkal Ammayar stands foremost among the women composers o f the Tevaram era. Karaikal Ammayar was the only woman among the Saivite Saints in that period. has mentioned that 30 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

Karaikkal Ammayar was proficient in music, poetry. Researchers have found that Karikkal Ammayar belonged to the 4th or 5th Century. Bom as Punitavati, even at an young age, she was an ardent devotee of Lord Siva. Karaikkal Ammayar’s works include Arpuda Tiru Andadi and Tiru Rettai Mani Malai. Arpuda Tiru Andadi contains 100 venbas and the 101st venba indicates the benefit one accrues by singing the Andadi. All these hymns reflect the deep devotion and divine experience of the Ammayar. The Rettai Mani Malai has twenty songs. Ammayar after reaching Tiruvalangadu composed two works which contain ten songs. These songs also make a reference to the musical instruments in vogue at that period. The Nattapadai Ragam of Ammayar is extensively sung in concerts and Harikatha and this raga is the first to be rendered before a deity is taken in procession in a temple festival. The Indala Pann corresponds to Mayamalavagowlci. She is aptly described as mother of the divine Tamil music.

Dr. N. Ramanathan, S. Rajam, B.M. Sundaram complimented the speaker S.R. Janakiraman mentioned that the Pratimadhyama Raga of Punitavati in the 72nd mela Ragamalika of Sri Maha Vaidyanatha Sivan is named after Karaikkal Ammayar.

Dr. S.A.K. Durga, began her presentation on the process of transformation of folk tunes to classical ragas by referring to the characteristic features of tunes or vamamettu and defining scale and raga. The speaker referred to the two types of ragas-the scale oriented-tune oriented and the sanchara based. She illustrated some ragas which have undergone a process of transformation from folk tune to a form of classical raga in Carnatic music. The speaker pointed out that similar transformation has taken place in the Hindustani music. Dr. M.B. Vedavalli, Dr. V.V. Srivatsa, S.V. Parthasarathy and R. Vedavalli complimented the speaker. THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 31

23rd December 2000 ’s compositions were rendered by Nadamuni , Group. The Ramanataka kritis of Arunachala Kavirayar was the topic taken for presentation by Smt. Gomathy Viswanathan under the aegis of the Nachimuthu Gounder Rukmani Ammal Charitable Trust in memory of Chellammal Palani Gounder. Arunachala Kavirayar lived during 1711-1778 and was proficient in Tamil, Telugu and Sanskrit. Arunachala Kavirayar first launched his Rama Nataka Kirtanaigal at Srirangam before the presiding deity, Lord Ranganatha. Commencing with Todayam, Payiram, one line Ramaayana Kirtana and Vinayaga Stotram, the work is divided into six cantos. Viruttam, Dwipadi Dharu figure in these compositions which carry a number of proverbs and embellishments. Gomati Viswanathan’s disciples, Sushila Raman, Neeraja Tulasinath and B. Balakrishnan rendered some songs of Arunachala Kavirayar. The speaker mentioned that songs of Arunachalakavi do not have original vamamettu and the ragas used in the existing versions have been adopted to suit the emotions expressed in the compositions. In the post lecture session, a question was raised whether the kriti Yaro Ivar Yaro was addressed to Lord Rama or Sita. It was pointed out that the Kriti Yaro Ivar Yaro in Bhairavi should be sung in Saveri as Aaro Ivar Aaro and it was addressed to Lord Rama. How ragas come to be, some ideas on the principles behind the formation of ragas in Carnatic / Hindustani music - was the topic presented by Sriram Parasuram. Putting together a raga or melody is the basic idea of crafting a raga and he demonstrated a bit of Bilas . He observed that while Carnatic music had a well structured system it was not the case in Hindustani system. The Carnatic system had the advantage of a blue print laid by down by 32 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

Venkatamakhin and the musician had to use his creativity to express his manodharma within that framework. Raga is combination of swaras and vakra is used as a device to introduce an anya swara. The speaker cited examples of how in Hindustani music many ragas have two names. He said that in Tyagaraja’s compositions one can see the raga in crystallized form. From Vedic times a structured basis for our system of music was available and the assimilation and crafting helped in developing into a raga. In Hindustani music groupings of ragas are done purely on the basis of phrases. Misra is an important principle of Raga. This introduction of anyaswara is a type of mixing. He cited examples of Sivaboghi (a combination o f Sivaranjani, Abhogi, Dhanakoni Kalyan (avoidance o f Deivata from ) and Swaanandi which have no scale concept.) S.V. Parthasarathy said that the saptaswaras form the basis for formation of ragas and it is the usage and transmission in the oral tradition that adds a new dimension to a raga. 24th December 2000 Kamalapriya group comprising the present and erstwhile staff of Teacher’s College of Music trained by Smt. Subrahmanyam and led by Smt. Rajeswari rendered Tiruvembavai. Tyagaraja’s Geetharthamu and Sangeethanandamu was the topic taken by I. Kameswara Rao. He began by singing the Surati Raga Kirtana “Geetharthamu”. This kirtana is very significant in Tyagaraja’s life since it guided him in his progress as a Vaggeyakara. The message of Bagavadgeetha and the bliss of music flowed into his compositions like Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati and made his songs a Triveni of Bhava, Raga and Laya. The speaker mentioned that Tyagaraja was guided by Anjaneya who is an authority on Geetha and Sangeetha. Citing examples of kirtanas with different modes of bhakti, Tyagaraja’s confession o f the purpose o f his birth is singing the glory o f Rama. (Epaniko in raga ). The content of Vedanta and pure melody are revealed in compositions Sogasuga THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 33

Mridanga, Sangeeta Sastragnamu and Ramakodandarama etc., Sangeethanandamu is a channel to salvation as sung by Tyagaraja in Ragasudharasa Panamu. The pancharatna kritis of the saint classifed the sublime and arrogant pursuit of music as Tyagaraja identified Rama with Nada and Raga in conformity of the Geetha sloka Vedanam Samavedosmi. The speaker rendered excerpts from several kirtanas and concluded that Anjaneya listening to the Geetha as he is on the flag of Arjuna is an indication of the authority of Anjaneya on devotion and music lore. The Hanumath Gana and Narada Gana are widely spoken as North and South Indian Schools of Gana. Dr. Pappu Venugopala Rao commented that the word 'Sangita’ means “Samyak Gita” meaning creation or composing of music. The views expressed is one interpretation and that the other inference of Samyak gita is also in vogue. Sulochana Pattabhiraman, who was chosen for the Bhodaka Award under the endowment instituted by Vainika Vidvan G.N. Dhandapani in memory of Sabesa Iyer, introduced the compositions of the Trinity which were rendered by Sarvashri Shyamala Venkateswaran, Prema Rangarajan, Bhagyalakshmi Suresh, Rekha Prasad, Hema Venkataraman, Sudha Raja and Nirmala Vaidyanathan- all students of Sulochana Pattabhiraman. 25th December 2000 Rama Charita Manas of Tulasidas was rendered by Gaana Lahari led by Soundarya Ranganathan. Musicologist B.M. Sundaram in his lecture outlined the role played by women composers and musicians for the propagation of Carnatic music. Smt. Palani Anjugam is credited with having sung the pallavi for the first time. Deepambaram Mangalam was popularly referred to as Swara Mangalam since she adopted swaraprastharas in the concluding piece Mangalam. Dhanakoti sisters and Coimbatore Tayammal extensively sang Tamil kirtanas in their 34 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

cutcheris. Pandanainallur Rajayi Ammal and Veena Dhanammal’s family were mainly responsible for the singing of padams. Lalitangi Ammal was responsible for popularizing Dasa’s kritis. He traced the list of women musicians, which included legendary names of M.L. Vasantakumari, N.C. Vasantakokilam and K.B. Sundarambal among others. The Harikatha medium was popularly employed to spread Carnatic music and the early pioneers were Ilayanar, Valur Saradambal, Saraswati Bai, Padmasini Bai, Banni Bai and others. Bangalore Nagaratnamma, Tiruvarur Rajayee, Thanjavur Balasarasvati and Sikkil Vedavalli were those who adorned the Carnatic music with their association in the dance field. Vocalists apart, instrumentalists particularly Vainika vidushis Veena Dhanammal, Madurai Shanmugavadivu, Tanjore Saraswati, Srirangam Chokkammal will long be remembered for their contribution to Carnatic music. Other prominent women musicians that were mentioned were Mannargudi Savitri Ammal (Gottu Vadyam), Valadi Rukmini, Vedaranayam Kanakambujam (Flute), Tanjore Kamakshi Bai, Karaikudi Kanakambujam (Mridangam) Tanjore Ramu Ammal () and a host of others. Dr. T. Viswanathan suggested that a compilation of women musicians be undertaken for future reference. R. Vedavalli mentioned that Savitri Ganesan was a prominent vocalist. Dr. R. Kausalya, Head of Dept, of Music, Govt. College at Tiruvayaru, demonstrated the music content of Bhagavata Mela. The royal household of Tanjore nurtured Bhagavata Mela. This can be summed up as complete theatre. Melattur Venkatrama Sastry, Pancharatna Bhagavatar, among others had contributed to the growth of Bhagavata Mela. The Bhagavata Melas were held in Melattur, Saliya Mangalam, Soolamangalam, Oothukadu and Tepparumanallur although Narasimha Jayanthi is being observed now only in Melattur, Saliya Mangalam and Tepperumanallur. THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 35

The music is woven around the characteristics of the story and characters. Folk tunes are introduced wherever necessary. The ragas employed bring out sringaram, pathos, bhakti etc., The jatis used are Muga jati and Artya jati while and Ganta ragas are the special features of these dramas. The dramas begin with the Sutradari leading the drama accompanied by vocalists, violin, flute and mridangam. One can observe in these presentations the crafty employment of swaras, sahityas and bhajana sampradaya. In short, emphasis is on tradition in these Bhagavata Mela dance dramas. The speaker with the help of the accompanying musicians, representing the Melattur and Salyamangalam traditions, demonstrated excerpts from some of the popular dance dramas which are presented annually in the Bhagavata Mela festivals. 26th December 2000 Narayana Tirtha’s Tarangams were rendered by Sunadam group. The saint composer of the virasaiva cult in Karnataka, Akka Mahadevi, was the topic presented by Dr. M.B. Vedavalli. The 11th Century saw the emergence of Vachanas in . Vachanas are a blend of prose and poetry and this unique style was handled by the Vira Saiva saints. It was a spoken language and came spontaneously from the deep experience of the Vira Saiva saints. The Vachanakaras spread the message of equality, belief of one god head and strict morality at a juncture when amidst the tussle between the Hindus and Jains, the common people went after different gods and ignored the principles of life. Akka Mahadevi stands out as a great saint singer and though married into a royal household, she was a great devotee of Lord Chenna Mallikarjuna whom she considered as her true Lord. The speaker said Akka Mahadevi’s spiritual pursuit to win the Lord might be compared to Andal and Mira Bai. Eventually she was united with Lord Chenna Mallikarjuna at Srisaila. Dr. Vedavalli and Smt. Yamuna sang a couplet in Bauli and Vachanas 36 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII in Pantuvarali, Nadanamakriya and Bhairavi in which compositions, Akka Mahadevi pines for the Lord. Bhakti as expressed by Saint Tyagaraja and Maharaja Swati Tirunal in their compositions formed the topic presented by V. Subrahmanyam. Among the four purushartas, Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, Tyagaraja’s compositions reveal that the saint had no inclination for Artha and Kama. This similarly can be noticed in the compositions of Swati Tirunal. While Tyagaraja’s outpourings were on his ishta devata Lord Rama, Swati Tirunal sang in praise of his kula devata Lord Padmanabha. Tyagaraja revealed the various forms of bhakti in his compositions. Both composers resorted to Aartha bhakti seeking almighty’s help and protection at all times. The speaker illustrated with renditions on Aarsha Bhakti, Artharthi Bhakti and Jyansu Bhakti. The speaker also referred to Navaratnamela keertanams - the nine gems created by Swati Tirunal in his compositions. Tyagaraja’s Navavida bhakti was also mentioned in detail and Subrahmanyam and his daughter Meenakshi Lakshman rendered a few kirtanas of both composers. 27th December 2000 Led by Chinmayi K. Sripada, Nad Pravah rendered Hindustani . In his demonstration, T.V. Gopalakrishnan observed that layam in a restricted sense means the Tala system, its technique and the function in Indian music and it is most evolved in Carnatic music. The combination of rhythm and harmonious melodies form the basis for the evolution of musical scale. The speaker said that the Bijakshara OM (Omkara dhwani) syllable of 4 matras and the elongation of OM the muted sound for seven matras, making a total of 11 matras. The second part of dhwani involves the Nabhi, Hridaya and the Kantam. Talas been clearly defined by Dattilam Muni and the Tamil work Pancha Marabu. In Carnatic music Tala denotes rhythm, tempo, time measure etc., Sarangadeva in his Sangita Ratnakara attributes THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 37 .

the origin of Tala to Dakshinamurthi. Layam manifests itself in Carnatic music as well as in dance. The Pancha Marabu describes that as the propensity of music and dance exceeds the parameters like the rivers, Talam acts as the riverbanks to control and direct the flow. The string of sangatis delineating a raga depend entirely on the underlying layam between the different swaras connected by vowels. The same swara combinations in a scale when rendered with an altered layam will give a different raga Chaya eg., Devagatidhari (), Nayaki (Durbar) Yadukula (Kambhoji). The Rakti ragas, depend on antharlaya between the swaras to bring out an aesthetic appeal in their delineation and they can be classified as 1) Vilamba Laya 2) between Vilamba and Madhya Laya 3) those rendered in Madhya and druta laya and finally 4) druta laya. The term layam includes eduppu, gathi, aruthi and more significantly visranthi or viramam. Meaningful silences between sangatis in alapana, tanam, kriti rendition, niraval and prolonged swara prastaras form part of superlative art of performance in either vocal or instrumental music and also in the art of accompaniment. He illustrated by recorded excerpts from the concerts of Chembai Vaidyanatha Bhagavatar, Flute T.R. Mahalingam and M.D. Ramnathan. The role of layam is of vital importance in the rendition of vamams, kritis, , tanam, padam and javali and the Layam if properly presented will present a smooth flow of music. Complimenting the speaker, Chingleput Ranganathan recited Konnakol to demonstrate the maintenance of speed. R. Vedavalli in her concluding remarks observed how the three speeds in our music system helped to maintain the tempo of a performance. Anita Ratnam emphasized the fact that when one trains in the tradition of classical dance, one unconsciously shapes one’s body and mind into that of an actor. The word Natya itself denotes theatre and not dance which is qualified in Sanskrit as nritya. She presented three examples where dance and theatre unite in their approach. She 38 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

demonstrated her choreographed versions of Gajanana, Daughters of the Ocean and Ahalya. In Gajanana the ensemble presented natural and stylised movements along with the traditional school of Bharatanatyam to visualize the physicalisation of the human Ganesa. Vedic chants rendered by the performers invested them the dual role of dancer and actpr. The second example was taken from a contemporary book. Deviating from the traditional presentation of the goddesses Durga, Lakshmi and Saraswati, normally depicted in Bharata Natyam, the ensemble presented the qualities of these three deities, strength, abundance and creativity respectively. The third example Ahalya, presented a stone moving and containing memories. The movements from Bharatanatyam and Mohiniattam were choreo­ graphed in slow motion like the Japanese style of Noh or the Kathakali. Anita Ratnam in her concluding remarks observed that the challenges facing the Indian dance theatre are the experimentation with the aesthetic possibilities inherent in the element of classical movement, thinking of time not as just beats and patterns but a dimension of movement that could be projected or diminished, acknowledging that movement itself has no traffic with morality and does not yield to logic. The mind is a vital muscle in this process and when a movement succeeds neither the mind nor the body is separate. Nirmala Ramachandran complimented the artiste. 28th D ecem ber 2000 Devaganavali led by Chitra Vasudevan rendered Divyanamas in Sanskrit of Saint Tyagaraja. M. Chandrasekaran, assisted by Smt. Sumitra Rangaswamy rendered compositions in different languages. S.R. Janakiraman presented a paper on the Suddha and Vikruta swaras, as mentioned by the Lakshanakaras, Samga (13th Century AD), Ramamatya (1550) Somanatha (1609), Venkatamakin (1635 AD), Ahobala (1660 AD), Govinda (18-19th Century) Sangita THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 39

Sampradaya Pradarsini of Subbarama Dikshitar (1904-1906) and the current theory. He came out with suggestions in some respects. The speaker started by observing that the Shadja Grama was the fundamental and primordial scale in south Indian music. The Madhyama murchana of the Shadja Grama was the fundamental scale of the music of the ancient Tamils. The Saptaswaras that constituted the Shadja Grama were styled suddha swaras and the sruti sthanas wherein they were located were the Niyata Srutis. From the known Suddha Swaras, the unknown Vikruta swaras came to be known. The altered sruti interval between one and the other suddha swaras brought in the Vikruta swaras. A simple theory was that whatever was not Suddha swara was Vikruta swaras. The Prakruti swaras, i.e, the self ordained notes were technically the Suddha swaras and all the swaras other than Suddha swaras were Vikruta swaras. The speaker went on to illustrate the varied stand taken by the lakshnakaras in regard to Suddha swaras and Vikruta swras. He later suggested that a new thought would emerge viz the swaras figuring in scale alone be regarded as the Suddha swaras and the rest to be regarded as Vikruta swaras. This will lead to a further thought that in all the rest of hundreds of scales even Shadja, Suddha ma and pa would become Vikruta. He concluded his lecture by stating that it will be worthwhile to revive the usage of the terms Ati Komala, Komala, Tivra, Tivara Tara and Tivra Tama to indicate unambiguously the varieties of the relative pitch values of the inherent of notes of the raga concerned. He further stated that the Hindustani musicians observed this theory. This he felt would suffice to mitigate the confusion and problem prevailing with regard to the usage of terms like Suddha and Vikruta. 29th December 2000 Kalikamba Suprabatham, composed by Sri. T.V. Anantharama Sarma was rendered by Shri Sarada Devi Bhajan Mandali under the leadership of Rajalakshmi Vaidyanathan. 40 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

Fretting of Vina based on scientific principles was the topic presented by Smt. Vidya Shankar. The speaker observed that the Vina is an audio-visual instrument and the nuances of our classical music can be best understood by experiencing thoroughly the technique of Vina play and hence the importance of frets on the vina. Vidya Shankar displayed a picture of Vina with 24 frets consisting two consecutive stayis Madhya and Tara. Each stayi represents 12 swarastanas. The sruti values were pictorially displayed. The speaker said that technicians or tuners relied on the ear test of twanging intermittently, individually or simulataneously the sruti and tala strings and it has its own limitation in the tonal perception. The suggested method of fretting the vina was to minimize this drawback by adopting scientific principles of checking the srutis. The speaker stressed that the placement of the frets for the swaras, the one with a lower frequency i.e, ekasruti rather than tisra sruti, is accepted as the higher sruti can be easily obtained by a slight stress or precise deflection on the string. By way of illustration, Smt. Vidya Shankar demonstrated Saveri which has Suddha Rishaba and Suddha Daivata and said that frets for these can be fixed at a higher sruti and also explained the actual fretting. She concluded her demonstration by fretting for R2. R. Vedavalli, President of the Conference spoke on Vamams- the mother of Manodharma under the Brinda Varadarajan endowment. She began her presentation by citing that Vamam is unique to the Carnatic System of music and is the fountainhead for all musical intricacies. Tana Vamam has less usage of words while Pada Vamam abounds in words. She underscored the need for early intensive training in music. Vamam encompasses ragam, tanam, neraval, kalpanaswaras all of which are essential for manodharma in singing. Referring to Niraval the speaker pointed out that its beauty lies in placing it different positions and not in a fixed position. Tanam is always rendered in Chatusram. The speaker said that the Saveri THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 41

Vamam is well structured while in Viriboni Vamam Tanam is manifested. She explained in detail the importance of voice training, the adaara, ekaara singing, the sancharas the special prayogas which can be effectively used while singing ragam, tanam, pallavi and gave some illustrations. She concluded by stating that separation of phrases will preserve the raga swarupa and lakshana. B. Rajam Iyer, Chingleput Ranganathan and S.A.K. Durga complimented the speaker and made their observations on the importance of Vamam. B.M.Sundaram said that Chidambaram Vaidyanatha Pillai who has composed 126 vamams and this composer had remarked that Ethukkadai swara sections in vamam was the main source for his compositions. 30th December 2000 Skanda Priya, group led by Smt. Rajalakshmi rendered Kulasekara Azhwar’s Mukunda Mala. Lesser known composers of Andhra Pradesh was the topic of Komanduri Seshadri, Principal, SC College of Music & Dance, Tirupati in his lecture under the auspices of Rama Narayana Sarnia Endowment. He cited the names of more than twenty five composers who had composed from swarajati to kritis. Some of them were also devoted teachers. Toomu Narsimhadasa (Guntur), Rallapalli Krishna Sarma (Tirupati), Prayaga Rangadasa, Kocherlakota Ramaraju (Thatipaka) Dhanuvakonda Subba Rao (Ongole), Parupudi Chalamaiah, (Rajmundry), Manuganti Venkata Rao (Kakinada), Nagabushanam (Machillipatnam), Ogirala Veera Raghava Sharma (Kowuru), Piratla Sankar Sastry, Mulugu Sivananda Sastri (Tenali) Vinjamuri Varadaraja Iyengar (Guntur) were among the numerous composers referred to by the speaker. The living composers mentioned by the speaker were Dr. Sripada Pinakapani, S. Balasubramanya Sarma, Annavarapu Ramaswamy, Vasa Padmanabhan, Nookala Chinna Satyanarayana. The speaker mentioned that each composer had his own style of composition and different ragas talas and rare ragas were used by 42 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII them in their compositions. The speaker lamented that in regard to some composers there were no records. Komanduri Seshadri rendered compositions of Thumu Narsimhadasa and a few others. Dr. Pappu Venugopala Rao complimented the speaker. Bombay Ramachandran spoke on the importance of notations in learning Carnatic music. He said notation helps improve the knowledge of the swaras and identify the bani. He said that notation is very vital for preservation for posterity. He sang some of the notated versions of certain rare kritis Maha Ganapati - Nata Narayani, Kripa Juchutaku - Chaya Tarangini. Chidambaram Natarajam - , Palayamam - Kanada. Chingleput Ranganathan and S.R. Janakiraman made their observations. 31st December 2000 Swati Tirunal’s compositions were rendered by Sruti Mandali, led by Mrs. Sharada Ramachandran. A panel consisting of the President of the Conference, Vidushi Vedavalli, Sangita Kala Acharyas Dr. S.R. Janakiraman and S.Rajam, Dr. S.A.K. Durga and Sri. K.N. Srinivasan discussed the lakshanas of the Ragas Asaveri, Kannada, , , Bhairavi and Kamavardhini. Vidushi Vedavalli acted as the moderator. The panelists in turn demonstrated the main features of the raga and summed up the prayoga of each raga. 1stJanuary 2001 The students of the Teacher’s College of Music of The Music Academy rendered select compositions on and around Tiruvarur Kshetram. In the summing up session of the 74th Annual Conference, Convenor and Secretary M.S. Venkataraman highlighted the proceedings of the Conference and thanked the members of the Advisory Commitee and Vidushi R. Vedavalli for Chairing and conducting the Conference from 16th Dec onwards. The resolution THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 43 brought before the Committee on the conclusions reached in the discussions on Raga Lakshanas were read out by Dr. S.A.K. Durga. The panelists were of the firm opinion that sampradaya or tradition should be known to the younger generation and also that sampradaya should be maintained by the musicians while rendering the kritis. 1. Asaveri shines in the Vakra Prayoga. R3 is not recommended in the Raga. 2. Kannada is the of Dheerashankarabharanam, 29th mela and the swaroopa of the raga brought by sancharis and is not a scale oriented raga. 3. Abheri is currently sung with Chaturssruthi Dhaivata which does not fit in with the sampradaya. It was sung traditionally with Suddha Daivata. In performing tradition the Chatusruthi Dhaivata is also used. 4. Atana is also one of the sanchara-based ragas and many vishesha prayogas are used such as p d n s and n s p g m r s. It is a Dvi anyaswara Bhashanga Raga. The raga is janya of Dheerashankarabharanam 29th Mela. 5. Bhairavi is a well known raga. Though it is a well known fact that Chatusruthi Dhaivata occurred in the arohana when the phrase goes up to Tara Shadja, many performers do not pay attention. It must be sung with Suddha Dhaivata in the descending and ascending phrase where it does not go up to Tara Shadja. 6. Kamavardhini and Ramakriya are the same. Pantuvarali is the name which has came later. The Pantuvarali is Subhapantuvarali and Pantuvarali is not synonymous with . The members of the Advisory Committee were not unanimous in accepting the recommendations made by the panelists particularly in respect of raga Asaveri. There were differing views and it was agreed that the recommendations be circulated to all the advisory committee members to enable them to express their opinion. 44 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

In the summing up sessions held on 1st Jan 2001, the following were the remarks offered by members of the Advisory Committee: Dr. V.V. Srivatsa : * Commenting on Dr. Lakshmi PoduvaP presentation, Dr. V.V. Srivatsa observed that Sharman and Nama are to be viewed differently. For Syama Sastri, Venkatasubramanian was the Sharman and Syamakrishna was the nama i.e, the namne by which he was called. Therefore the word Syamakrishna used as a mudra or ankita by Syama Sastri is the svanama mudra. It is the Svanama Angita that matters and not itara nama mudra. * Commenting on Dr. Padma Murthy’s presentation, Dr. Srivatsaa observed that Bidaram Krishnappa has composed more than 3 compositions and there are documentary evidences available. A further study has to be made to locate these compositions. * On Dr. S.A.K. Durga’s presentation, he observed that the contention that folk form transformed into classical music is not valid. Perhaps the dilution of classical music could have led to folk form. There were three types in classical music, Dara, Naya and . Folk music cannot be fitted into the Classical fold. * Adverting to a remark made in the panel discussion that in Dikshitar’s kriti the nomenclature was Pantuvarali and he has purposefully omitted the katapayadi prefixes, Dr. Srivatsa observed that Dikshitar has not cut off the katapayadi prefix in any song. * M.S. Sadasivam observed that in Saveri Raga the dhaivata is an important . Complimenting. S.R. Janakiraman ^ In many compositions of Dikshitar, there were raga mudras like Tanatodi. In some compositions raga mudra is given in a subtle manner. THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 45

$ Bidaram Krishnappa cannot be cited as a composer. He was a more of a performing artiste. Dr. Pappu Venugopala Rao ♦ Tyagaraja sang spontaneously and he did not have Bhagavad Gita in mind when he sang. To attribute that Tyagaraja imported the essence of Gita in his compositions is a later day attempt. ♦ Syama Sastri’s mudra is svanama mudra. Dikshitar never tried to omit any particular prefix to any particular raga in his compositibns. ♦ The panel discussion on raga lakshanas should come to a final conclusion. ♦ K.S. Mahadevan : The panel session on Raga lakshana should have ended with a definite conclusion. He regretted that even in earlier years despite the conclusions reached on raga lakshanas musicians failed to adhere to the conclusions and sang in their own way. Music Academy should lay down the rules for rendering any raga and the musicians should follow it atleast in the concerts at the Music Academy. ♦ SAK Durga : The sessions should be lecture- demon­ strations and not vice versa. Folk music transformed into classical music. Chingleput Ranganathan : The accompanying artiste, particularly the mridanga vidvan should know how to accompany the vocalist and he should strictly adhere to the kalam adopted by the vocalist. There should be discussions on Tala Lakhanas like Raga Lakshana. % B. Krishnamurthy : Any lecture on a composer should include singing of the compositions since it brings out the uniqueness of the composer. $ S. Rajam : The session on Harikatha was more dramatic and there was hardly any Harikatha in it. THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

* Gomathy Viswanathan : In Arunachala Kavirayar’s darn Aaro Ivar Aaro (not Yaro Ivar Yaro) the author reflects the mind of Rama not Sita. By way of substantiating her statement, Gomathy Viswanathan quoted a viruttam preceding the daru which expresses how Rama wondered as to who she (Sita) was. * M.B.Vedavalli : Bidaram Krishnappa was more a performer than a composer. Replying to an observation, Vedavalli observed that not that all sessions could be scholarly since there were many topics that dealt with analytical studies and these sessions obviously would be appear to be non scholarly. * Tradition advocates the usage of a particular svara in a particular raga. However judging by the manner in which currently many ragas have taken a different swarupa by introduction of an anyasvara, the question raises whether the lakshana of these ragas should be changed thereby giving importance to lakshya. * B.M. Sundaram : Commenting on Lakshmi Poduval’s presentation, B.M. Sundaram observed that Gopalakrishna Bharati was patronized by Amarasimhan who was ousted from his court and lived in Kumbakonam. Bidaram Krishnappa has to'his credit 16 compositions as revealed by T. Chowdiah. * There is a difference between Lay am and Kalam. Layam follows a uniform pattern while the performing artiste changes kalam according to the vocalist. The presentation by T.V. Gopalkrishnan was emphasise more on kalam than laya. He also stressed that musicians should practice along with a mridanga vidvan while practicing and this will ensure there is perfect coordination between the vocalist and the percussion artiste. THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 47

B. Rajam Iyer : No lecture will be purposeful without any demonstration. Demonstration is illustration of a subject with all its subleties. Each Raga has a swarupam and the origin should be brought out vividly in the demonstration. Musician should stick to old patantharam and each raga should be demonstrated after understand­ ing its swarupa. Sulochana Pattabhiraman : It is easy for presenter’s to lay down the do’s and don’ts But to make it acceptable by the younger generation it should be specifically stated with clear-cut reasoning how a kriti should be sung. Comments on the resolution read out by the panelists: B. Rajam Iyer : How can one say with authority that Asaveri is not a Bashanga Raga? S.R. Janakiraman : Chatusruti Rishaba need not be there as a well pronounced note. In the phrase PMGGRS,.G should be sung by deflecting chatusruti rishaba. This has also been mentioned in Sangita Sampradaya Pradarsini. He said that R used in Asaveri may be said to be equivalent to Ahoballas purva gandhara. i.e, R3. One should note the subtle difference between Lakshana Svaram and Chaya Svaram. Sulochana Pattabhiraman : Is it Chatusruti Rishabam in the Avarohanam or Suddha Gandharam? V.V. Srivatsa : Regarding Abheri, Dikshitar handled Karnataka Gandhara, Deva Gandhara and Abheri differently. Suddha Daivata should be the svara in Abheri and Dikshitar adapted this usage. R. Vedavalli : ’s Bhajare Re Manasa was composed as a Karnataka but not as is being now sung as Abheri. Sulochana Pattabhiraman :If Chatusruti Daivata is present, it should be called Karanataka Devagandhari. 48 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

CVN : In Musiri Subramania Iyer’s tradition Abheri was sung with Chatusruti Daivatam, while traditionally it was sung with Suddha Daivatam. Different views were expressed on Asaveri being declared in the resolution as not a Bashanga Raga. Calling a Raga as Bashanga was not derogatory to the Raga. In the Annual Conference of the Music Academy held in 1929, it was decided that Asaveri is not a Bashanga Raga. The presence of R3 in the svara has contributed to this confusion. It was conceded that the usage of R3 was also occasional. It was decided that the resolution be suitably amended taking into consideration the views expressed by the members. It was also decided to circulate the resolution again to all the members, including those who are not present and elicit their views before any conclusion is reached on the subject. Answering a question from a rasika, who wanted to know whether tradition meant astaticism and should not raga undergo changes as a process of evolution over a period of time since performers were governed by popular appeal. It was decided that tradition should be maintained and performers should ensure this while singing. The presence of Kakali Nishada in Kamas was the subject of detailed discussion. The Javali pattern has brought to fore the Kakali Nishadam and this should not be extended to other kritis. In Javali the anya svaram is brought in to embellish the song. But to extend it other compositions will run counter to the manodharma of the composer. It was however conceded that Vasudevachar himself used Kakali Nishadam in his compositions. The underlying score is that whatever may be the changes due to evolution it should be borne in mind that one should not swerve from tradition. The President of Conference observed that the usage of Kakali Nishadam was of recent origin and it has been used to reduce the heaviness of the composition. The Asaveri has been quoted as a Bashanga raga only during the last 50 years or so and no reference could be found in earlier texts as a Bashnga Raga. THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 49

To a query whether Tandakam in Tamil and Dhandakam in Sanskrit are one and the same, VV Srivatsa replied that Tandakam in Tamil, refers to the two types of verses, the Kuruntandakam with 16 verses and Neduntandakam with more than 24 verses while Dandakam in Sanskrit refers to grammar. Smt. R. Vedavalli thanked all members and Conference was declared as closed. Sri. C.V. Narasimhan thanked Vidushi R. Vedavalli and the Advisory committee members. Vidushi R. Vedavalli thanked all the members for the cooperation extended to her during the Conference. Earlier there was an open house where the members of the audience sought clarifications on the presentations made during the Conference. THE SADAS The Sadas (Convocation) of the 74th Annual Conference was held at the T.T.K. Auditorium at 5 p.m. on Monday the 1st January 2001 with Dr. R.V. Vaidyanatha Ayyar, Secretary, Department of Culture, New Delhi in the chair. There was a distinguished gathering of members of the Academy, music lovers, musicians and scholars. The function began with an invocation by the Lecturers of the Teachers’ College of Music of the Academy. The Sadas was convoked by Sri. T.T. Vasu, President of the Academy. Welcoming all, Sri. Vasu said : Dr. R.V. Vaidyanatha Iyer, Vidushi R. Vedavalli, Vidwan S. Ramachandran, Vina Vidushi Ranganayaki Rajagopalan, Kanjira vidwan V. Nagarajan, Tavil maestro Haridhwaramangalam A.K. Palanivel, Vidwan Thanjavur Sankara Iyer, members of the Executive and Advisory Committees, distinguished invitees, ladies and gentlemen: I extend to all of you a warm welcome to this Sadas, which is the annual Convocation of this Academy, and I wish you a happy New Year. 50 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

This morning we concluded a 17-day long Annual Conference as well as a music and dance festival. Last year I mentioned that there was an unprecedented plethora of cultural activities in Chennai during December, but this year the proliferation was much more and touched a new peak. This marathon cultural gala created problems for both the organisers and the art-loving public, but this Academy continued to get the attendance of discerning lovers of performing arts who have been our patrons year after year. During these 17 years, we provided a rich fare to our audiences by presenting 85 performances of vocal music, instrumental music, Hindustani music, Bharata Natyam and Kuchipudi besides a Harikatha performance on Andal. This evening after this Sadas, there will be a unique ensemble of 25 violins led by Vidushi A. Kanyakumari. Thes sessions of the Conference were conducted in the morning in the Kasturi Srinivasan Hall and this experiment proved a success. A life has also been provided for this Hall. Eminent musicians and musicolgists presented learned papers and demonstrations which were interesting and educative. As the President of this year’s conference is a woman, the accent was on the role of women in the promotion of camatic music. All the four sessions earmarked for this theme were well received by rasikas. The lakshanas of certain selected ragas were discussed in detail by a panel drawn from the Advisory Committee. The Conference proceedings in full will be published in our next Journal. The group singing of devotional songs at the beginning of each day’s meeting has come to stay and is one of the most popular items of the Conference. I thank Vidushi Vedavalli and members of the Advisory Committee for their involvement and participation in the morning sessions. The Sadas this evening is presided over by Dr. R.V. Vaidyanatha Ayyar, Secretary Department of Culture of the Government of India. Dr. Ayyar is a distinguished member of the Indian Administrative Service with many achievements to his credit. After a brilliant THE SADAS 51 academic career culminating in his securing a Ph.D. for Chemistry from the Andhra University, Dr. Ayyar joined the I.A.S. in 1966 and served in several key positions both in the Districts and at the Ministry level. He is the author of a number of authoritative papers, mainly on education which is his special field. Dr. Ayyar is presently Secretary of Culture, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Government of India, Principal Advisor on Cultural Affairs and Chief Executive of the Department of Culture. The Department of Culture is directly connected with the promotion of performing arts, literature and the visual arts and awards a very large number of junior fellowships, senior fellowshipss and Emeritus Fellowships, the last named being awarded to the most eminent artistes in the respective fields. I am happy to announce that our former Secretary, Mr. T.S. Parthasarathy, is the recipient of one of the Emeritus Fellowships for 1999-2000. I take this opportunity of thanking our sponsors and advertisers who came forward generously to underwrite concerts and take space in our Souvenir. Our Secretaries, Office-bearers, staff and volunteers cheerfully bore the brunt of the strain involved and I thank them for their cooperation. As the curtains come down on this Festival in a few hours time from now, my thoughts are getting focused on the next annual conference to be held in December 2001. The Music Academy will be celebrating its 75th Conference, a momentous occasion in its annals and in the new millennium. We are looking forward to it and a few of my colleagues have already offered suggestions to make it a memorable event. They include a world music conference, a commemorative stamp, opening a web-site and the seeking of affiliation with the Chennai University for graduate courses in music. I would welcome similar suggestions from our members and well- wishers. The joy and thrill of the celebration apart, it will be an 52 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII occasion for us to reaffirm our solemn pledge to uphold the traditions of Indian music and fulfil the dreams of the founding fathers of this Academy. Welcoming you once again, I request Dr. Ayyar, to preside over the Sadas and conduct the proceedings. Welcoming all, Dr. R.V. Vaidyanatha Ayyar, said : “Let me begin my expressing my gratitude to the President and members of the Executive Committee for inviting me to the Sadas of the 74th Annual Conference. It is indeed a great honour. When I recall the great stalwarts who presided over the Sadas in the distinguished history of the Academy I am just overawed.

Echoing that I can only say who am I and where is the Sadas of the Academy? I can only attribute this association to my Purvajanma Sukrita or as Tyagaraja would say “Toli Ne Jesina Pooja Phalamu, Telisenu Nd Paali Deivama" or ‘Enati Nomu Phalamo, Ea Dana Phalamo It would not be an exaggeration to say that the Music Academy is unique. There are other equally prestigious academies, say the Sangeet Natak Akademy or the Academy Francoise but almost all of them have been established by and if I may use the coarse term 'managed’ by the Government. It is significant that the Music Academy was set up in the year 1927, the very year in which the Congress at the Madras Session declared complete independence as the goal of the national movement. The Founding Fathers of the Akademy, like their contemporaries, were no doubt motivated by the feeling that cultural resurgence has to be an important element of the freedom movement and that cultural resurgence is something that only the people themselves can bring about and not the Government, and that too a foreign Government. In a sense they were carrying forward the strong element in Carnatic of trusting in God and not in the King. Devorakshathu and not Rajorakshathu. There are THE SADAS 53

examples galore of royal favours being spumed by the great composers. for example, sang “Manujudai putti manujuni sevimpa anu dinamu dukkha manda nela” Tyagaraja’s famous “Nidhi chaala sukhama ” is reported to have composed when he declined the invitation of King Serfoji. I have recently come across a lesser-known but equally profound example in a lecture by the famous Kannada writer and Jnanpith Award Winner, UR Ananthamurthy. One of a Purandaradasa’s devamamas has the lines: “Uttama Prabhutva Lolalotte, Chatra Chamara Lolalotte” Even if prabhutva (Government) is Uttama (excellent) to think that it can solve all problems is Lolalotte, that is an absurd proposition. Don’t get me wrong. I am not saying that the Government is not duty bound to promote our culture. I am not shirking my responsibility as Secretary of the Department of Culture. Indeed in actuality in Independent India the Government has been striving to promote culture. For example, the popularity of the classical music today owes much to BV Keskar who as Information and Broadcasting Minister transformed with missionary zeal the All India Radio into a vehicle for the promotion of Classical Music. One hopes that this tradition would be rejuvenated. Or to give another example, it is not the formal education system but the Guru Shishya Parampara, which is the main mode by which our rich heritage in Performing Arts is being transmitted. This cultural transmission is being greatly supported by the Scholarships, Fellowships and Salary grants offered by the Department of Culture. But all said and done, Government can only play a catalytic and supporting role. The fountainhead of the promotion of cultural promotion and creativity has to bewhat in modem parlance is now called the civil society - the rasikas, the gurus, the shishyas and the cultural institutions. Let me illustrate with a lively anecdote. On the last Durgashtami day I was in Dattia, near Jhansi, a Shaktisthala. The Madhya Pradesh Government had begun this year a Dusserah Cultural Festival. I was on the stage along with the Dy. Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh who invited me to the festival. 54 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

So was Padma Sri , a famous Pandwani singer from Chattisgarh. To her surprise she was called upon to speak. She began by saying that making speeches was the speciality of ministers but went on to make a forceful speech in which she said that we, artistes, need the support not so much of Government as of the Janata Janardhan. Janata, the people, are Janardhana himself and in Him we trust was her message. So if the Academy has done such distinguished service to Carnatic music in the last 75 years, it is, no doubt, not only due to the Graha Sthithi, the constellation of stars when it was found but also due to philosophical principles underlying its establishment as well. Given this genesis I have no doubt that the Akademy would go on for a long long time, past the forthcoming centenary, ceaselessly endeavouring for the advancement of both the science and art, the 'lakshana’ as well as 'lakshya' aspects of our music. For decades to come every aspiring musician would continue to consider, as in the past and present, an opportunity to perform at the Annual Conference a God-sent opportunity and the Sangita Kalanidi would continue to be the highest honour a Carnatic musician would, aspire for. Let me elaborate a bit more on Janata Janardhan. I for one am not one of those pessimists who bemoan the advent of Kaliyuga, the decline of values, the erosion of refined tastes, the waywardness of youth and the imminent demise of classical music and standards. Every generation in the past had a similar feeling - there is an inscription to that effect in one of the tombs of the Pharaohs in ancient Egypt, three-to-four thousand years old. But the world has not come to an end. One has to only look at the carnival atmosphere of the December Season in Madras to come to the conclusion that there is no dearth of audience at least in Madras. Of course, a art critics would rightly expose the antics and shenanigans of the season. But as Dostoevsky has rightly counselled we should count not only our calamities but also our blessings. Where else in the world is there something like the December season in Madras? Not even very THE SADAS 55

renowned festivals like the Edinburgh festival or Salzburg Festival are a patch on it. The intense competition and rivalry are strengths than a weakness. I was happy to read a recent issue of ’s Folio that in the last few years that there is a remarkable change in the concert scenario and that for many of the performers music has become an economically viable proposition. We have in our midst eminent vidwans who bridge the present and the generation of stalwarts who dominated the Carnatic music .scene in early 1940s and 1950s. We are also fortunate to have a new crop of young vidwans highly educated who can relate themselves to the modem world, techno­ logically savvy. In the Hindu Folio issue I was referring to, I was delighted to read an article “Music.com” by Sanjay Subrahmanyan describing the beneficial impact of Internet on the Carnatic music scenario. Lest these youngsters should be considered wayward I would like this remind this audience that in those days Musiri Ayyarwal with his ICS and other professional friends, and Sri GN Balasuramanyan BA were acting as a sethu a bridge, between the past and present, tradition and contemporaneity. Our younger vidwans are only emulating those stalwarts. Another very heartening feature, which further brightens my optimism, is the impact of the NRI community, particularly in the United States. The Gold rush in California in the 19th century led to great afffluence in the rest of the United States and even Europe. Likewise the Silicon rush of our NRI community has enormously boosted the opportunities for our artists. Many of them are giving coast-to-coast performances not by the grace of ICCR but of our community there. And even rasikas back home like me have a bonanza by way of excellent CDs of live performances. Recently I heard two CDs of Sudha Raghunathan - and thanks to Smt. Sudha. If these are any indication the taste of the audience there is very refined and rigorous. A full 56 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

66-minute rendering of Sankarabharanam, ragam, tanam and pallavi is something I can hardly get in the music stores even in Madras, not to speak in Delhi. To elaborate a little further on the theme of Janata Janardhan the greatest challenge facing cultural institutions is the development of audience. Not merely numbers; not merely organizing events in colleges and schools and arousing interest, in regard to which Spic- Macay has been doing wonderful work during the last 25 years. But also deepening the interest and refining the appreciation of music. In this task I lay great hope on the younger generation of artists, the new technologies and the sabhas. Here again we owe thanks to NRI audience in the United States. For example Smt. Sowmya and Sri. Sashikiran have produced a VCD album for music learning. Similarly, Sri Nookala Chinna Satyanarayana has produced a set of CDs. A number of Carnatic Websites and Chat rooms have sprung up. If I may draw an example from the field of museums, earlier museums were regarded as musty storehouses of antiquities visited by wizened old scholars. The new museum movement had trans­ formed the very idea of what a museum is. A museum is now expected to be a lively place, a place for social gathering, reaching out to the community, drawing in the young and old to the museum precints, to have a cup of coffee, to browse the objects, to savour and chat art. The formal education system as of now, has no room for art and culture appreciation. Therefore this task has to be taken on by the music community itself. The Academy has to its credit several institutional innovations. I understand it is already cooperating with other institutions in conducting every summer a 'Spirit of Youth’ festival, specifically designed to promote young talent. May I appeal to the Academy, which in letter and spirit is the Academy as far as the Carnatic Music is concerned, to take on the task of audience development and set an example to other institutions. It goes without saying that when we have to work with youth we have to be receptive to new ideas and innovation. It is necessary to be indulgent and willing THE SADAS 57

to tolerate dissent and a tendency to shock. It is in the interface between the old and new that one can locate new sources of creativity. In the Carnatic music itself there is a rich tradition of experimentation and fushion. In its time was an innovation; so were the kriti, and javali. From his long stay in Kashi Muthuswamy Dikshitar has introduced many Hindustani ragas in camatic music. He has also composed kritis in ragas modelled on Western tunes. Tyagaraja himself is reported to have adopted some of the tunes of the Company band at Thanjavur. Suffice to say music is universal. All music, be it Morgi or Desi, Indian, Western or Chinese, jazz or pop is derived from the Pranavanada. And as the Upanishad says ; Purnamadah purnamidam purnat purnamudacyate Purnasya purnamadaya purnamevavasisyate The imperfect world of senses also is derived from the Absolute. If there could be a dialogue between civilizations, if there could be a dialogue between religions, there is no reason where they can be no dialogue between forms of music. Our classical tradition gets strengthened, and not attenuated by engaging with other forms. It is possible that as in the time of Dikshitar and Tyagaraja there would be innovations in the classical form itself; or there could be new forms of music drawing up on the elements of the classical tradition. In my view that is for the good for no art form can be frozen. A frozen tradition is an oxymoron, a contradiction for traditions are ongoing arguments meaning that they maintain continuity with the past while also changing in response to contemporary concerns.

I think I have said enough to shock. Let me conclude by congratulate the recipients of award winners. O 58 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

Sri. M.S. Venkataraman, Secretary, presented Vidushi Smt. R. Vedavalli, President of the Conference.

CONFERENCE PRESIDENT

Vidushi Smt. R. Vedavalli

Bom on 9th November 1935 at Mannargudi, she was initiated into Carnatic Music by Sangita Kalanidhi Madurai Srirangam Iyengar. After studying at Teachers’ College of Music run by the Academy, she had advanced training under Sangita Kalanidhi Mudikondan Venkatarama Iyer, Smt. T. Muktha, Kallidaikurichi Mahadeva Bhagavatar and also studied Vina under Smt. Ranganayaki Rajagopalan.

Recipient of several fellowships from the Government of India, Sangeet Natak Akademi and Music Academy, Kalaimamani Vedavalli is an Emeritus Fellow of The Govt, of India. Has completed several prestigious projects for the archives of Sangeet Natak Akademi and participated in many seminars and workshops both in India and abroad. Known for her strict adherence to sampradaya and extensive patanthara, her music is notable for all aspects of Manodharma sangita including Pallavi rendition. She is the founder of Devaganavali Trust for the promotion and propagation of Carnatic Music. Student, Teacher. Performing Artiste, Advisory Committee Member and now THE SADAS 59

the President of the Conference, Vidushi Vedavalli is the first alumna to receive this Birudu. The President of the Sadas, Dr. R.V. Vaidyanatha Ayyar, Secretary, Dept, of Culture conferred the title of 'Sangita Kalanidhi’ on Vidushi R. Vedavalli, the Birudu Patra, Medallion of the title, the citation and a cash award from an endowment made by Sri. C.V. Narasimhan in the name of his Guru Sangita Kalanidhi Musiri Subrahmanya Iyer. Sri. S.M. Sundaram, ‘Vice President, presented Vidwan Sri. S. Ramachandran.

SANGITA KALA ACHARYA

Vidvan Sri. S. Ramachandran

Bom in 1926, Vidwan S. Ramachandran, popularly known as Bombay Ramachandran, did gurkulavasam under Sangita Kalanidhi Chittoor Subrarhania Pillai for 12 years and later had private training from Tiruppamburam Swaminatha Pillai, Srimathis T. Brinda and T. Mukta. He has a wide repertoire which keeps growing with his research activites. 60 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

He taught at the College of music attached to Shanmukhananda Sabha, Mumbai for 30 years and was also the director of the music college. Apart from that, he coached several private candidates, many of whom are graded artistes of A.I.R. and concert artistes. Residing in Chennai for the past ten years, he continues to teach, publish books and compose music, for various musical compositions and a notative script for Sri Abhayamba Navavaranam of Sri Muttuswamy Dikshitar. Dr. R.V. Vaidyanatha Ayyar conferred on Vidwan Ramachandran the title of Sangita Kala Acharya and presented him the Birudu Patra, medallion of the title, citation and a cash award. Smt. Nandini Ramani, Secretary, presented Vidushi Smt. Ranganayaki Rajagopalan. SANGITA KALA ACHARYA

Vidushi Smt. Ranganayaki Rajagopalan

Bom on 3rd May, 1932, Vidushi Ranganayaki Rajagopalan started training in the strict gurukula style from the age of two under Sangita Kalanidhi Late Karaikudi Sambasiva Iyer. Gave her first performance in Karaikudi. Her first broadcast for AIR was in 1940 along with her guru; started giving solo performance from 1953. Has THE SADAS 61

given many concerts in the Sangeet Sammelans over the years. Has been the recipient of many awards and titles including Kalaimamani. Has taught Veena in the Music Academy Madras for 10 years between 1978-88. Was also a member of the Southern Audition Board of AIR for many years. Ranganayaki is respected as a foremost torch bearer of the Karaikudi Veena Tradition. Dr. R.V. Vaidyanatha Ayyar conferred on Vidushi Ranganayaki Rajagopalan the title of Sangita Kala Acharya and presented her the Birudu patra, the medallion of the title, citation and a cash award. Vice President Ms. Lakshmi Viswanathan presented Haridhwaramangalam Sri. A.K. Palanivel.

T.T.K. MEMORIAL AWARD

Vidwan Haridhwaramangalam Sri. A.K. Palanivel

Bom on 10th April 1948, Tavil Vidwan Haridhwaramangalam A.K. Palanivel, started learning the art of Tavil playing from his father, S. Kumaravel Pillai and then came under the tutelage of Tavil Vidwan Tirucherai Sri. T.G. Muthukumarswami Pillai. He has accompanied several leading Nagaswara Vidwans from the age of twelve and his virtuosity elevated him to the status of one of our most renowned Tavil artiste. He is a recipient of several awards and titles including Kalaimamani. 62 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

Apart from accompanying Nagaswaram artists, he has accom­ panied other instruments like Violin, Flute, Clarionet, Mandolin and Saxophone besides vocal music.

A strict adherent to tradition, he has created a number of jatis and other rhythmically terse 'solfeggios’. His unique rhythmical accompaniment for the Chandatalas of Tiruppugazh deserve special mention.

Dr. R. Vaidyanatha Ayyar presented to Haridhwaramangalam A.K. Palanivel the T.T.K. Award with citation and a cash award.

Ms. Maithreyi Ramadurai, Secretary presented Sri. V. Nagarajan.

T.T.K. MEMORIAL AWARD

/

Vidwan Sri. V. Nagarajan

Bom on 30th July, 1930; V. Nagarajan is the son of Violin Vidwan Sangita Kalanidhi Sri Papa K.S. Venkatramiah. He had his early training under the illustrious mridanga Vidwan Thanjavur Sri. Vaidyanatha Iyer and continued further under mridangam maestro Sangita Kalanidhi Palghat T.S. Mani Iyer. He gave his first concert at Trichy with Sangita Kalanidhi Alathoor Bros., in 1950. THE SADAS 63

He has served on the faculty of Wesleyan University as a visiting Professor in 1967; in 1974, he taught American students at the University of Berkely, California. He has also trained a number of visiting American “Full Bright” scholars.

Nagarajan has visited a number of countries on concert tours; has participated in the “Festival of India” held in the USSR; is one of our most renowned accompanists, in Carnatic music field.

Dr. R.V. Vaidyanatha Ayyar presented to V. Nagarajan the T.T.K. Award with citation and a cash award.

Sangita Kalanidhi Smt. R. Vedavalli thanked the Academy for the honour conferred on her and also all the Vidwans and others who assisted her in conducting the conference successfully.

Ms. Maithreyi Ramadurai, Secretary proposed a vote of thanks. 64 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

74th Annual Conference at Kasturi Srinivasan Hall 16.12.2000 to 01.01.2001 Dally from 8 a.m. to 10.30 a.m.

Agenda for the Conferecne President : Vidushi Smt. R. Vedavallt

Saturday 16.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Vijayashri Group Kulasekara Azhwar’s Ramayanam 8.30 a.m. Sri. B. Krishnamurthy Contribution to carnatic music by composers of 18th century. Compositions of Mazhavarayanendal Sri Chidambara Bharati (Chellammal Natarajan Endowment Lecture) 9.30 a.m. Dr. Padma Murthy Compositions of Sri Bidaram Krishnappa of Mysore. Sunday 17.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Sunadhavinodhini group Devotional songs and Bhajans in Kannada 8.30 a.m. Dr. Lakshmi Podhuval Tamil composers of the 20th Century A comparative study of the compositions of Sri Neelakanta Sivan and Sri Gopalakrishna Bharati (Nachimuthu Gounder Rukmani Ammal Charitable Trust in memory of Rukmini Nachimuthu Gounder) 9.30 a.m. Thanjavur Mu. Rama Dramatic elements in Harikatha Subramania Sarma (Alamelu Rama Narayana Sarma Award) Monday 18.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Bhaktidhara Group Musical forms of Marathi Bhakti Sangeet 8.30 a.m. Smt. P. Vijayalakshmi 'Kumara Sambhavam’ -Harikatha in Sanskrit (P.B. Sarvarayulugara Endowment) 9.30 a.m. Sangita Kalanidhi The Sukshma Srutis revealed as Sri.B. Rajam Iyer Ragachaya Svaras. Tuesday 19.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Tiruppugazh Anbargal Tiruppugazh group 8.30 a.m. Sri. C.S. Sundaram An illustrative analysis of the musical contents of Sri Tyagaraja Vijaya of Sri Muthiah Bhagavatar and Sri Tyagaraja Carita of Sri. T.S. Sundaresvara Sarma. (Dr. V. Raghavan Shashtiabdapurthi Endowment) THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 65

9.30 a.m. Dr. E. Angayarkanni The rhythmic structure of Tiruppugazh and different Tiruvaguppus (M. Ganesa Iyer Birth Centenary Memorial Award) Wednesday 20.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Bhakti Kusuma Manjari Compositions of Sringeri Jagadguru Group Mahaswamigal 8.30 a.m. Smt. The technique of Karaikudi style of Ranganayaki Rajagopalan Vina playing 9.30 a.m. Dr. Prameela Gurumurthy Contribution of women to Harikatha with focus on Gayana Patu Kirtana Patu Smt. C. Saraswati Bai. Thursday 21.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Soundarya Ladies Songs of Periasami Thooran Association group. 8.30 a.m. Dr. V.V. Srivatsa Nalayira Divya Prabhandam (Nachimuthu Gounder Rukmini Ammal Charitable Trust in memory of K. Palani Gounder) 9.30 a.m. Dr. Saskia Kersenboom Dance lecture demonstration - Marapu text and context of Bharata Natyam Friday 22.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Thiruvarul Thiruppani Abirami Andhadi Manram Group 8.30 a.m. Sister Bastin Margaret Moovar Tevaram - Women composers during the period of Tevaram and pre-Tevaram period - Isaittamizhin Thaai, Karaikal Ammayar (Nachimuthu Gounder Rukmini Ammal Charitable Trust in memory of P. Nachimuthu Gounder) 9.30 a.m. Dr. S.A.K. Durga The process of transformation of folk tunes in classical ragas. Saturday 23.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Nathamuni Bhajan Songs of Papanasam Sivan Sangh Group 8.30 a.m. Smt. Gomati Viswanathan Moovar - Ramanataka kritis of Arunachala Kavirayar, (Nachimuthu Gounder Rukmini Ammal Charitable Trust in memory of Chellammal Palani Gounder) 9.30 a.m. Sri Sriram Parasuram How ragas come to be - some ideas on the principles behind the formation of Ragas in Carnatic and Hindustani Music. 66 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

Sunday 24.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Kamalapriya Group Tiruvembavai 8.30 a.m. Sri. I. Kameshwara Rao Tyagaraja Geetharthamu - Sangeethanandamu 9.30 a.m. Smt. Sulochana Trinity compositions (T.S. Sabesa Iyer Pattabhiraman Endowment for Bodhaka Award. Monday 25.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Gaana Laharj Group Ramacharitamaanas and song on Lord Hanuman 8.30 a.m. Tanjavur Tamizhagathil Isai Valartha Penmanigal Sri. B.M. Sundaram 9.30 a.m. Dr. R. Kausalya Music in Bhagavata Mela Natakas Tuesday 26.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Sunadam Group Compositions of Sri Narayana Teerthar 8.30 a.m. Dr. M.B. Vedavalli Akkamahadevi as a saint composer of Virasaiva cult. 9.30 a.m. Sri. V. Subrahmaniam Bhakthi - as expressed by Tyagaraja and Svati Tirunal through their compositions Wednesday 27.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Nad Pravah Group Hindustani Bhajans 8.30 a.m. Prof. All pervasive concept of Layam’ in Dr. T.V. Gopalkrishnan camatic music. 9.30 a.m. Smt. Anita R. Ratnam Dance lecture demonstration-Adapting traditional themes for Dance-Theatre. Thursday 28.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Devaganavali Group Sanskrit kritis of Saint Tyagaraja 8.30 a.m. Sri. M. Chandrasekaran Compositions in different languages Vocal support by Sumitra Rangaswamy 9.30 a.m. Sangita Kala Acharya Suddha Vikruta theory of the past and Dr. S.R. Janakiraman the present Friday 29.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Shri Sarada Devi Sri Kalikamba Suprabhatham Bhajan Mandali 8.30 a.m. Smt. Vidya Shankar Fretting of the Vina based on Scientific principles 9.30 a.m. Smt. R. Vedavalli Varnams-The mother of Manodharma (Bripda Varadarajan memorial lecture) THE 74th MADRAS MUSIC CONFERENCE 67

Saturday 30.12.2000 8.00 a.m . Skanda Priya Group Mukunda Mala 8.30 a.m. Sri Komanduri Seshadri Post Trinity Composers - Lesser known composers of Andhra Pradesh (Sri Rama Narayana Sarma Endowment) 9.30 a.m. Sri. S. Ramachandran Importance of notations in the learning process of music Sunday 31.12.2000 8.00 a.m. Sruthi Mandali Svati Tirunal Compositions

8.30 a.m. Dr. S.R. Janakiraman Raga Lakshana - to Sri. S. Rajam Lesser known ragas / Allied ragas 10.30 a.m . Sri. K.N. Srinivasan and Dr. S.A.K. Durga Moderator : Smt. R. Vedavalli

Monday 01-01-2001

8.00 a.m . Students of Select compositions on and around The Teachers’ College Tiruvarur kshetram of Music, The Music Academy

8.30 a.m. Summing up of to Conference 10.30 a.m. Proceedings and open house 68

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***** 100

Adapting Traditional Themes in Dance-Theatre Anita R. Ratnam

Dancing and acting are one and the same art. They are but the rhythmical movement of the human body in the space, caused by the creative impulse to represent an emotion by the expressive means of one’s own body, and with the intention of pleasurably releasing this inner drive by setting other people in the same or similar rhythmical vibrations. When one trains in the tradition of classical Indian dance, one unconsciously shapes one’s body and mind into that of an actor. To play a variety of roles simultaneously on the stage, which a dancer does as a natural process of learning and performing, comes closer to the concept of 'theatre’ than 'dance’. After all the word 'natya’ itself denotes theatre. Dance is qualified in Sanskrit as 'nritya’.

For the purpose of this session and keeping in mind the erudite audience that attends, I will elaborate my ideas of how the worlds of dance and theatre unite in my choreography. Taking three examples from group and solo works, I will attempt to explain how the ideas of theatre, the art of suggestion, the power of minimalism, the strength of silence, the inclusion of spoken words and Vedic chants, the contrast of natural movements juxtaposed with the stylization of the classical technique and the use of certain props and materials designed specifically for the purpose enhance the vision of my choreography.

As we live in a new century and engage with the coarseness of everyday life, the beauty and nobility inherent in our ancient arts are all the more vulnerable. The invisible and insidious currents that run through our lives seek to destroy the possibility of imagination, abstraction and the power of ritual. Today the theatre of trouble, of Adapting Traditional Themes in Dance-Theatre 101 doubting and of alarm seems truer than the theatre with a noble aim. The dancer, actor and choreographer search vainly for the sound of a vanished tradition and critic and audience follow suit.

We have largely forgotten silence. It even embarrasses us and we clap our hands mechanically and shift uncomfortably in our seats because we do not know what else to do, and we are unaware that silence is also permitted, that silence is also good and that most importantly, silence is part of the performance structure.

In theatre, silences are not uncommon. The pauses between dialogue, the entrances and exits of actors or dancers invoke silence. But in Indian dance, we do not have, in fact we never have absolute and total silence. The sound of the drone or the tambura is always there in the background, filling the space and time with its vibrations. Natural movement juxtaposed with stylized formalism makes for interesting contrasts and adheres to the principle of two sticks rubbing together. In classical dance, we are already used to the idea of Dance Drama, but if the principles of theatre are truly applied they can create many interesting forms of combustion. Contrasts, individual movements at various levels instead of all the dancers doing the same movement in multiples, the stage space used and 'blocked’ like a director would do in theatre without the frontal proscenium obsession with classical Indian dance of today-all these make for the stuff of interesting viewing.

In working with the idioms of dance and theatre and knowing that the source and textual material for my work would be from traditional texts, I had to set out to create a world where the experience of dance and theatre would meet, sometimes collide, may be provoke but never bore. In the ideas of theatre I found the possibility of a new form which could be the container and a reflector for my impulses as dancer, actor and choreographer. This search 102 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

would revisit old ideas embedded in the classical texts and reshape them for myself and for the audiences of today. Essentially all dancers and actors work alone. They share the solitude and the vulnerability of creating and making critical choices in total isolation. The audience also needs to make a leap in choice and judgement when they view new images and suggestions. After all, Bharatanatyam is supremely qualified as the example of suggestion and abstraction by a solo artiste. The whole world of ideas and a host of people and their mannerisms can all be suggested by a flicker of an eyelid, a flourish of the hand and the attitude of the body. However, the classical dance framework does not allow for a juxtaposition of images in a different rearrange­ ment of sound and silence.

My first example is from Gajaanana the story of Lord Ganesa in which in the first scene Parvati combines the sweat and dirt from her body with the mud and essence of the earth to create a young boy-child. Using the idea of clay being shaped into a human form, the ensemble will use natural and stylized movements along with the traditional 'chof of Bharatanatyam to visualise the physicalisation of the human Ganesa. Starting with near silence and no specific tala structure of time cycle like a kala pramanam, this section uses the idea of multiple levels, diagonals and circles in the choreography. The idea of center stage is broken initially with no movement taking place in the customary center spot. There are no lyrics and the entire act of creation is conveyed through the energy of the movements and the sound of the ganjira.

In another section of the same production, the elephant head is placed atop the body of the dead boy-child. Siva blesses this new form and Ganesa is reborn. The use of Vedic chants uttered by the dancing ensemble themselves wrests the 'voice authority’ from the traditional dance orchestra and invests the performers themselves with the dual role of dancer and actor. By actually uttering the syllables Adapting Traditional Themes in Dance-Theatre 103 to which they move, the dancer-actor empowers herself/himself with the choice of sound and movement. The elephant head of Ganesa was specially designed by using Tamil mat-weaving techniques and adopting them for the creation of stage props including the backdrop and the accessories worn by the ensemble. The process of chanting and dancing required training and took a long time to coalesce into a smooth whole. The use of breath employed in dance and in acting is totally different. These days, dancers are rarely trained in this aspect of voice and singing unlike classical dancers of yesterday who were experts in the music traditions to which they performed.

Once the chants are complete, the space is then punctuated with a traditional dance 'kavuthuvam' praising Ganesa. The central motif of the dance cluster is kept immobile for the entire duration of the kavuthuvam except for the gentle swaying of the elephant head.

When one uses Sanskrit, Tamil, drum syllables and sounds familiar to our ear, the cadence and the process of cultural memory reassets itself. Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Carnatic music - these are part of a soundscape which is recognizable. What happens when we change the formula and introduce the idea of 'rap beats’ to Tamil lyrics or the concept of softly spoken whispered 'chollu’ to movement? What if the language itself changes to English? How do we translate traditional ideas on the stage within the framework of a creative effort using dance images with the vibrations of a language alien to the classical movement traditions? The next excerpt is from one of our recent productions called Daughters of the Ocean which is a stage adaptation of a contemporary book. Delving into the myths of the three pan-Indian goddesses Durga, Lakshmi and Saraswati the choreography involves contemporary story telling in the tradition of 'katha Intermingled with creative movements culled from extensive improvisation and the classical 'tala’ system of Bharatanatyam, the 104 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII work will not show the classical dance imagery of the three goddesses normally seen in Bharatanatyam. Instead their qualities will be enhanced and imaged - the focus, strength and energy of the arrow to denote Durga, the abundance and auspiciousness of Lakshmi and the creative flowing stream of Saraswati. The idea of abstraction is used in the power of suggestion and the open canvas of opinion. We will begin with Durga \yho is envisioned as Yoga, as sharp and direct as an arrow who was created for one single purpose and who never wavered from her goal. To annihilate Mahisha was why she was created and destroy him she did after a long and bloody battle. The images of an arrow, of strength, of force, of directness and of a goal are what we use in this section. Immediately we follow with the section of Lakshmi who emerges from the great milky ocean after the great churning. To see Lakshmi is to feel peace, auspicousness and calm. The quality of awareness is what we have sought to bring out which meant an awareness of each other as dancer/actors. In both sections the idea of symmetry is abandoned for a more improvised and individual approach. Each dancer does a series of movements only keeping a space pattern ip mind. Each time the choreography is different except that we all know where and when we have to bring the images to a conclusion. After Lakshmi we move right into the section on Saraswathi who was once a river and who now flows silently underneath the surface of the earth. Saraswathi the curious goddess who always questioned was cursed to become a river and she flowed in so many directions that even could not keep track of her movement. Here the idea of tipping the balance, of a river flowing ceaselessly all the time and leaping towards its final goal are explored. The story telling sections were created after the dancers came up with a set of movements to the adi structure of 'avartanams’. They were then arranged in patterns and the spoken sloka device was reintroduced. The use of the prop like an ocean drum while narrating and the theatrical device Adapting Traditional Themes in Dance-Theatre 105 of the narrator / actor saying the rhythmic syllables to control the dance movements invests the performing group with the power and ability to create their own rhythm pulse and desired effect. In fact, the absence of the regular dance-orchestra compels the movement and the action on the stage to be even more forceful and arresting since there is no accompaniment to either distract or compensate for weak choreography.

In the final example, I will use an excerpt from one of the latest productions Nachiyar, the story of Andal. In the last verses of Andal’s yearning for Sri Krishna, she is desperately irrational and surprisingly erotic in her imagery. In the traditional mode of research and choreography, I would have used several ragas to enhance the pathos that Andal felt and emote like the classical Bharatanatyam dancer would. Instead, I have chosen to use silence in its complete sense and the presence of an actress who would be my 'voice’ for the section. Without any tambura for registering the scale, Revathy Sankaran uses the power of the without any appendages of music and tala. The use of language in its spoken form and Andal’s response to her in the space is what gives this section a real meeting of the worlds of dance and theatre.

Theatre is the art of the fulfilled moment. If we accept life in the theatre to be more visible and more vivid than the outside, then we can acknowledge that it is only through the actor-dancer that the act of reducing space and compressing time creates a concentrate.

The idea of dance-theatre or the word itself was coined in Europe in the seventies to describe the work of radical choreographer Pina Bausch. To unite the worlds of dance and theatre is not a unique concept in India. It was the tradition of dancers to sing and perform simultaneously. Actors on stage could sing and enact their dialogues as well. In this way, contemporary Indian dance and theatre are 106 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII actually moving closer together to unite in the holistic version of 'natya’ or total theatre. While these labels concern choreographers and performers little, they seem to be more and more necessary for the audiences, the media, presenters and funders in order to understand and describe the work. While Indian audiences are familiar with the term 'dance-drama’, which represents an ensemble work on a thematic subject, the idea of 'dance-theatre’ is often unclear and blurred.

Due to our unbroken history of iconography and imagistic expression, the Indian / actor / dancer has a much more difficult task in sifting through the layers of theology, religion, ethics and cultural constructs of the received tradition. To dissect the sophis­ ticated movement framework of classical dance in its interrelation to space, time and energy is not a simple exercise. To experiment with the aesthetic possibilities inherent in the elements of the classical movement, to think of time not just as beats and patterns, but a dimension of movement that could be projected or diminished, to acknowledge that movement itself has no traffic with morality and does not yield to logic-these are some of the challenges that face the worlds of Indian dance-theatre today. The mind is also a vital muscle in this process. Finally, when a movement succeeds, neither the mind nor the body is separate. O 107

Akkamahadevi as a Saint Singer of 'Virasaiva Cult’ Dr. M.B.Vedavalli

In the history of Indian literature, Kannada has a long and continuous literary tradition staring with the work Kavirajamarga, the earliest available work of 9th century, A.D. said to be the work of Nrpatunga, the king of Rashtrakuta dynasty who reigned from 815 A.D. to 877 A.D. (also ascribed to SriVijaya a court poet of Nrpatunga). It is a work on poetics and refers to many literary works in Sanskrit and Kannada, written earlier to this period proving the antiquity of Kannada literature.

About 11th Century A.D. a new chapter begins in the history of Kannada literature when vachanas, a kind of poetic prose of virasaiva saints came to be composed. It was a spoken language and came from their deep experience spontaneously.

It was a time when there was social inequality. There was a tussle between Hindus and Jains. The common people went after many gods and ignored the principles of life. It was at this juncture that the vachanakaras gave the message of equality, belief of one godHead and strict morality.

In the middle of 12th Century, Vachanas as a form of expression attained its maturity. The vachanakaras of this period like Allamaprabhu, Basaveswara, Akkamahadevi and others exerted influence on the minds of the people and brought radical changes.

The main aim of the vachanakaras was to preach the tenets of virasaiva cult and so they used the spoken language and their style was lucid. The vachanas were the spontaneous expression of their deep experience. 108 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

Many of the vachanakaras have used the word 'hadu’ (i.e, song) in their vachanas. Therefore vachanas are referred to as Gitas. Moreover in the vachanas many of the features of the later compositions are seen. Firstly the language of the common people used by the vachanakaras inspired later Kirtana composers like , and other composers of dasa kuta to adopt this style. Secondly the presence of literary beauties like prasa, anuprasa etc., found in the vachanas have become an important aspect of kirtanas and kritis later. Thirdly the origin for the concept of different angas like pallavi and charanas can be traced to the vachanas. In many vachanas the first line gives in concise form the idea of the whole vachana. Fourthly the vachanakaras have used their ankita in their vachanas which enable us to identify the composers just as we find in later compositions. Thus the vachanas may be said to be the precursors of later compositions.

Regarding the theme of the composition there are vachanas on various themes like devotional, social and moral themes etc., There are also vachanas depicting adhyatmaka Smgara- wherein God is considered as Nayaka and the composer as Nayaki. Among them Akkamahadevi is one of the brightest stars and she stands out as a great saint singer.

Akkamahadevi was bom in a village called Udutadi in Sikharipura Taluk, Shimoga District of Karnataka. It was a place where there were many Siva temples and many Siva bhaktas lived here. Moreover it was the motherland of guru jangamas.

The parents of Akkamahadevi Nirmala Setty and Sumati were great devotees of Siva. As per the tradition of virasaiva cult, the child was blessed with vibhuthi, Rudrakshi and linga by guru Chennamallarya and was named Mahadevi.

Mahadevi was brought up with great care and affection by her parents. She used to go to the temple of Chennamallayya along Akkamahadevi as a saint singer of 'Virasaiva Cult’ 109 with her parents daily and offer to the Lord. Day by day her devotion to Mallayya increased.

She used to feel that Lord Chennamallayya was all alone in the temple. She tells her mother that He is a paradesi. He has no parents to provide Him with all comforts. There was nobody to feed Him with milk and fruits, to clothe him and to apply vibhuti. But her mother used to convince her by saying that He himself is the protector of the whole world, the creator, and a guru for everything.

Days passed by. She was taught Sanskrit, Kannada, Veda upanishad, Agama, puranas and Vachanas of Saranas. She herself started composing Kavyas and Kavanas and used to sing them.

Gradually her love and affection towards Lord Mallayya increased and she began to think that He belongs to her only and that He only would be her husband.

Everyday at dawn as soon as she wakes up, she thinks only of Chennamallayya and awaits His arrival by placing a seat to place His feet and putting up the canopy as expressed in the following vachana.

Raga : Bauli-Vrutta

Udayadaleddu nimma nenevenayya Nimma baruva hadutirpenayya Hase bandaravanikki nimmadigafigedemadi Kondippenayya chehnamallikarjuna Ninavaga bandihe endu

In another song she says that she always remembers Lord Chennamallikarjuna and requests the Lord to show his loveliness by calling out to her saying “Come here my child”. She says that “just as an elephant which breaks from its herd remembers his mountain 110 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII home, a caged parrot thinks of its own kith and kin, I remember you Oh! Chennamallikarjuna.

Raga : Hindola Tala : Adi

Hindanagali hidivadeda Kunjara tanna Vindhyava nenevqnte nenevenayya! Bandhanakke banda giliyu tanna Bandhuva nenevahte nenevenayya! Kanda ninitta ba endu karedu nimma Andava torayya chennamallikarjuna

Her intense devotion to Linga infused her parents to make arrangements for performing “linga diksha” by Gurulingadeva.

The guru placed on her palm an Ishtalinga and said it is the abode of Chennamallikarjuna and asked her to offer puja to it with pure devotion and the guru preached her all the tenets of virasaiva cult.

Day and night she used to meditate upon Siva and would forget her existence. She says in the following vachana. “Oh! Lord Whether you listen to me or not, I cannot help but sing in praise of you; whether you like or not, I cannot help but worship you; whether you love or not, I cannot help embracing you; whether you look at me or not, I cannot help but look at you. Oh! Chennamallikarjuna by worshipping you, I enjoy my life.

Raga : Pantuvarali Tala : Adi • 1. Ayya ni kelidare kelu JFeladirdode manu Naninna hadidallade sairisalarenayya 2. Ayya ni olidare oli oliyadirdode manu Na ninna pujisidallade sairisalarenayya 3. Ayya ni mechchidare mechchu mechchadirdode manu Na ninna appidallade sairisalarenayya Akkamahadevi as a saint singer of 'Virasaiva Cult’ 111

4. Ayya ni nodidode nodu nodadirdode manu Na ninna nodi haraisidallade sairisalarenayya 5. Chennamallikarjunayya na nirnma pujisi Harushadololaduvenayya.

All the people around her asked her if she prays Lord to secure a good husband. She replies them saying that Mallayya has captured her mind and she would never pray for another person to be her husband.

She adds that she had a dream wherein Lord Siva came as a Gorava (bikshuka). She saw rice, Areca, palm leaf and cocoanut in her dream. Siva came as a beggar with his pretty locks and white teeth and asked for alms. As he passed by heedlessly, she followed Him and caught his hand. The moment she saw Him she woke up.

The following vachana gives the description of Chennamallikaijuna who appeared in her dream:

Raga : Nadanamakriya Tala : Chapu Akka kelawa Akkayya nanondu kanasa kande Akki adake ole tenginakaya kande Chikkachikka jadegala sulipalla goravanu Bikshakke banduda kandenavva Mikku tniri hohana bembatti kaividide Chennamallikarjunana kandu kanderedenu She further says that He is a jatadhari, chandramouli, rundamaladhari, nagabharana. He has a damaru and trisula in his hands, has an eye on the forehead. She feels like seeing him always and be with Him for ever.

She adds when she has Paramasiva as her husband she cannot think of anyone else. Next she describes the qualities of Siva whom she thinks as her husband, in the following vachana : 112 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

She says The Lord is immortal, blemishness, formless handsome, fearless, beyond dissolution, peerless and infinite. All the other men are naught to me.

Raga : Bhairavi Vrtta Savillada kedillada, rupillada cheluvanganolidenavva Ede illada hade illada terahillada kuruhillada cheluvange nanolide Ele awagalira ninu kelu taye, Bhavavillada bhayavillada nirbhaya cheluvangolide nanu Kulasime illada nissimacheluvange Nanolide, idu karana channamallikarjunanemba Cheluvagandangolide I sava keduva gandanoydu oleyolagikku ele awagalira Akkamahadevi when she was 16 years old grew up as a very beautiful girl with all good qualities.

The king of that place named Kausika, once when he was returning to his palace after vihara with all his paraphernalia, happened to see Mahadevi standing in front of her house along with her friends to witness the procession. The king enamoured of her beauty, fell in love with her and wanted to marry her. He sent his minister to convey this message to her.

Mahadevi was shocked to hear this. She was under the impression that a king was the protector of his citizens and the king was considered equal to God. The minister also told Mahadevi that if she does not agree for this she would be imprisoned.

She was not at all willing to marry him. But she thought that her parents who were already old, might die if she bluntly refused to marry him. She said that she was prepared to marry him on three conditions viz., Akkamahadevi as a saint singer of Virasaiva Cult’ 113

1) She being a devotee of Linga and lingadhari said that the king' should become a devotee of Siva.

2) She should have freedom to offer puja to Linga whenever she desired. She said that whatever she does is for the sake of Linga.

3. Thirdly services should be rendered for jangamas always for which money should be offered to them from the treasury.

The king did not take these words seriously. He thought that she would change her mind later. He agrees to all these conditions and marries her.

After coming to the palace, Akka spent her whole time in dong linga puja and performing services to jangamas. Thus the palace turned into a temple. Jangamas started coming to the palace in groups to receive her services. This went on for many days and months.

The king made many attempts to divert her mind from Chennamallikarjuna to the worldly life but in vain. Once the king saw a group of jangamas coming towards the palace. The king sent them out. Mahadevi got wild and said that she would not stay any more in the palace and left for Kalyana in Bidar District where Basavanna had established a Mantapa to propagate the principles of Virasaiva cult and eradicate the distinction between rich and poor, men and women.

This anubhava mantapa was the centre of all the activities of saranas, Social, religious and spiritual problems were discussed here. Siva saranas from different parts of the country used to take part in discussions.

The king heard about Akkamahadevi’s departure from his palace, now realised his folly and requested her to go back to her 114 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII house and said that he would be losing a precious gem, if she leaves the place and asked her to make the place sacred by placing her feet in her native place itself.

She did not listen to his words. She advised him to follow Sivadharma and protect the citizens as his own children and also to become a devotee of Siva. The king prostrated before her.

Akkamahadevi came to Kalyana and met Basavanna. The sound of Jagate (round disk) coming out from the house of Sivalinga bhaktas and the name of Basava being recited by the devotees were real treat to her. There was no distinction between old and young, men and women. She prostrated before Basavanna.

While she was entering the “anubhava mantapa” to test the purity of her mind, Allamma a jangama, said that if she wanted to be in the company of saranas and participate in the anubhavamantapa, she should tell where her husband was.

She replied saying that her marriage was performed with Chennamallikarjuna in a mantapa, the floor of which was made of emerald, pillars were made of diamond, the festoons were of gold and the canopy was of coral. All the saints who found her a fitting bride groom namely Chennamallikarjuna were her parents and hence Chennamallikarjuna was her Lord.

Paccheya nelagattu kanakada torana vajrada kamba Pavalada chapparavanikki maduveya madidaru Emmavarenna maduveya madidaru Kankana kaidhre sthira seseyartikki Chennamallikarjuna nemba gandigenna maduveniadidaru After some time she left for Srisaila in the Cumool district of Andhra Pradesh to be united with Chennamallikarjuna. Akkamahadevi as a saint singer of Virasaiva Cult’ 115

Allamaprabhu directs her to Srisaila. He says Kadalibana was on the top of the hill called Trikuta. There was a Kadali in which there was a jyoti. In that guhesvara linga she would get paramapadavi.

On the way to Kadali she sang vachanas depiciting vipralamba sringara. These songs express her yearning to reach the place. The agitated mind is standing on its head, the breeze which gently blows like a flame, the moon light is hot as sunlight.

She says that she was struggling like a person who would collect tax going from door to door.

Raga : Tala : Adi

Kalavalada mana talekelagadudavva Sulidu bisuva gali uriyadudavva Beladingalu bisiyayitu keladi holala Sunkiganante tolaluttihenavva Tilidu buddhya heli karetarelagawa Chennamallikarjunange eradara munisavva

Next she describes Chennamallikarjuna as “A person who has golden hairs on his head and above it the moon, a snake and kama kundala adorning his ears and a garland made of skulls round his neck. Please ask him to come to me if you find him. The eyes of Govinda are on his toes which is his identification mark”.

Holeyuva Kenjadeya mele ele veludingalu Panimani karna kundalava nodavva Rundamaleya komalagaruvana kandare omme barahelavva Govindana nayana ungutada melippudu Chennamallikarjunana devana kuruhavva

She wanes and withers in the fantasy of love. Infatuation has driven her mad, yet she trusts him she tries to catch him but she 116 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII is unable to do so. If her Lord Chennamallikarjuna does not take her she would be helpless.

Raga : Sahana Tala : Adi

Kamisi kalpisi kandi kundidenava Mohisi muddisi maruladenawa Hidivenendade hidige barnavva Tadevenendade miri hihanavva Chennamallikarjunana Kanade anerendariye laye.

She passed through the dense forest day and night all alone forgetting her hunger, sleep and tiresomeness. Thinking that Chennamallikarjuna is there amidst trees, creepers, she addresses the mango tree, cuckoo, the moon light and asks them to take her to his abode if they happen to see the Lord.

She addresses the parrots producing sound as chilimili, cuckoos which sing with raised voice, bees that dart from place to place, swans which frolic in the lake, peacocks sporting over hills, and asks if they have seen Chennamallikarjuna and tell her where He was. The following vachana reflects her vipralamba smgara and her anxiety to see Him.

Raga : Nadanamakriya Tala : Adi Chilimili endu oduva giligalira nivu kanire Saravettipaduva kogilegalira nivu kanire Eragi bandaduvathumbigalira nivu kanire Kolanatadiyoladuva hamsagalira nivu kanire Girigalaladuva navilugalira nivukanire C/iannamallikarjuna nellihanendu ballode nivu helire nivu helire Akkamahadevi as a saint singer of 'Virasaiva Cult’ 117

At last Akkamahadevi reached Kadalibana and in a cave at Kadalibana she sat and offered pooja to the Linga. She meditated upon Siva forgetting herself. Her eyes were concentrating on Siva linga. Suddenly a jyoti emerged out of the linga in which Lord Siva revealed his nijasvarupa. She was overwhelmed with joy. Tears of joy rolled down from her eyes. The Lord stretched His hands and took her into his arms. Thus Akkamahadevi attained Siva sayujya and became one with God.

Thus Akkamahadevi is one of the bright stars and she stands out as the great saint singer. In the uniqueness of her personality * and greatness of her utterances, she is unparallelled. She is one among the pioneers in blending lofty spiritual experience with spontaneous expression through vachanas. Her intense devotion to Channamallikarjuna who was her true love enabled her to be united with Lord.

Just as Saint Andal, one among the twelve Alwars, a sincere devotee of Lord Krishna and who resolved that she would marry none other than the Supreme Lord and united with Lord Ranganatha Himself, and Saint Mira of Rajasthan, a devotee of Lord Krishna who renounced the world and went to Dwaraka and fulfilled her desire of uniting with Lord Krishna, Saint Akkamahadevi, a virasaiva saint united with Lord Channamallikarjuna of Srisaila.

Her songs are spontaneous outbursts of her longing for the divine. O 118

Lesser known composers Post-Tyagaraja Period K. Seshadri

This article deals with lesser-known bom on the Telugu sail in a selective manner from Swarajathi to Kruthi. There are more than twenty five composers, themselves seasoned connect artists, while certain are well devoted teachers. However there is the continuity of composing format from generation to generation in Andhra desa. Though not chronologically, mention may be made of the following. Sarwasree

Toomu Narasimhadasa (Guntur), Rallapalli Krishna Sarnia (Tpt), Prayaga Rangadasa, Kocherlakota Ramaraju (Thatipaka), Dhanuvakonda Subba Rao (Ongole), Tirupati Vidyala Narayana Swamy (Tpt) Parupudi Chalamaiah (Rajamundry) Munuganti Venkata Rao (Kakinada) Paptla Kanthiah (Ongole), HariNagabhushanam (Machilipatinam) Ogirala Veera Raghava Sharma (Kowuru) Piratla Sankara Sastry, Mulugu Sivananda Sastry (Tenali) Mulukutla Siva Sastry (Tenali), Bankupalli Lakshmana Sastry (Srikakulam), T.N.C.V. Narayanacharyulu (Guntur), S.S. Rajasekharam (Bapatla), Vinjamuri Varadaraja Ayyangar (Guntur) and later days in Madras. Among the living composers Dr. Sripada Pinakapani (Kumool), M.S. Balasubramanya Sarma (Ongole) Annavarapu Ramaswamy (Vijayawada) Vasa Padmanabham (Hyderabad), Pappu Someswara Rao (Hyderabad) Kollegal Subramanyam ((Hyderabad) N.C.H. Krishnamacharyulu (Vijayawada) Nookala China Satyanarayana (Hyderabad). Each composer has his own style of composing in different Ragatalas and of course we find compositions even in rare ragas and talas. Lesser known composers Post-Tyagaraja period 119

Paradoxical though it may seem, no reliable record is available about the past composers and ofcourse very less is some how gathered from resource persons and books available and the same is presented before every composition is taken up. Sri Toomu Narasimhadasa is a great devote always in Tadatmiya, singing the greatness of Sri Rama. His bhairavi krithi “Doravala Guruchunnadu - Badragirishudu” and “Ramanamama Jeevanamu” in are very interesting. When Narsimha Dasa visited Tyagaraja in 1821 he composed a sisa padyam. That is as follows : Kevalananda Sankarthanamu Vinti Bhavasiddhiyu Suddhabhaktiyu ganti Bhaktulu sishyulu balisikalvaga ganti Vangmadhuree vaibhavamtu ganti Meaning : I am fortunate, I heard the soulful rendering brimming with musical attainment. Rallapalli has set 100 tunes for the Annamacharya Sankeertanalu. He is a great scholar in poetry, Music and allied Arts. His famous tunes are Brahmakadigina padamu () and Alarulu kuriyaga (Sankarabharanam). ■ Kocharlakota Ramaraju is a another Ramabhaktha who authored 'Sreerama Keerthana Kamamruthana’ in Telugu is very widely known. Among the popular songs the Raga kriti has verve and flair. His swarajathi “Balakrishna Mohana Paramabhaktha Pavana” in Mohana is very attractive and appealing flow.

Svarajati Balakrishna Mohana Mohana-Adi (T.gati)

P SdPd P g R , I g a p G r G r S , II Bala krishna Mohana I Parama Bhakta pala na 120 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

DsrG SrgP I d R dS pD gpdll Sri ramana Sowryaghana I tripo ka pa lana suguna

C SgRr sdSS IrrsdS pD gpdll NandaGopa sukumara nalinadata yatha kshahari II

2. g g Rg(g PP; Iddpg pd S S S II Muni manasa hamsa muninutha bahu Santhosha

r S g r s dSpdpIgP rgr sRgpdll ghana ghanaya muna priyada rshana Aghahara na sarany

3. Pdpgr Gpgrsl rgPPD p g p d Sundaramukha mandharagiri dharagovin damurahara

P D s's’ r’rg'g r r I r'S r s 3 p P g p d Brinda raka niva sana Bahu puranapuru sha -Radhanutha

4. S ; r s d ’s pdgp I D ; s d pgrgpd Sa maju thaya haramura lee dhara sadayahridaya

s d s ’pD gprgpdISs DP ggrg pd sarasi ja na bhamaravinuta Rama raja vinitha sadayo

srGrs dsRsd IpdSS Dpgpd Vara venkata gurupoojitha I paramardha prakrithi vahita

g fr’grr r'dds ppldggprrgsrgpd Amara . pada Acha ta jada Asama .nagha Asura harana

Dhenuvakonda Subba Rao, again a composer of depth. His kriti is a well known one. T.N.C.V. Narayanacharyulu (Guntur) was a verstile vainika and musicologist and was very much associated with Madras Music Academy. He has edited “Gandharva Vedambrutham Annamacharya Swara Kusumanjali”, Padmavathi Lesser known composers Post-Tyagaraja period 121

Nakshatra Ragamalika and Ranganadha Keetanalu etc., His compo­ sitions are quite appealing.

Dr. Vinjamuri Varadaraja Iyengar, my guru was a senior concert Artist - composer. His popular Javali in Manirangu is a famous one. Mulugu Sivananda Sastry (Tenali) was again a minor composer his popular kriti in Arabhi “Tyagaraja Gurudeva is touching.

Mullukutla Sadasiva Sastry was a senior Kalakshepa Vidvan under traditional music teacher. Performed several discourses on Ramadasa Tyagaraja Thumunarsimha Dasa etc., Now his Ritigaula kriti on Ramadasa is fantastic to listen.

Raga : Ritigaula - Tala : Rupaka

P, M , pmgrs II s n N n s , s n II Ra ma da sa ma - sraye sri s g r G M II gm PM pmgrgm II Rama bhakta se . va kam . sri

N , n dm gmgrS II nsgrN S, snll Ra . ma da sa ma . sra ye sri s g r G m II n nsnd mGrgm Ra . ma bhakta se . ka Kamsri . .

Next, Ogirala Veera Raghava Sharma a staunch devotee of Parashakthi and has composed nearly 150 kritis many in Vilambakala and full of gait. His Sri Gayathri Devi Sanathani in raga set to Aditala.

Coming to the present composers the name of N.C.H. Krishnamacharyulu is highly admirable. A Sanskrit scholar critic, Harikatha writer and a senior violinist served Vijayawada Akashavani for nearly 4 decades. His kritis are brimming with Sahitya 122 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII embellishments and music Heights. Among his popular kritis Nataka priya and Vasaniha krithis are regular concert pieces.

Sri K.V.N. Sastry another Sanskrit scholar and violinist in Kumool has several compositions. Among them in Navarasakannada and Gowri Manohari kritis. The sahitya is simple and the Music is touching.

Raga : Navarasakannada - Tala : Adi

P I; p P p S* N ndM I M g MgR I S ; m g g r II Kanakadurga mma . Kanikarin chu ma.mmu.

j; p P p S N ndM I n D m P s n d m g m g r II Kanakadurga mma Kanikarain

JI g M P s N ; N ; I , g M G r I S ; n d m g II Kaitya Nee Ka ma la lo cha , ni

A.P ; p D p P S ; p s G I , g M G r I m g g r S S II Vanajabhava . . di Vandhitha s .va . priya

; s R nD M P S; I , s ’N d M I g m g r g r Sll sanakadi vinutha sarasaga nara si .ka

C. ; pPpP s ’nD M ; I ; p M g R I S r's m g g r II Dharalona sree Vijayapu ra mu. na

;pSnD psG I ; g M P , I s n D M ; II velasina devi mamuga vaga nu

And the kritis of the paper presenter, Seshadri the kritis in Kalyana Vasantam and are to be taken up and the Garbha kriti which has a new compositional technique adopted - a thing of appreciative value. 123

The Contribution of Women to Harikatha with Focus on Gayahapatu Kirtana patu Sint. C.Saraswati Bai Dr. Prameela Gurumurthy

In early 1930’s Smt. Saraswati Bai has herself written three articles (In Tamil) in the Journal of the Music Academy in volumes 18 and 22 entitled svnff&sy>a, m)ihi£a, ^umiunaGw, sm££iSigim sfftniiamtb and $n)£($0 y5fa,iun3>(fi*D 6wsuni^a,^n)ib smia,si£a,a,iu!Js,(fpLD Personalities in present day music is a book written by Sri. E. Krishna Iyer published in 1933 in which we find an article (In English) on Sarswati Bai. Gottuvadyam Duraiappa Bhagavatar has written on Kalakshepa and the Kalakshepa Bhagavatars in Tamil in the Journal Natyam edited by Ranjan, dancer and film personality. The year of publication of this journal is 1949. I wish to thank the following scholars for providing very useful information. Sri. S. Rajam, Sri. K.S. Mahadevan, Sri. T.S. Parthasarathy, Smt. Vidya Sankar, Dr. V.V. Srivatsa and Smt. Kamala Murti. I am grateful to two sources for the audio excerpts which I could procure. One is the All India Radio, Chennai which broadcasts Harikathas of old veterans preserved in their archives. The other is Sri. V.A.K. Rangarao for sharing his excellent collection of 78 rpm records from which I could get the compositions rendered by Smt. C. Saraswati Bai. The library of the Department of Indian Music, University of Madras and The Music Academy Library has the books and the Journals which I mentioned earlier. During the Vedic period The Medha Suktam, Medha meaning innate intelligence is in praise of Goddess Sarawati. The Ultimate Jnana has been personified in the stree rupa. Durga Suktam is held on par with the Purusha Suktam. Therefore equal status and respect were given to women during the Vedic period. In Puranas we have 124 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII the Ardhanari concept giving equal status to Sakti by Siva, the Lord. Similarly Saraswati is said to reside in the tongue of Brahma. Lakshmi resides in the Vaksha Sthala of Mahavishnu. In the we have the reference :

“Iyamsita mama suta sahadharma cari tava”. The wife has equal status in the dharma of the husband.

In the Brahadaranayaka upanishad, Yajnavalkya the great scholar while leaving for Vanaprasta hands over all his worldly possessions to his two wives Katyayani and Maitreyi. Then Maitreyi asks him 'will all these show the path of Satya’. Then he gave the explanation regarding as to how one should develop one’s Jnana to know the truth. The ultimate reality can only be described as not this, 'na iti na iti’, which is the main concept of the Advaita Siddanta. The important person who initiated this discussion was the learned Maitreyi wife of Sage Yajnavalkya.

In king Janaka’s Sabha thousand cows with silver and gold were presented to the scholar who won in the Atma Carcha. It is said that the lady Scholar Gargi defeated her opponents which included Yajnavalkya also and she won the thousand cows. In South India during the Sangam period Awayar, Kakkaipadiniyar and Nachellaiyar were celebrated poetesses. Women dancers were called as Viraliyar. The following reference in Purananuru refers to the Virali being honoured by the kings.

“iDism fmij) s i S V toisnsoQujii^ stfsrjfhia,” The women singers were called Padiniyar.

“ u ilq .6s f (jpfjsa/lh U(16TiSi)UJthl<3)

Karikkal Ammaiyar who belonged to the 4th-5th centuries is the earliest Saivaite lady Saint composer who wrote the Arpuda Tiruvandadi & Iraittai Manimalai. Andal of the 9th Century was the only lady poet among the 12 Alwars. She is probably the earliest lady poetess who conceived her hymns on bridal mysticism. (Nayika - Nayaka Bhava). The 173 verses consisting of both Tiruppavai and Nachiyar Tirumozhi are being reverentially sung even today by one and all, an unbroken tradition for eleven centuries.

Retrieving the musical renditions of the Tevaram hymns were done with the help of a lady descendant (from Erukattampuliyur) of the family of Tiru Nilakanta Yazhpanar who was a disciple and yazh accompanist of saint Tirugnana Sambandar. The contribution of this lady helped Nambiyandar Nambi to reconstruct the panns and the music of the Tevaram, during the 10th Century. During the 13th Century saint Akkamahadevi was one of the most important scholars who established the Virasaiva dharma. She was the only stree ratna among the learned male scholars in the Anubhava Mantapa.

Mirabai’s soulful songs have carved a niche for themselves in the Bhakti literature and devotional music tradition. That was a short survey of the contribution of some women saints, scholars and artistes in the history of literary and fine arts. The 19th and 20th Centuries also saw the rise of many lady musicians, dancers and artistes, composers who have all excelled in their respective fields, enriching our cultural heritage.

Kathakalakshepa or Harikatha is a composite art which besides the main story theme, includes narration, histrionics, music elements of dance and philosophical doctrines. The Tanjavur tradition of kalakshepa has a long history much before the Marathi was introduced in Tanjavur. I wish to very emphatically state this because there is a wrong notion that the kalakshepa form itself was introduced 126 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII to Tanjavur from Maharastra. Any art form, Dance, Music or Harikatha has been undergoing some changes to suit the times, making them progressive art forms, to suit the need of the day. When a keen and healthy competition arose during the 19th Century between the Bhagavatars and the Kirtankars, one Venkata Dasa (Periyanna) a scholar and a composer who held a ministerial post at the Tanjavur Palace formulated a n'ew style combining the best aspects of the old Kalakshepa with those of the Kirtan. He nurtured and trained the young Krishna Bhagavatar. We find a tradition of a patron, Scholar being associated with most of the artistes of kalakshepa apart from the Guru or teacher. In the case of Smt. C. Saraswati it was Sri. T.B. Krishnachar.

This Tanjavur tradition which was thus formulated attained great success and Krishna Bhagavatar became a celebrity. Inspired by his excellent Kalakshepas many others entered the field and became successful Kalakshepa Bhagavatars.

Smt. C. Saraswati Bai (1894-1974) was bom on 15.12.1894 and belonged to a Madhwa family. Her father was Gupti Rama Rao. Her mother tongue was Kannada. She began her music lessons at Madras when she was seven years old. She learnt Hindustani music from Ustad Yahub Ali. (The Journal of the Music Academy, 1950 p.39).

She was the first lady performer of the Tanjavur Kalakshepa tradition. During the 1930’s three articles written by her were published in the Journals of the Madras Music Academy entitled, a3?rfd>6T>$ smihi&a, &.umiuna(2u), siTuxiamib and usf a,ujria,rrrT*n dosuaswia,s)Ta, g>iu(ia>

In the article iM)!fa,6s>a,sn)fhj&a) SLumiuiaGiD written by her for the Journal of the Music Academy in 1930s. Vol.22, she says, The Contribution o f.... Smt. C. Saraswati Bai 127

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In the same article she writes about the state of Harikatha during 1930s.

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Saraswati Bai had a majestic personality, a good melodious voice, fine sense of Sruti, raga and laya. Being intelligent she was quick to grasp anything and above all, she was a gifted speaker. For a period of nearly forty years she reigned supreme in the field of Katha and retired gracefully in her late forties.

Her teacher and guide was Tiruvaiyaru Krishnahar, a great scholar in Sanskrit and Tamil. He was a close associate of Krishna Bhagavatar. He sought the help of Tanjavur Pancapagesa Bhagavatar, the disciple of Krishna Bhagavatar to give the finishing touches for 128 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

Saraswati Bai’s knowledge in Katha. Saraswati Bai followed the Katha paddhati of Tanjavur Krishna Bhagavatar.

She took care to add on to her repertoire the songs that gained popularity. She was very well versed in both Carnatic and Hindustani systems of music and sang both the styles with ease and in their natural purity. Her music was an attractive aspect in her Harikatha.

However the number of her topics for Katha was limited to not more than a dozen. She gave them an exhaustive treatment. She was a scholar in Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Marathi.

Nandanar Caritram and Bhadrachala Ramadas were her masterpieces. Her popularity raised the scale of her remuneration. She was patronised by the different Samasthanams in the South, including Chettinad and received many gifts, todas and medals.

The unique feature in Saraswati Bai’s Katha was her feminine touch in her music and majesty of the Pravacana which was fascinating in appeal to all.

She received many titles namely, Gayanapatu which was conferred on her in 1916 by Vishnu Digambar Paluskar, Principal, Gandharva Maha Vidyala, Pune. The title Kirtanapatu was conferred on her by Bala Gangadhar Tilak in 1920.

Sri. E. Krishna Iyer an advocate and connoisseur of music in his book “Personalities in present day music” writes about Smt. C. Saraswati Bai. This was published in 1933. (p48.49). “When she first attempted to appear in public as a Kalakshepam artist, she had to meet the prejudices and opposition of most of the Male musicians. The music world was then not as liberal as it is now. It is said that a performance of hers arranged by a music sabha at George Town had to be given up on the very day of the performance on account The Contribution of.... Smt. C. Saraswati Bai 129 of the threatened boycott of the sabha by the professional male musicians. Still the young lady, her father, her tutor and all her well wishers kept on to their resolve. It was given to. Murayur Shanmukam chetty a rich patron of art, to take a bold stand and arrange a performance of hers at his residence at Mylapore. Before a large assemblage of invited guests she made her mark and since then the tide turned in her favour”.

Sri Krishna Iyer mentions an aspect which is very characteristic in her expositions.

“Her exposition of the story is clear and engaging. She has her own mannerisms one of which is a characteristically long and undue stress on certain words”.

“Her rendering o f Sanskrit verses is appreciable enough for a lady”.

He mentions that it is her music that is the predominant feature of her art. Not seldom you find a demand from the audience for special kritis and other pieces in the midst of her story.

At this juncture I wish to mention what has been written by Sri. Duriappa Bhagavatar the son of Tanjavur Panchapagesa Bhagavatar. He says that the first sabha in Madras Bhagavatar Prasanga Sabha also known as Bhakti Marga Prasanga Sabha was started in the year 1895 with the specific aim of organising Thanjavur Krishna Bhagavatar’s Harikathas, more regularly and frequently. When he was not available some other Harikatha Bhagavatar was invited when this too became impossible, a music concert was held.

This is why Smt. Sarawati Bai who was quite aware of the state of the popularity of the artform from 1860s to 1930s mentions:

“ g»sme,sir>uj jfijjrnr&rf 130 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

5r»fw^a>a>$G5i)<2ii/ g&wiS'uS'&a.&yai]” I am mentioning this because we are facing the same situation today also.

Duraiappa Bhagavatar writes on Smt. C. Saraswati Bai. (Natyam 1949).

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Duraiyappa Bhagavatar has mentioned as to how Sri Krishnachar was her mentor and guide.

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Duraiyappa Bhagavatar’s observation and view regarding the standard of other lady katha artists which he mentions in this article is very significant which was and is a very important reason for the decline of Harikatha artform.

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He concludes his write up on Sarsawati Bai with the following words.

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We are indeed very for in our midst musicians and scholars who still cheris f Smt. Saraswati Bai’s Kalakshepam. I thank Sri. S. Rajam, Sri. K.S. Mahadevan, Smt. Vidya Shankar and Smt. Kamala Murthi, for spontaneously and happily sharing their views and nostalgic memories. Sri. S. Rajam

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She was respected on par with all the stalwarts of Music and Harikatha, Her erudition in Sanskrit, excellent pronunciation singing of slokas and giving lucid explanation still rings in my ears. A special mention should be made about her rendition of Tyagaraja kritis. Her exposition, high standard of music, her knowledge and scholarship along with her majestic personality are still vivid in my mind. Smt. Vidya Sankar

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Following Smt. C. Saraswati Bai many lady katha artistes like Smt. C. Banni Bai, Padmasani Bai, Rukmani Ammal, Kumbakonam Krishnaveni Ammal, Tirupurasundari Ammal, Tirugokarnam Kanakambujam, Salem Tayarammal, T. Gnanambal, S.D. Subbulakshmi, Sushila Achyutaranan, Trivandrum Subhalakshmi, Thanjavur Kamala Murti and Gowri Rajagopal performed Kalakshepas. 134 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

I would like to make certain observations regarding some characteristic features of Smt. Banni Bai’s and Smt. Kamala Murti’s Kalakshepams as I have studied and researched their style and performances.

Smt. Banni Bai’s speciality was her training in Bharatanatyam and abhinaya learnt from Mylapore Gowri Ammal an important aspect and advantage she had compared to Smt. Saraswati Bai and Kamala Murti who did not learn Bharatanatyam. Banni Bai’s facial expres­ sions, neck movements, bhava, hand mudras and ability to switch over to the navarasas depicting then, in her voice & face was a treat to watch. Her music was very classical and full of depth.

Another important point which I want to mention is that Smt. C. Saraswati did not use vocal support or upagayatri. But for Smt. C. Banni Bai, her sisters Janakavalli, Jivarathnam and niece Jyothi Bai provided vocal support. Being Smt. Bani Bai’s disciple I too had an opportunity to be a co-singer for her performance of Nandanar Charitram organised by Sampradaya Chennai, during 1980s which is preserved in their archives. She taught me the songs and also asked me to render short alapanas for a few ragas. She will begin the alapana, sing a few phrases and will ask the co-singers to continue.

Today the most popular and well known traditional Harikatha lady artist is Smt. Kamala Murti. In her, we find a rich blend of chaste music subtle humour, scholarly narration and fluent style of story telling all imbibed from her guru, Tiruvaiyar Annasami Bhagavatar. Keenly observing and closely watching the performances of both Banni Bai and Kamala Murti in comparison with whatever audio recordings I could listen to of Smt. C. Saraswati Bai I wish to make the following observations. Saraswati Bai’s plus points are her rich deep voice, versatility in singing both Hindustani and Kamatic style, stressing ending verbs like sui,a,ii, Qaidimii, Ga.il.L-ij etc., gave her The Contribution of.... Smt. C. Saraswati Bai 135 a special individual style. The delivery of speech and musical compositions are rendered in medium or slightly fast tempo. It sounds like that she gave more importance to music compositions and scholarship rather than to jokes or humorous anecdotes. Only this much could be absorbed by listening to a one hour recorded Kathakalashepa of Viswamitra yaga samarakshana fortunately preserved in the archives of All India Radio.

Apart from the music and effective narration another important and appealing aspect for the women Katha performers was the Aharya. The Jarikai rich Silk sarees, the dazzling diamonds, the vanki, the ornament worn on the nose the Bullakku, the gold waist belt known as the Ottiyanam all were the part of their costume. In the photo of Smt. C. Saraswati Bai we see that how this costume provided a grand appearance. Even today many re­ member the brilliant diamonds worn by Smt. C. Banni Bai. There is a proverb in Tamil, ^ srr ung ^ ® l u ig In this case it was <**|si)(wa»ri!j(b ff)«n& uag, g>me, lh It is only when they performed in the Standing posture the grandeur of the costume gains significance and appeal especially the ottiyanam. However it should be remembered that they also took care of this aspect but did not rely only on Aharya. Today the taste habits and also costume of the women artistes have become more subtle due to modem way of living, attitudes social and economic conditions. O 136

Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present S.R. Janakiraman

Suddha and Vikruta Swaras as mentioned by different Lakshnakaras

Sarangadeva (13th Century A.D.)

The Shadja Grama was the fundamental and the primordial scale of South Indian music. The Madhyama murchana of the Shadja Grama was the fundamental scale (presently Harikambhoji mela) of the music of the ancient Tamils. The Shadja Grama is roughly the present 22nd mela , from the point of view of swarasthanas.

The sapthaswaras that constituted the Shadja Grama were styled the Suddha swaras and the sruti sthanas wherein they were located were the Niyata srutis. The Suddha swaras were self ordained notes bom of their own accord. They were the natural notes. They were really the Prakruti swaras. In the 18th-19th centuries Govinda referred to his Suddha swaras as the Prakruti swaras. But that is questionable. His Suddha swaras were not the Suddha swaras of the ancient, they were entirely different. Only Shadja, Suddha Madhyama and Panchama alone deserve the designation as Suddha swaras. The Suddha swaras of Govinda would be discussed sub­ sequently.

The Suddha swaras of the Shadja Grama or the Niyata srutis are as follows, (with current nomenclature and frequency values).

Shadja 1 Trisruti Rishabha 10/9 Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present 137

Komala Sadharana Gandhara 32/27 Suddha Madhyama 4/3 Panchama 3/2 Trisruti Dhaivatha 5/3 Komala Kaisiki Nishada 16/9 Roughly they correspond to Kharaharapriya (the 22nd mela). Among the above, only Shadja, Suddha ma and pa have retained their original seats of schedule. The rest of ri, ga, dha and ni are not the Suddha swaras now. That makes the history.

From the known Suddha swaras, the unknown Vikruta swaras came to be known. The altered sruti interval in between one and the other Suddha swaras brought in the Vikruta swaras. Whatever was not Suddha, was Vikruta. It was simple theory. There was logic also about it. The self ordained notes or the natural notes or technically the prakruti swaras were the Suddha swaras and all the swaras other than the Suddha swaras were the Vikruta swaras. This was the ancient theory to start with. How were the Vikruta swaras evolved, is the question.

1. If any Suddha swara rose in pitch, it became a Vikruta. This applied to all the Suddha swaras. Thus the Suddha swaras ri, ga, ma, dha and ni which rose in pitch become their Vikruta counterpart.

2. If any Suddha swara went down in pitch, then also it became a Vikruta. Thus the Suddha ri, ga, ma, dha and ni which went down in pitch, got their Vikruta counterparts.

3. A Suddha swara need not rise or go down in pitch, but still with the swaras immediately preceding or succeeding them going up or down in pitch, the Suddha swaras lost 138 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

their Suddha character and became Vikruta swaras, though they remained in their positions. This is something extraordinary. This is how the Suddha Shadja, Suddha ma and Suddha pa became Vikrutas also, namely Achyuta sa, Achyuta ma and Achyuta pa.

4. The Shadja and Panchama also were not exceptions. They were also designated as Suddha and Vikruta swaras. Only in the Shadja Grama both were Suddha swaras. In the other cases viz., Madhyama Grama and Gandhara Grama they were also reckoned as Vikruta swaras for the reasons mentioned above.

The swaras Sadharanga ga, Antara ga, Kaisiki ni and Kakali ni were got as Vikruta swaras only because they were all higher in pitch than their Suddha counterparts. Chyuta sa, Chyuta ma and Chyuta pa were got as Vikruta swaras respectively when the Suddha Shadja, Suddha ma and Suddha pa went down by one sruti. The Chyuta sa, Chyuta ma and Chyuta pa later got re-designated respectively as Tivra Kakali ni, Tivra Antara ga and Tivra Prati ma.

The Vikruta ri and Vikruta dha were conceived as the Vikruta swaras by Sarangadeva in the following manner. When Suddha Shadja became a Vikruta Swara Chyuta Shadja by name, the sruti interval in between Chyuta sa and Suddha ri got enlarged to a chatusruti. Hence the Suddha ri lost its trisruti (Suddha character) and became the Vikruta of ri. In the same way when the Panchama became Chyuta pa, the interval between Chyuta pa and Suddha dha got enlarged to a Chatusruti with the result the Suddha dha lost its Suddha character (trisrutitva) and became a Vikruta. There were no Vikruta counterparts for Suddha ga and Suddha ni. Thus were worked out the Vikruta swaras of Sarangadeva. Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present 139

Suddha Swaras (Shadja Grama swaras) 7 Vikruta swaras 12 For Sarangadeva’s Suddha and Vikruta swaras in 22 srutis ladder refer Appendix. Observations :

1. Regarding the Suddha swaras of Sarangadeva, no specific remarks or observations need be offered in as much as they were the widely accepted Suddha swaras that constituted the Shadja Grama as adopted uniformly by all the text book writers on music. The Suddha swaras held their designation as such till the radical change set in when the dvisruti ri and dvisruti dha came to be regarded as the Suddha swaras and chatursruti ri and the chatusruti dha got well settled with the Suddha ga and Suddha ni speaking in their positions and with the Suddha ma left undisturbed. With all the Suddha swaras conceived as such, Kanakangi appeared in the arena as the Suddha scale and also as the first of the 72 melas, with or without any logic about it whatsoever. Of course, all this happened as late as atleast the latter half of the 18th or the former half of 19th century A.D. with everything in black and white in the Sangraha Chudamani of Govinda.

2. Regarding the Vikruta swaras of Sarangadeva, Sadharana ga, Antara ga, Kaisiki ni and Kakali ni continued to hold their designation and that too in the self same positions to date.

3. With the emergence of the concept of Shadja and Panchama being regarded as the Avikruta swaras, the chyuta sa and 140 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

chyuta pa came to be regarded not as the Vikrutas of Shadja and Panchama but as the Vikruta of Nishada and-Madhyama respectively. Chyuta sa became Tivra Kakali ni and Chyuta pa became the Tivra Prati madhyama. Along with them Chyuta ma also got redesignated as Tivra Antara Gandhara.

4. With the emergence of the concept of Shadja and Panchama being regarded as the Avikruta swaras, the Vikruta swaras of Sarangadeva namely Achyuta Shadja and Achyuta Panchama got defunct.

5. Of the twelve Vikruta swaras of Sarangadeva, Achyuta sa, Achyuta ma, Achyuta pa, Vikruti ri and Vikruti dha had to be dropped for the main reason that they had no independent srutisthanas, and they spoke on the self same position of their Suddha swara counterparts. This was the later result on the authority of the fixation of Madhya Sthayi Shadja as adhara sruti or drone.

6. But the conception of a Chatursruti Vikruta ri and a Chatusruti Vikruta dha became possible to be evolved by the later writers like Somanatha, Ahobala, Govinda etc.,

However, Sarangadeva takes all credit for having provided the threshold for the evolution of the 12 note gamut. (12 swarasthanas). Ramamatya (1550 A.D.)

The next important milestone in the evolution of the tonal system is the contribution of Ramamatya to the theme.

Ramamatya too held the view that the Shadja Grama had all the Suddha swaras. But he told a diffemt story. He said that all Shadja Grama the Desi ragas are bom of Shadja Grama, thereby Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present 141 meaning Shadja Grama not as a mere Suddha scale necessarily but the entire gamut of 12 swarasthanas. Anyway Sarangadeva’s seven Suddha swaras were acceptable to Ramamatya.

But Ramamatya severely differed from Sarangadeva regarding the Vikruta swaras. Ramamatya accepted the following seven Vikruta swaras of Sarangadeva.

1. Sadharana ga 2. Antara ga 3. Chyuta ma 4. Trisrutied Vikruta pa or Chyuta pa 5. Kaisiki ni 6. Kakali ni 7. Chyuta sa Ramamatya discarded the following Vikruta swaras mentioned by Sarangadeva. 1. Achyuta sa 2. Vikruta ri 3. Achyuta ma 4. Achyuta pa 5. Vikruta dha His plea was that in the case of the above five Vikruta swaras there does arise no difference between them and their Suddha counterparts when the drone is kept sounding in as much as they are sounded on the same swarasthanas. That is really true and reconcilable.

But at the same time Ramamatya increased the number of Vikruta swaras from his accepted seven again to 12 but in a different 142 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

way. He coined his special nomenclature to some of the 7 Vikruta swaras accepted by him as follows :

1. Shatsruti ri for Sadharana ga 2. Chyuta Madhyama Gandhara for Chyuta ma 3. Chyuta Panchama Madhyama for Chyuta pa 4. Shatsruti Dhaivatha for Kaisiki ni 5. Chyuta Shadja Nishada for Chyuta sa Ramamatya deserves all praise for his having recognised the theory of Shadja and Panchama being regarded as Avikruta swaras and rightly re-designated Chyuta sa and Chyuta pa respectively as Chyuta Shadja Nishada (as a Vikruta of Nishada) and Chyuta Panchama Madhyama (as a Vikruta of Madhyama). Incidentally Chyuta ma got re-designated as Chyuta Madhyama ga (as a Vikruta of ga). Ramamatya’s Chyuta Shadja ni is now Tivra Kakali ni, Chyuta Madhyama ga is now Tivra Antara ga and Chyuta Panchama ma is now Tivra Prati ma.

Ramamatya went one step further He re-designated the Suddha ga as Panchasruti ri anc Panchasruti dha. He was safe in this respect. He < Panchasruti ri and Panchasruti dha as Vikruta s they bore different nomenclature but evidently for 1 they were otherwise Suddha swaras also. To Ramamatya, a Suddha swara was only a Suddha swara and Vikruta swaras was only a Vikruta swara. This is the clue made available to . There was no such problem in the case of the following Vikruta swaras accepted by Ramamatya as passed on by Sarangadeva.

1. Sadharana ga Shatsruti ri 2. Chyuta ma Chyuta Madhyama ga Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present 143

3. Chyuta pa Chyuta Panchama Madhyama 4. Kaisiki ni Shatsruti dha 5. Chyuta sa Chyuta Shadja Nishada The above Vikruta swaras played a dual role. On some occasions a Vikruta Rishabha itself was a Vikruta Gandhara too with a changed designation and vice versa. This is not like the case where the Suddha sa, holds a re-designated status as a Vikruta swara with the self same name as Achyuta sa. Similar is the case with the other Vikruta swaras, namely Achyuta ma and Achyuta pa.

The re-designation of Suddha ga as Panchasruti ri and that of Suddha ni as Panchasruti dha, though carried forward upto Subbarama Dikshitar (1904), is not so easily reconcilable when the Chatusruti ri and Chatusruti dha had asserted their roles as full fledged tones, respectively above sa and pa, with Suddha ga and Suddha ni recognised in their positions, as explained earlier. Somanatha (1609 A.D.) The salient features of Somanatha’s Swara system - tonal system are as follows : 1. He too adopted the same 7 Suddha swaras that constituted the Shadja Grama, known for his purpose as the Suddha scale or Suddha mela, not identified as Shadja Grama but • as Mukhari. To his predecessor Ramamatya also, the Suddha scale was Mukhari. (The justification or otherwise, of designating Mukhari as the Suddha mela is again a debatable one). 2. Somanatha adopted the same 7 Vikruta swaras of Ramamatya, namely, Kaisiki ni, Kakali ni, Chyuta sa, Sadharana ga, Antara ga, Chyuta ma and Chyuta pa. 144 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

3. He redesignated rather renamed the Chyuta sa, Chyuta ma and Chyuta pa as Mrdu Shadja Nishada Mrdu Madhyama Gandhara and Mrdu Panchama Madhyama. Instead of the word Chyuta he mentioned Mrdu. This is the only difference.

4. Somantha also adopted the special nomenclature given to certain Suddha and Vikruta swaras as follows :

Suddha gb as panchasruti ri Suddha ni as panchasruti dha Sadharana ga as Shatsruti ri Kaisiki ni as Shatsruti dha 5. Somantha (Ramamatya too) recognised the Vikuta swaras only as speaking higher in pitch than the Suddha counterpart excepting for Chyuta Shadja, Chyuta Madhyama and Chyuta Panchama. Of course, they also became the Vjkruta swaras speaking higher in pitch than their preceding Vikruta swaras, when they were re-designated respectively as Chyuta Shadja Nishada, Chyuta Madhyama Gandhara and Chyuta Panchama Madhyama.

6. Somanatha used the terms Tivra, Tivra Tara and Tivra Tama. A Tivra Vikruta Swara was a Chatusruti interval from its preceding Suddha swara. A Tivra Tara Vikruta swara was accordingly at a Panchasruti interval and a Tivra Tama Vikruta swara was a Shatsruti interval. Somanatha recognised a Tivra ri, Tivra Tara ri and a Tivra Tama ri and accordingly a Tivra dha, a Tivra Tara dha and a Tivra Tama dha.

7. He mentioned a Tivra Tama Madhyama. That is acceptable in so far as the same was at a Shatsruti interval from the Suddha Gandhara. But how could or why should there be Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present 145

a Tivra Tama Madhyama without there being and.a Tivra and Tivra Tara Madhyamas. That is the question.

8. Somanatha took the clue from Sarangadeva’s Vikruta ri and Vikruta dha both at a Chatsruti interval respectively from Chyuta sa and Chyuta pa.

Somnatha rightly and quite wisely recognised directly a Chatusruti Vikruta ri and a Chatusruti Vikruta dha respectively from Suddha sa and Suddha pa. This goes a long way in strengthening the immutability of the Shadja and the Panchama.

Venkatamakhin (1635 A.D.)

Venkatamakhin struck the correct note with regard to the theory of Suddha and Vikruta swaras. But necessary clues had already been provided by his illustrious predecessors Sarangadeva, Ramamatya and Somanatha, though they did not make an explicit mention of what Venkatamakhin did To Venkatamakhin too only the Shadja Grama swaras were the Suddha swaras. In the case of Vikruta swaras he differed from his predecessors. He dropped the Chyuta sa, Chyuta ma and Chyuta pa. To Venkatamakhin the Vikruta swaras were only five. They are the following :

1. Sadharana ga 2. Antara ga 3. Varali ma (for all practical purposes the Prati Madhyama) 4. Kaisiki ni 5. Kakali ni Rightly did Venkatamakhin discard the Chyuta sa, Chyuta ma and Chyuta pa of Sarangadeva, Ramamatya and Somanatha in as much as the same are more srutisthanas and not swarasthanas. But 146 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

Venkatamakhin accepted the Panchasruti ri and Panchasruti dha in the place of Suddha ga and Suddha ni, respectively. As a matter of fact, strictly speaking, the Suddha swaras of Sarangadeva, Ramamatya, Somanatha and even Venkatamakhin are not swarasthanas in the real sense. Excepting sa, pa and ma, the rest were srutis. Venkatamakhin’s Vikruta swaras were always Vikrutas and they were never Suddhas also, on any other occasions. Sadharana ga was always Vikruta and even when it became Shatsruti ri, the latter also was a Vikruta. Similar is the case with Kaisiki ni and Shatsruti dha. In the case of Antara ga and Kakali ni, there was no question of their assuming a re-designation at all. Venkatamakhin did not mention Panchasruti ri and Panchasruti dha as Vikruta swaras at all, in as much as both of them were only Vikrutas, as Rishaba and Dhaivata. But as Suddha ga and Suddha ni, they were only Suddha swaras and they could not be Vikrutas. Everything said and done, only Venkatamakhin, why even Ramamatya and Somanatha for that matter, could be clear about the conception of the terms Suddha and Vikruta. A Vikruta swara should only be a Vikruta Swara. It cannot be a suddha swara, though perhaps in the case of a Suddha ga and Suddha ni, all the three agreed to conceive a Vikruta swara in their positions and re-designated them as Panchasruti ri and Panchasruti dha. But all the three Lakshanakaras mentioned above, sometimes still clung to the time honoured and age old theory of reckoning only Shadja Grama swaras as the Suddha swaras and uniformly mentioned Mukhari as the Suddha scale which is not so easily reconcilable and is an issue more debatable. Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present 147

Ahobala (1660 A.D.) Though Ahobala is not to be reckoned as a writer wholly on the South Indian Music, being partially Northern in his conceptions, yet his contribution to the tonal system is perhaps by far the most important one. It is only through Ahobala we find the full nomenclature for the 22 srutis not merely novel names but absolutely self explantory with all logic behind it. It is he who rightly observed that the 22 srutis were derived out of Shadja Panchama Bhava. Shadhja Panchama Bhava implies Shadja Madhyama Bhava too. He also was aware of the subtle micro-tones and quarter tones when he said that srutis are numberless and there could only be hair breadth distinction possible in between them. “Kesagra vyava dhanena bahvyopi srutayarsritaha ” Even by Ahobala’s time it looked that the diatonic scale with the diatonic semitones above sa and pa i.e, a dvisruti ri (Suddha ri) and Suddha dha (Dvisruti dha) had not been comfortably settled though through his full nomenclature it looks very possible that the Suddha ri (dvisruti ri) and Suddha dha (dvisruti dha) had asserted their stature and consequently the Chatsruti ri and Chatrusruti dha as well. Ahobala used the terms Purva, Komala, Tivra, Tivra Tara, Tivra Tama and Ati Tivra Tama. He used the term Komala with reference to a swara which was just one sruti lower (evidently ekasruti) than its Suddha counterpart. Purva was two srutis lower than the Suddha counterpart Tivra was only one sruti higher than the Suddha counterpart (not at a Chatsruti level as it was in the case of Somanatha). Tivra Tara was two srutis higher, Tivra Tama three sruits and Ati Tivra Tama four srutis higher. There was only one Ati Tivra 148 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

Tama ga in the same position of Suddha Madhyama. This is rather perplexing and could conveniently be dropped. It does not matter. Ahobala’s Suddha and Vikruta swaras number totally 29 arranged in the 22 sruti ladder. For full nomenclature, see Appendix. Ahobala had only .two varieties of Madhyama namely Suddha Madhyama and Tivra Madhyama (Prati ma). Venkatamakhin also had only two varieties namely Suddha Madhyama and Varali Madhyama (Prati ma). Ramamatya too had only 2 varieties of Madhyama - Suddha Madhyama and Chyuta Panchama Madhyama while Somanatha had 3 varieties of Madhyama namely Suddha Madhyama, Tivra Tama Madhyama and Mrdu Panchama Madhyama. It must be noted that Ahobala mentioned only 22 srutis but 29 Suddha and Vikruta swaras spread over the gamut of 22 srutis in the octave with many overlapping of notes as for example his Ati Tivra Tama ga and Suddha Madhyama are located in one and the same srutisthana. Similarly the following : Tivra Tara ri Suddha ga (Shadja Grama) Tivra Tama ri Sadharana ga (Shatsruti ri) Tivra Tara dha Suddha ni (Shadja Grama) Tivra Tama dha Kaisiki ni (Shatsruti dha) We have all the 22 srutis of Ahobala not with reference to the terms Purva, Komala, Tivra, Tivra Tara and Tivra Tama and Ati Tivra Tama etc., but with self explanatory and self designated nomenclature as for example Ahobala’s Purva ri could be our Ekasruti ri, his Komala ri could be our Suddha ri or Dvisruti ri, his Tivra ri is out Chatsruti ri, Tivra Tara ri is our Komala Sadharana ga and Tivra Tama ri is our Sadharana Gandhara and so on. It may incidentally be mentioned that in the phrase p m r G r s in the raga Asaveri, the Gandhara is very soft and delicate as it goes to the Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present 149 level of slipping down to Trisruti Rishabha which was reckoned by Ahobala as Purva ga. Govinda (18th-19th Century A.D.)

We may be quite sure that only in the tonal system mentioned in the Sangraha Chudamani of Govinda that the semi-tonal, ri and dha-Suddha ri or Dvisruti ri and Suddha dha or Dvisruti dha had been well ascertained and consequently the Chatusruti ri and Chatusruti dha with respectively the Suddha ga and Suddha ni located in their positions. This gets strengthened through the raga system as found incorporated in the text of Sangraha Chudamani. Though Govinda too accepted the 22 srutis, he gives 30 Suddha and Vikruta swaras spread over the gamut with overlapping becoming inevitable. Govinda describes the ragas only with reference to the 12 swarasthanas of the gamut universally existent in all the systems of music throughout the world. That marks the practical wisdom of the author. The srutis are to be realised in the practically sung swaras as occasions warrant.

Govinda uses the term Prati in designating the swarasthanas. In the case of some srutis the term indicates a note of lower pitch as in the case of :

1. Prati Suddha ri

2. Prati Chatusruti ri

3. Prati Suddha ga

4. Prati Sadharana ga etc.,

(For Govinda’s full nomenclature of 30 Suddha and Vikruta swaras spread over the gamut of 22 srutis see Appendix)

But in the case of one Prati ma the term Prati indicates the note of higher pitch. 150 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

Following Meladhikara Lakshana, Govinda alone mentions one Pratyantara ga and Prati Kakali ni. Govinda mentions :

6 Rishabhas (including one Suddha)

6 Gandharas (including one Suddha)

6 Dhaivatas

6 Nishadas

4 Madhyamas

+ Shadja and Panchama (Suddha) It may be noted that Govinda does not mention Chyuta ma Gandhara (Tivra Antara ga), Chyuta Shadja Nishada (Tivra Kakali ni) and Chyuta Panchama Madhyama (Tivra Prati Madhyama). To take his Prati Suddha ma as Tivra Antara ga, A Prati ma as our Tivra Suddha ma looks impracticable and does not require cognisance.

It may be mentioned and it looks critical also on the part of both Ahobala and Govinda to cover dual nomenclature for some srutisthanas. To reckon a Suddha ga located in the position of Chatusruti ri and Shatsruti ri in the place of a sadharana ga and similarly a Suddha ni in the place of a Chatusruti dha and shatsruti dha in the place of Kaisiki ni are all acceptable and they have gained firm ground in current practice. But Govinda’s Prati Chatusruti ri and a Prati Suddha ga therein and all other similar cases look superfluous adding only more unwarranted and unwanted and confusing nomen­ clature providing nothing much of any practical interest. His Prati Chatsruti ri and Prati Chatusruti dha could however be reckoned respectively as our Trisruti ri and Trisruti dha.

Likewise Govinda’s Prati Sadharana ga and Prati Kaisiki ni could be our Komala Sadharana ga and Komala Kaisiki ni. Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present 151

Similarly Ahobala’s Suddha ri (Shadja Grama) as Purva ga, likewise Suddha dha (Shadja Grama) as Purva ni is all not so easily reconcilable moreover not appealing to practical sense. There are many such cases in Ahobala’s Suddha Vikruta swaras. To recognise one more swarasthana in an already existing another swarasthana would suffice as follows : Chatusruti ri Suddha ga Sadharana ga Shatsruti ri Chatusruti dha * Suddha ni Kaisiki ni Shatsruti dha Govinda reckoned the Suddha swaras as Prakruti swaras. His Prakruti swaras were Suddha Shadja, Suddha ri, Suddha ga, Suddha ma, Suddha pa, Suddha dha and Suddha ni. They were not the Suddha swaras of the Shadja Grama and it is in Kanakangi where the above seven Suddha swaras are found. Hence rightly or wrongly the first mela Kanakangi assumed the role of the Suddha scale and as the first mela. Sangita Sampradaya Pradarsini of Subbarama Dikshitar (1904/1906) At the outset the account of the Suddha Vikruta Theory or the culmination of the Evolution of the tonal system as expounded by Sub.barama Dikshitar in his Sangita Sampradaya Pradarsini in all essence marks the current concept. No doubt the first raganga (mela) takes all the Suddha swaras viz., Suddha ri, Suddha ga, Suddha ma, Suddha dha, Suddha ni. But in giving the sruti values, Subbarama Dikshitar again clings to the old theory i.e, the ri and dha were placed at trisruti level. In line with Govinda, the author of Sangraha Choodamani, Subbarama Dikshitar also reckoned the Suddha swaras as Prakruti 152 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII swaras - that again is debatable, Prakruti swaras could only be two sa-and pa. Even in between sa and pa Shadja alone is, strictly speaking the defacto Prakruti swara - natural note - self ordained. The Panchama too derives its position only with reference to Shadja. So in all fairness the Panchama cannot be Prakruti Swara.

Subbarama Dikshitar’s vikruta swaras are nine as given below. Panchasruti ri, Shatsruti ri, Sadharana ga, Anthara ga, Prathi ma, Panchasruti dha, Shatsruti dha, Kaisiki ni and Kakali ni.

Observations

1. To follow Venkatamakhin’s theory, Panchasruti ri and Panchasruti dha need not necessarily be renamed in as much as they are also Suddha swaras - Suddha ga and Suddha ni respectively.

2. It looks reconcilable that the other seven vikruti swaras can be accepted in to-to. The Sadharana Gandhara is a Vikruti swara as Gandhara and Shatsruti ri becomes a Vikruti as Rishabha so on and so forth.

Suddha and Vikruta Swaras - Current Theory (A reconciliation with the past and also certain suggestions in some respects)

The universally accepted 12 swarasthanas with four additional swaras recognised namely Suddha Gandhara in the place of Chatsruti ri, Suddha ni in the place of Chatsruti dha, Shatsruti ri in the place of Sadharana ga and Shatsruti dha in the place of Kaisiki ni have become an established fact and they have come to stay firmly through many ragas in current practice. Whether wanted or not, ragas with such notes are gaining more recognition with the populous.

Taking that into account we have seven Suddha swaras namely: Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present 153

Suddha sa, Suddha ri, Suddha ga, Suddha ma, Suddha pa, Suddha dha, Suddha ni

How are they now reckoned as Suddha swaras? Among the three varieties each of ri, ga, dha and ni those which speak lowest in pitch are reckoned as the Suddha swaras. Among Dvisruti ri, Chatusruti ri and Shatsruti ri the first one is the lowest in pitch. Hence it is Suddha. Among the three varieties of Gandhara, namely Suddha Gandahara, Sadharana Gandhara and Antara Gandhara that Gandhara recognised in the place of Chatsruti ri, is naturally the one lowest in pitch compared with Sadharana and Antara Gandharas. Hence the first Gandhara speaking lowest in pitch is the Suddha Ga. Of the two varieties of Madhyama, the first speaking lowest in pitch becomes Suddha Madhyama. That Nishada recognised in the place of Chatusruti dha became the Suddha ni. The dvisruti dha being the lower than the other dhas namely Chatusruti dha and Shatsruti dha became the Suddha dha. The widely accepted two Prakruti swaras, Shadja and Panchama are reckoned as the Suddha swaras for all practical purposes. This is in a way following Govinda.

The unquestioned Vikruta swaras which are always Vikruta and never Suddha under any circumstances are only the following:

Sadharana Gandhara Antara Gandhara Prati Madhyama Kaisiki Nishada Kakali Nishada

The above laudable thought is the contribution of Venkatamakhin for which he deserves our praise and gratitude. 154 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

The Chatsruti ri and Chatsruti dha are vikrutas only in so for as they are Rishabhas and Dhaivatha respectively. Once they become Suddha ga and Suddha ni they lose their Vikruta and they become Suddha swaras. That is the problem. Really speaking the Suddha swaras are only the following:

Suddha sa, Suddha ri (Dvisruti ri) Suddha ma Suddha pa Suddha dha (Dvisruti dha) To have- a foolproof theory we may only say that the Suddha swaras are five in number and Vikruta swara, too both as mentioned above. From the above point of view even Kanakangi does not look to be purely a Suddha scale in as much as the Suddha ga and Suddha ni are of a dubious nature. The only possible Suddha scale would be a - the old order of Suddha Saveri - a janya of the Kanakambari mela or raganga as given by Subbarama Dikshitar in his Sangita Sampradaya Pradarsini. srmpds sdpmrs (all Suddha swaras).

The only purely Vikruta swara scale would be the 72nd mela . There is no Suddha swara except sa and pa which are to be given the honour more as Prakruti swaras. A new Thought

Following the ancient theory, one could develop a thought - an innovation as how only the swaras of the Shadja Grama alone were deemd as the Suddha swaras and the rest as the Vikruta swaras by the ancients and medieval. Only the swaras figuring in Kanakangi scale alone be regarded as the Suddha swaras and the rest to be regarded as the Vikruta swaras. It would naturally lead to a further thought that in all the rest of hundreds of scales even Shadja, Suddha Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present 155 ma and pa would become Vikruta. Taking for example the well-known Sankarabharana, the sruti intervals in between sa-ri, ri-ga, ga-ma, ma-pa, pa-dha, dha-ni get changed when compared with Kanakangi excepting the only interval between Suddha ma and pa. The ancients and medieval held the view that the altered interval value in between one and the other constituent notes of their Suddha scale (Shadja Grama) brought in the Vikruta swaras. Taking this into cognisance in Sankarabharana, except one pa all the other six notes sa, ri, ga, ma, dha and ni are to be regarded as Vikruta swaras. This may look curious and perplexing too. But that was the logic and wisdom behind the conception of the Suddha and Vikruta swaras of the ancients and medieval. Another Suggestion

Following Somanatha and Ahobala, the author feels it worthy to revive the usage of the terms Ati Komala, Komala, Tivra, Tivra Tara and Tivra Tama to indicate unambiguously the varieties of the relative pitch values of the inherent notes of the ragas concerned. Our Hindustani brother musicians and musicologists observe the theory.

The three varieties of ri, ga, dha, and m could respectively be reckoned as follows :

Suddha ri (Dvisruti ri) Komala ri Chatsruti ri Tivra ri Shatsruti ri Tivra Tara ri Suddha ga Ati Komala ga Sadharana ga Komala ga Antara ga Tivra ga 156 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

Suddha ma Komala ma Prati ma Tivra ma Suddha dha (Dvisruti dha) Komala dha Chatusruti dha Tivra dha Shatsruti dha Tivra Tara dha Suddha ni Ati Komala ni Kaisiki ni Komala ni Kakali ni Tivra ni The above would suffice to mitigate the confusion and problem prevailing with regard to the usage of terms like Suddha and Vikruta and moreover the technical nomenclature like the Sadharana ga, Antara ga, Kaisiki ni, Kakali ni, Prati ma etc.,

APPENDIX I

Tables of Suddha-Vikruta swaras of some important Lakshanakaras Sarangadeva - Sangita Ratnakara (1203-1247A.D.)

S.No. Sruti ladder Suddha and Vikruta swaras

1. Tivra Kaisiki ni 2. Kumudvati Kakali ni 3. Manda Chyuta sa 4. Chandovati Suddha sa (sa grama)/Achyuta sa

5. Dayavati — 6. —- 7. Ratika Suddha ri (sa grama) vikruta ri 8. Rowdri — 9. Krodha Suddha ga (sa grama) 10. Vajrika Sadharana ga Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present 157

S.No. Sruti ladder Suddha and Vikruta swaras

11. Prasarini Antara ga 12. Priti Chyuta ma

13. Maijani Suddha ma (sa grama)/Achyuta ma

14. Kshiti

15. Rakta

16. Sandipani Chyuta pa

17. Alapini Suddha pa (sa grama) / Chatusruti Vikruta pa

18. Madanti —

19. Rohini —

20. Ramya Suddha dha (sa grama)/Vikruta dha 21. Ugra

22. Kshobhini Suddha ni (sa grama)

APPENDIX - 2

Tables of Suddha-Vikruta swaras of some important Lakshanakaras Ramamatya - Swara Mela Kalanidhi (1550 A.D.)

S.No. Sruti ladder Suddha and Vikruta swaras

1. Tivra Kaisiki ni / Shatsruti dha 2. Kumudvati Kakali ni 3. Manda Chyuta sa /Chyuta Shadja Nishada 4. Chandovati Suddha sa 5. Dayavati — 6. Ranjani — 158 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

S.No. Sruti ladder Suddha and Vikruta swaras 7. Ratika Suddha ri 8. Rowdri — 9. Krodha Suddha ga / Panchasruti ri 10. Vajrika Sadharana ga /Shatsruti ri 11. Prasarini Antara ga 12. Priti Chyuta ma / Chyuta Madhyama Gandhata 13. Maijani Suddha ma 14. Kshiti — 15. Rakta 16. Sandipani Chyuta pa/ Chyuta Panchama Madhyama 17. Alapini Suddha pa 18. Madanti 19. Rohini — 20. Ramya Suddha dha 21. Ugra — 22. Kshobhini Suddha ni

APPENDIX - 3

Tables of Suddha-Vikruta swaras of some important Lakshanakaras Somanatha - Raga Vibodha (1609 A.D.) S.No. Sruti ladder Suddha and Vikruta swaras 1. 8th position Tivra ri 2. 9th position Tivra Tara ri 3. 10th position Tivra Tama ri 4. 21st position Tivra dha 5. 22nd position Tivra Tara dha 6. Kaisiki ni( 1 st sruti) Tivra Tama dha Suddha and Vikruta Swaras of the Past and the Present 159

S.No. Sruti ladder Suddha and Vikruta swaras 7. 15th position Tivra Tama ma 8. Chyuta Shadja Nishada Mrdu Shadja Nishada (3rd position) 9. Chyuta Madhyama Gandhara Mrdu Madhyama Gandhara (12th position) 10. Chyuta Panchama Mrdu Panchama Madhyama Madhyama (16th position)

APPENDIX - 4

Sangita Parijata (1600 A.D.) Ahobala’s Suddha Vikruta Swaras

1. Shadja 16. Tivra ma 2. Purva ri 17. Panchama 3. Komala ri 18. Purva dha 4. Suddha ri 19. Komala dha 5. Tivra ri 20. Suddha dha 6. Tivra Tara ri 21. Tivra dha 7. Tivra Tama ri 22. Tivra Taradha 8. Purva ga 23. Tivra Tama dha 9. Komala ga 24. Purva ni 10. Suddha ga 25. Komala ni 11. Tivra ga 26. Suddha ni 12. Tivra Tara ga 27. Tivra ni 13. Tivra Tama ga 28. Tivra Tara ni 14. Ati Tivra Tama ga 29. Tivra Tama ni 15. Suddha ma Important Point : In a few cases more than one note is also recognised in the same position. (Vide the Chapter on Suddha Vikruta Swaras) 160 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXI

APPENDIX - 5 Govinda’s Sangraha Chudamani (18th-19th Century A.D.) Suddha Vikruta Swaras 1. Shadja 16. Aprati ma 2. Prati Suddha ri 17. Prati ma 3. Suddha ri 18. Panchama 4. Prati Chatursruti ri 19. Prati Suddha dha 5. Chatursruti ri 20. Suddha ma 6. Prati Shatsruti ri 21. Prati Chatusruti dha 7. Shatsruti ri 22. Chatusruti dha 8. Prati Suddha ga 23. Prati Shatsruti dha 9. Suddha ga 24. Shatsruti dha 10. Prati Sadharana ga 25. Prati Suddha ni 11. Sadharana ga 26. Suddha ni 12. Pratyantara ga 27. Prati Kaisiki ni 13. Antara ga 28. Kaisiki ni 14. Prati Suddha ma 29. Prati Kakali ni 15. Suddha ma 30. Kakali ni Important Point : More than one swara is recognised in the same position in a few cases (vide the chapter on srutis). APPENDIX - 6 Suddha Vikruta Swaras Sangita Sampradaya Pradarsini of Subbarama Dikshitar (1904/1906)

Suddha (Prakruti) swaras Vikruta Swaras 1. Shadja 8. Panchasruti rishabha 2. Suddha rishabha 9. Shatsruti rishabha 3. Suddha gandhara 10. Sadharana gandhara 4. Suddha madhyama 11. Antara gandhara 5. Panchama 12. Prati madhyama 6. Suddha dhaivata 13. Panchasruti dhaivata 7. Suddha nishadha 14. Shatsruti dhaivata 15. Kaisiki nishadha 16. Kakali nishadha 161

Fretting of the vina based on scientific principles Vidya Shankar

The Vina is an audio-visual instrument.

The nuances of the aesthetic and scientific aspects of our classical music are best understood by experiencing these through the proper technic of vina play. Hence, the importance of accurate placement of the frets on the vina, based on scientific principles without compromising the aesthetic aspects.

The vina is presented with 24 frets consisting of two consecutive stayees madhya and tara.

K------' ------•— 4

Each stayi represents 12 swarasthanas - the two varieties komal and tivra of the five vikriti swaras, rishabha, gandhara, madhyama, daivata and nishada together with two achala or prakrithi swaras shadja and pancama form the twelve swarasthanas. r, r2 g, g2 m, m2 P d, d2 n, n2 s The lower and higher srutis of the two varieties of the five vikriti swaras along with the two prakriti swaras form the frame work of the 22 srutis derived by the cycle of fifths and fourths:

s r. r2 g. g2 m. m2 p d. d2 n. n2 1 256/293 18/9 32/27 5/4 4/3 45/32 3/2 128/81 5/3 16/9 15/8 16/15 9/8 6/5 81/64 27/20 61/45 8/5 27/16 9/5 243/128 162 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

Being aware of the innumerable sukshma srutis, we believe in the maxin “srutiranantam” but the question is : What are the sruti values for the frets of the vina, and hence the positions and placements of the frets? Since we have mentioned about sruti values, let Us quickly go through the fundamental facts of a vibrating string, its length, aliquot parts (a fraction whose nominate is 1), the notes emitted therein and their relative frequencies. IL aliquot upper position swara portion relative parts partials damped heard vibrated frequency 1/2 s 1/2 tara 1/2 l-s- 1/2 = 2 shadja 1/3 P 1/3 pancama 2/3 1 -s- 2/3=3/2 1/4 s 1/4 suddha madhyama 3/4 1-3/4 =4/3 1/5 g 1/5 antara gandhara 4/5 1-4/5 = 5/4 1/16 1/16 suddha rishaba 15/16 1-15/16=16/15 Traditionally in the method of fretting the vina, tuners or technicians initially strung the vina with the seven strings - the main four strings along the main bridge tuned as s , p, s p, adhara shadja mandra pancama, mandara shadha, anumandara pancama, and the side paccasarini strings as s, p , s — the funda­ mental, fifth and the octaves. Listening to the upper partials emitted at tarashadja, pancama, suddha madhyama and antara gandhara, frets were fixed at the positions emitting the swaras Fretting of the vina based on scientific principles 163 s, p, m, and g2. Later, for the rest of the swaras, the trial and error method was adopted by them based on ear-test, twanging intermit­ tently individually or simultaneously the paccasarini or the tala strings.

The above ear-test procedure has the inherent drawback of being limited by the accuracy of the tonal perceptions of the tuner or technicians.

The suggested method of fretting the vina, aims to minimise this drawback by following the scientific principles of checking the srutis by listening to the harmonics or upper partials and additionally using rider for sympathetic vibrations.

As a general principle, the placement of the frets for the swaras, the one with the lower frequency i.e, ekasruti rather than tvisruti and tissruti rather than the chatursruti, is accepted - as the higher sruti is easily obtained by a slight stress or a precise deflection of the string.

Since the suddha-rishabha and suddha-daivata are immediately adjacent to the acala-swaras shadja and pancama respectively, it is desirable to play the lower srutis of these swaras on their previous frets which bear steady notes or play them on the open strings, stressing or deflecting the string behind the meru. Hence the placement of the frets for suddha-rishabha and suddha-daivata take the positions of the frequencies of the higher sruti.

To quote our guru Sangita Kalanidhi Sabesa Iyer who was called Saveri Sabesa Iyer, his words were 'Sa ve ri’ - meaning 'sa’ itself is 'ri’ - as the position of 'ri’ is so adjacent to 'sa’ - “sarasuda”. This phrase starts with the typical Saveri-rishabha and proceeds with the other forms it can assume - rigarii - with a jaru and rigaririsa -with a janta swara prayoga. 164 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

In Gowla raga, the rishaba appears with more prominent gamaka “Tudukugala”.

In raga , the steady prolongable straight note is visibly seen - “saa rii gaa maa”.

In Padi raga, a still higher position is handled - “Sri Guruna”.

Similarly the suddha-daivata can be explored in :

1. daa nii pai (charana-vama) 2. jaa kela (kriti-Tyagaraja) 2. kamalambike (Muttusvami Dikshitar)

These points convince us that the frets for suddha-rishabha and suddha daivata can be fixed at the higher sruti. We shall see these later while the actual fretting is explained.

For the rest of the swaras r2 g, m2 d2 n, and n2

the lower srutis can be displayed ; g2 and m, are omitted here as they have taken the positions of the aliquate parts of l/5th and l/4th. Taking into con­ sideration these facts, the placements of the frets on the vina are done with precision.

As a first step the side bridge and the paccasarini or tala- strings with their bridais are removed. This pro­ motes an advantage of Fretting of the vina based on scientific principles 165 a freer vibration of strings on the main bridge. Secondly, fretting does not depend on the sa-ma or sa-pa basis with the help of the paccasarini; also there is a release on the slight tension of the side bridge leaning on the main bridge.

DL in the vina selected for fretting, the distance between the meru and the point of vibration, i.e, the middle of the main bridge is 84 cms. to suit the divisibility of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 16, —i.e, places 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5 and 1/16 where the harmonics are observed. This length in most of the vinas in vogue varies from 78 to 86 cms.

To start with i.e, in stage I of the practical side of fretting, on the two parallel ledges of the vina, well cleaned, heated was not fully hardened is spread over, in the traditional manner with a smooth slight slope. Then at alequote parts, on these, are fixed the five frets:

alequote parts distance (positions)

1/2 48 cms from the meru 1/3 28 cms from the meru 1/4 21 cms from the meru 1/5 16.4 cms from the meru 1/16 5.25 cms from the meru

IV. In the next stage II, the strings are strung :

The first string is tuned to a convenient tonic or adhara-shadja. The first lower one to the lower panchama. The next lower mandra-suddha-madhyama and The farthermost to mandra-gandhara. 166 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

Strings gauge pitch-swara ga-string 22 mandrastayi antara gandhara ma-string 24 mandrastati suddha madhyama pa-string 26 mandrastayi pancama sa-string 29 madhyastayi shadja The accuracy of the pitch of these open strings can be checked (in unison) with the help of the swaras emitted on the five fret. Swaras observed on the 4 strings on the fixed frets: Positions 1/16 1/5 1/4 1/3 1/2

ga-string (r.f.5/4) d, d2 n 2 g2 ma-string (r.f.4/3) m2 s r d2 n. s pa-string (r.f.3/2) s d, n 2 r 2 p sa-string (r.f.l) F. g2 m, P s

The relative frequencies of these swaras can be calculated. For example, at position 1/16 on ga string, the relative frequency of the swara emitted m, will be 16/15 x 5/4 = 4/3.

Similarly the rest of the swaras can be dealt with : ga-string m, d, d2 n2 (5/4) 5/4 x 16/15=4/3 5/4 x 5/4 =25/16 5/4 x 4/3 =5/3 5/4 x 3/2=15/8 ma-string m2 d2 n, s (4/3) 4/3 x 16/15=64/45 4/3 x 5/4 =5/3 4/3 x 4/3=16/9 4/3 x 3/2 =2 pa-string d, r2 S r2 (3/2) 3/2 x 16/15 =8/5 3/2 x 5/4= 15/8 3/2 x 4/3 = 2 3/2x3/2x1/2=9/8 sa-string r, 92 m, P 16/15______5/4 —1Z3______212______Fretting of the vina based on scientific principles 167

From the above tabulation of the calculation of these frequen­ cies, it can be observed that the frequency value of d, (5/3) is got on ga-string as well as ma-string; also n2 (5/8) is got on ga-string and pa-string; but the frequency of d( differ in ga-string and pa-string- - ga-string-25/16; pa-string - 8/5.

The above calculations wilT help us to answer the question posed to us initially as to the choice of the sruti values of the swaras positioned on the frets.

Sofar, the frets fixed at the aliquot parts give the swaras at their positions : r, g2 m, p and s on the shadja string.

The placement of the rest of the frets r2 g, m, d, d2 ^ and n2 on the shadja string follow the pattern of arriving the unknown from the known. This leads us to the final stage in the process of fretting.

The procedure adopted in this stage is the transplantation of the swara heard on either ga string or ma string to the shadja or pancama strings.

The relative frequency of these swaras can be calculated then and there by conversion of sruti from sa to pa string or vice versa.

Taking the order of the swaras on the frets on the shadja string, the first one is r

r, is already fixed at the aliquot parts 1/16 - r.f. 16/15.

d, which occupies the same above position on pa string (3/2 x 1/2) gives the frequency value 16/15 x 3/4 = 8/5. This can be transplanted on shadja string, at its positions next to pancama fret. (The value 25/16 in the calculation table is rejected as it is a lower sruti - 168 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

(8/5 :25/16 : (128 - 125 / 80 as per our earlier decision.)

d2 got on ga string and ma string has the value 5/3. So, this is transplated on sa string at its position d2 Placing the 2nd fret on sa-string this frequency we get r2 on the sa string with the value 5/3 x 2/3 = 10/9.

r2 Placed as above 10/9. The value got on the calculation table is 9/8. This is rejected as it is higher by a coma 81/80 to 10/9. Yet it appears on the pa-string below the pancama on shadja string.

n, On ma string is 16/9. So this is transplanted on sa string at its position. Placing this as the third fret on pa - string

g, We get g, as 16/9 x 2/3 = 32/27 on sa string.

n2 is got on ga position on pa string as 15/8. This is transplated on sa string, the fret just before the tara shaja. The swara behind this n2 on pa string is m2 with the value 15/8 x 3/4 = 45/32.

m2 is got on ma string as 64/45, a higher value than 45/32 (2025 - 2008 / 1440.) So, sa string m2 is placed as 45/32, on the fret just before the pancama.

Thus we have all the 12 frets fixed in the madyastayi. With octave relationship, these 12 srutis can be transferred on the tara stayi. Fretting of the vina based on scientific principles 169

The frequency values of the 12 swarasthanas - the frets on the vina:

m, P s r, L g. g2 m 2 d, d2 n> n 2

16/15 10/9 32/27 5/4 4/3 45/32 3/2 8/5 5/3 16/9 15/8 2

Though only these above frequencies are displayed on the vina, we are able to bring in other component parts of these. Let me conclude my lecture demonstration with demonstrating a few possible varieties of tissruti and chatusruti rishabhas as I have done earlier for ekasruti and dvisruti rishabhas : 1. Bhairavi - parts of the ata tala vamam - Viriboni.

2. Kharakarapriya - exact pancama to pancama-egs. Chakkaniraja etc., 3. Slight oscillations - Kalyani - Biranavara : Tallininnu

4. Greater oscillations - Devagandhari - Okavanachara (Namoralagimpa).

5. Measured Oscillations - Adagagani - Alakalella - Madhyamavati. O 170

The Contents of the kritis of Patnam Subrahmanya Iyer Dr. S. Mallika

Patnam Subrahmanya Iyer was a prolific composer. Many of his kritis have become quite popular even with lay listeners. But in considering the thought content of kritis in camatic music, we must remember one or two basic facts. To the great composers, music was mainly a way of seeking God, a form of upasana. They were not primarily interested in making their kritis vehicles or formulations of their philosophical ideas. Their main content is appeal, with plentiful allusions to episodes in the mythic lore of the country. That is perhaps one reason why the kritis are popular even with people who do not understand the language of the kritis and do not fully understand the meaning of the words.

The pervasive theme of Iyer’s kritis is the glory of God. Philosophical thoughts are interwoven with the praise of God. Though he has an ishta deiva he has composed songs on many gods of the Thindu pantheon. There are kritis which plead for peace of mind and spiritual progress, for his protection, and there are kritis extrolling god’s grandeur. Some sixty kritis of his are extant today. Often he speaks of his compassion for the weaknesses of the human society, and the kritis are full of references to mythical stories. These kritis contain philosophic truths and didactic elements. His devotional songs fall into the well defined categories of devotion like Sravanam, Kirtanam, Smaranam and Vatsalyam. The basic truth the kritis contain in “Anyata saranam nasti tvameva saranam mama" and they vividly bring home to us the greatness of god and the littleness of man. The contents of the kritis of Patnam Subrahmanya Iyer 171

A person who seeks salvation must conquer the six innate enemies kama (lust) krodha (anger) lobha (attachment to worldly things), moha (attachment to illusory ideas or things), mada (pride) and matsarya (jealousy).This is impossible without God’s grace, The seeker is often overwhelmed by his sorrow that His grace is delayed. Iyer expresses this grief eloquently in Rama ika nannu (Sahana).

Who is a bhakta? Iyer speaks of his outstanding characteristics in many kritis. He listens to lores of His deeds ( “Santatampu sat kathalanu vini”) sings. His praise to occupy himself (Inkadaya in Cakravaham) dedicates his faith to Him (.Ennadu in Balahamsa)\ and sings His praise wholeheartdely ('Manasara ninnu saranamagu sankirtana lonarinca’ in Marivere in ).

In some kritis Iyer enumerates the rule for the bhakta and these echo the tenets of the Bhagavat Gita. Let the bhakta avoid being false to himself in ( “Phalukuce ” in Phalamanjari); avoid too much attachment to kith and kin ( “Ninnu ceppa ” in Mandari); let him make no discrimination between Siva and Madhava. ( “Entuku capalamu” in Saveri) and let him not forget to meditate on the holy feet of Sri Ramachandra even for a second (Maravakave in Sama) and let him avoid pride over attainments in this life (Manasavrudha in Abhogi) The philosophical ideas scattered over the kritis are derived mainly from the advaita teachings of Sri Sankara.

Yet Iyer is an ardent Vaishnavaite in his devotional aspect. The idea that Vishnu, in his many incarnations and As Rama especially, is not a conception but the reality of God, that all the other deities are His manifestations, is expressed in many kritis. For instance there is the kriti (Sakalesvara in Simhavahini). But though Rama is his ishta devata he sings of siva also as the supreme and of Vishnu as Siva’s close friend Pancapakesvarena in ) There are 172 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

two things to be noted here. A bhakta need not be exclusive in his devotion, he can respond to different deities in different moods and circumstances; does not portray gods as one another’s rivals. They contain complementary qualities. And Vedanta philosophy maintains that the supreme manifests itself to a votary in whatever form he conceives it. Iyer therefore sings of Siva, Rama and Sakti without theological inhibitions. After all, a Bhakta is not a theologian. In the reality of his Bhakti Iyer reconciles the theological divergences of sectarian theology by emphasising that there is no truth in the emphasis on differences between deities. Forms do not matter and the mind must realise the oneness of Godhead. Siva and Vishnu are one and the same in reality. “Indudharudani Damodarudani peridukoni - Yunna vadokkadani encaka ” he says. The truth has been emphasised by Sri Sankara and Sri Tyagaraja and a score of others. Eleven of his kritis are on siva one on Dharmasamvardhini and one on Sri Subramanya.

He showers praise on his ishta devata as part of his own worship. He describes Rama as the one who destroys the sins of devotees ( “Sakala Papahara”) He is the god of gods, the support of all the World the lord of all beings, and the one who resides in the hearts of the pious. Devadi deva, Sakala lohadhara, Jivesvara, Sarveshvara and Sadhuhrutvihara. He is the one without blemishes, worshipped by Brahma and Siva, worshipped by the king of the devas- nishkalanga, Ajapurandaravinuta, amarendra vandita pada, Rama is purushottamma, (Paramapurusha ("Paridanamiccite” in Bilahari), Ajapurandardivinuta saluted by the Trimurtis and others. He is the best among men ( “Naravarudu ” - “Maravakave” in Sama), “Vennudu” ( “Abhimana” in Begada) the protector of people ( “Srutajanapala ” in Samininne in Atana). The contents of the kritis of Patnam Subrahmanya Iyer 173

In a few songs Iyer describes Siva, with “Ram” which is the Bijakshara o f Ramanama. “Ra ”■ is the important letter in Madhava mantra he says, and “Ma” is its counterpart in Siva mantra. When he speaks of Siva with Rama Bijakshara, he sees to it that the saguna form of his favourite deity is also brought in. (Bhajare manasa- Sugunabhushani).

Para Saktivaram; isvaram-niramayam, nirvisharam, Caracaratamakam, paratparam, Haram, Citambaradipam, Sankaram, Niranjanam, nirakaram, niralambam, niradharam, nirandhara nandhakaram;

Iyer reveals infinite compassion for the masses misled into worldly worship. He is sure that divine grace is easiest achieved through music and that music is the surest way into the hearts of the masses. In many compositions he embodies the basic teachings of the Vedas the Upanishads and the Sastras. For instance, the idea found in the scriptures, “Sravanam manaam idi dyanam ” is an idea expressed in “Manasuna neranammiti in Begada. Since music thrills the inner core of our being, Iyer seeks the spiritual Company of those who follow the musical path to moksha (“Varamiyavayya” in Suddhadanyasi).

Varanaradadi surayaksakinnarulu nercina Varasangitasvara saukhyamu leruga

Iyer’s kritis substantiate the Lord’s statement “I dwell not in Vaikunta or in the hearts of yogis nor in the sun; I dwell where my bhakta sings; there am I, O Narada!.

In many kritis he states that bhakti is the essence of sangita; the sadhana of nija sangita and bhakti gives peace. He asks “Janmamendkuu bhaktileni? ” (Why birth without bhakti?) Without 174 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

a bhakti man is a burden to earth; the purpose of narajanma is His worship. Since music leads to self-realisation he prays for the knowledge of sangita. “Varasangita Svara soukyamulueruga”. He often speaks of the idea of Sabda-brahman. He describes Dharmasamvardani as “OmJcara sadhani, nadavinodhani”. Siva is called “pranavanadasvarupa”.

Iyer does not lay claim to creating any new system of thought. He emphasises well known philosophical truths: for instance, the emnacipation of the soul from the series of births and deaths. “Matimatiki radu bhumpai” in “Etunamminavo”. Many kritis talk of the emnacipation of the mind from the clutches of worldliness: “Ninnu ceppa” (Mandari); “Veruvanela" (Suddha Bangala’); “Ittivaruleti” (Ramapriya); “Varamiyavayya”; (Suddha Danyasi); “Etunamminavo” (Saveri) and “A samayamu” (Saranga). One has to transcend the path of sin before obtaining the mercy of the Lord. “A Samayamuna ” enumerates the problems the soul would face after death.

Iyer presents the Upanishadic idea of the body being comparable to a chariot, the five sense to the five horses that draw it, the mind to the sarathy, and the soul to the traveller in "Etunamminavo ” (Saveri) In this kriti he laughs at the idea of the body being imperishable - he calls it the mudpot “cedi-shinice dehamu”, “mattikunda kante hina mainaidai” But he proposes a commendable method for eternal liberation.

The state of freedom from body consciousness is essential for contemplation. Iyer feels that there are only two ways of achieving this. One is Yagna which has to be suspended when viyoga follows death. Samyogam or the discipline of controlling one’s thoughts and fixing the mind on the universal being centred in the heart is the The contents of the kritis of Patnam Subrahmanya Iyer 175 second way. This is mentioned in “Maravakave O Manasa” The mind should contemplate the taraka mantra of Rama. What can scholarship in sacred texts and lore and formal disciplines achieve without the grace of God? In “Entanercina" (Saveri) and "Manasavruta ” (Abhogi) he sings of this. In the latter song, he says that we should not be vain about our achievements - for without His grace, what could we achieve?

Manasavruda garvametike Manasarashiyani krupaleka Manasamartyamemi unnadi?

The immanence of god in everything small or great, is mentioned in many songs, like “Ninnu juci dhanyudaitai ” (Saurashtram”, “Evarunnaru ” (Simhavahirti) etc., A distinct group of compositions deals with the vanity of worldly pleasures and advises unflincing devotion to God. They talk of the need to take the whole world as a manifestation of the Lord. These kritis resemble Tyagaraja’s in theme and form. “Varamiyyavayya ” (Suddha Danyasi), “Ittivaruletiki” (Ramapriya), "Etunamminavo” (Saveri). “A samayamuna” (Saranga) may be put into this group. Iyer wants music to lift the fallen souls from their evil ways. He advises us to take the punyanama as the means for crossing the ocean of worldly life.

In some of his kritis Iyer alludes to cryptic truths from recondite pursuits like yoga and tantra. Nada is transacendental sound produced in the human body; this pranava originates in the muladhara yogic centre of the body. From the top of the head, Modha Brahmarandra drips sacrificial ghee which keeps alive this transcendental nada omkara. The peak of the human psyche is the Sahasradhara corresponding to the peak of the crown. This is the abode of the 176 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

universal reality. Iyer alludes to this elaborate structure in “Parabrahma ” ( Narayani) - “Sahasrakamalandasthita syamabindumate ”

Iyer speaks of the JJpanishadic concepts of Saguna Brahman and Nirguna Brahman. The universal Brahman is identified in the personl god, and that worship saves the bhakta from degeneration into schismatic vanities. The worship of the universal being in quantitative aspects like Rama, Krishna, Siva etc., saguna upasana. Nirguna Upasana is rises above the religious state of worship in the personal aspect by meditating on the universal truth lying behind the spiritual veil called Maya. Yoga and mantra sastra aid in the impersonal grasp of the divine.

Iyer’s “Bhajare manasa suguna bhushani” describes the impersonal absolute by a series off negations, in the manner of Upanishads.

Niramayam - nirvikaram - nirakaram Niralambam - niradharam - nirantaranandakaram

Quite a few kritis sing the praise of the personal absolute: ‘Nipadamule” (Bhairavi), ‘Naravara” (Manirangu), "Palayasri” (Sankarabharanam), “Nijadasavarada ” (Kalyani), ‘Garudaga mana ” (). And there are compositions that speak of both: Advaita philosophy considers that the two modes are essentially the same. After all the god with form is nothing other than the god without form. “Ninnujuci danyudaiti” (Sourashtram) is a song on this base.

Iyer’s kritis thus are a veritable treasure of music and message.

***** 177

Multilingual Kriti of K.C. Kesava Pillai Dr. S. Bhagyalekshfny

Among the composers of the modem period, who lived in Kerala, which was early known as Travancore, the name of K.C. Kesava Pillai is engraved in golden words. Addressed as “Sarasagayaka kavimani”, K.C. Kesava Pillai is a prominent composer, versatile scholar in Sanskrit and Malayalam. He has to his credit krithis in Sankrit, Malayalam and also in Manipravalam (mixing of Sanskrit and Malayalam) in addition to 3 attakadhas sangeetanatakas, folk musical forms Khanda kaavyas, Mahakavayas and some english translation of Sanskrit words.

K.C. as he is popularly known was bom in 1868 January 4th (M.E. 1043-Makaram 22) at Paravoor Village in Quilon District. His parents were Vazhavila tharavaadukottathu Bhavanam Lakshmi Amma and Valiyavelichatthu veetil Raman Pillai. After obtaining initial education upto 5th standard he continued the education by himself. He mastered byheart many literary poetical works Ramayanam kilippattu, Bhagavatam kilippattu alongwith malayalam literature. At the same time he studied music and attained proficiency in it. Being attracted and obssessed by Kadhakali he used to watch Kadhakali performances and learned the basis of Kadhakali like acting, literature, costumes and make up, instrumental music as well as singing. At the age of 15 he attempted to write an Attakadha namely Prahlaadacharitham. But his colleagues and senior scholars advised him to learn Sanskrit authentically so that he can correct and polish and rewrite his own writings. Hence he studied Sanskrit under Kesavan Asan who taught him Kaavyanaataka Alankaras. After obtaining proficiency mastery over Sanskrit and malayalam literature 178 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

he modified his early written Attakadha and renamed it as Hiranyaasuravadham. His co-brother Ennakkaattu Rajaraja Varma initiated him to the principles of the fundamental principles of Vyaakama or grammer. By the time he was 20 years of age K.C. was able to obtain scholarship in the grammer and literature of Sanskrit, English and Majayalam. These studies and mastering all these aspects enabled him to write two more Aattakadhas namely Soorapadmaasura vadham and Sreekrishnavijayam. In addition he wrote Sthavaratnaavali, Sthavaratnamalika, Sangeetharanjani consisting of devotional kritis and bhajan songs. In addition he wrote four folk songs. Gaanamalika, Abhinayamaalika, Sangeethamalika which can be considered as compendium of beautiful kritis and simple devotional songs. He enriched the literary section with his illustrious works like Aasannamaranachintasathakam, Keralabhaasha narayaneeyam (translation of Narayaneeyam), Sadaraama, Raghavamadhavam, Vikramorvaseeyam (all three dramas) and Kesaveeyam. Aasannamaranachintasathakam is a literary work com­ prising of 104 slokas in Sardoolavikreiditham metre. The Mahakavya Kesaveeyam earned for him the title off Mahakavi. Herein the story of Syamanathaka jewel is picturised in 824 slokas spread out in twelve sargaas. His Easwarasthurangal and Subhashitha ratnakaram were of religious and secular type. Among all these works his musical works stand as a separate class since it possessed both literary and musical excellances. In addition these works contained 70 kritis in different ragas and talas. He has to his credit certain prayers and songs in praise of God Almighty (Sarveswara) which can be sung by all irrespective of caste or community. They can be classified as Sarvamathapraarthanakal 'sambho mahadeva, Satyasvaroopa vibho in Sankarabharanam, Nanajagathukal in Kambhoji, Paalaya paalaya in Hindustani Kapi can be cited as example. Mulitlingual kriti of K.C. Kesava Piliai 179

Some of the popular compositions of K.C. Kesava Piliai are as follows:

N o. Song Raga Tala

1. Bhajikka ramane Mohana Adi 2. Koti Divaakara Adi 3. Sree Vasudeva Hin. Kapi Adi 4. Kamalanabha Todi Rupakam 5. Vasude vaatmaj am Yadukulakambhoji Rupakam 6. Karunasagara . Purvikalyani Adi 7. Madhavate Hin.Behag Rupakam 8. Vandemaatharam Sindhubhairavi Adi 9. Ashtamurthaye Todi Rupakam 10. Baalgopalam Asaveri Eka 11. Bhajabhaja Sankarabharanam M.chapu 12. Bhaavukamaruleeduka Kapi Adi 13. Chollaram pozhikarayil Mohana M.chapu 14. Hare Surapaala Adi 15. Jayajayamadhava Sri raga Adi 16. Jayarama Bhairavi Rupakam 17. Jaya sadaajitha Rupakam 18. Kamalanayana uti Rupakam 19. Karunasaagara Adi 20. -Kamalalochana Rupakam 21. Kevaaatman Adi 22. Karaneeyam jnaan Y adukulakambhoj i Adi 23. Mansikaruna Kambhoji Triputa 24. Mangaladevathe Kalyani M.chapu 25. Naatha murare Saveri Adi 180 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

N o. Song Raga Tala 26. Paalaya palaya Hind.Kapi Adi 27. Pankajadala Maradhanasi Muriatanta 28. Pankajaakshi Nadanamakriya Eka 29. Saamajagaamini Khamas Chapu 30. Sakalavibudha Suruti Adi 31. Sarasijadala Punnagavarali Triputa 32. Saridara sarasija Kambhoji Adi 33. Seetharaghava Khamas Adi 34. Sreepavanapuresa Suruti Adi

He was also a Nimishakavi as he was an adept in composing instant poetry. In addition he is also credited with writing many works such Sreemoolaraajavijayam, Pallikkettu vamanam (Thullal type), Mangalayadhaaranam Thullal paattu, Kalyaana darpanam etc.

K.C. Kesava Pillai had a short life span of 46 years only. He passed away in 2nd Sept. 1914 (20th Chingom 1089). During this short life span he had enriched both Malayalam and Sanskrit literature as well as musical field with his devotional songs and musical monologues. Attakadhas as well as literary works, His musical works in general can be categorized under many heads such as sacred or devotional, secular, socio-religious songs, folk songs, ordinary songs suitable for different occasions, festivals etc., In addition he had to his credit many patriotic songs in which he stressed the significance of Desabhakti or patriotism. His Kaikottikali patukal, Kalyana patukal and satirical poems can be categorized under social occasions. His musical pieces possessed the essential qualities of an ideal kriti both from the literary and musical aspects. Most off them are decorated with rhetorical and literary beauties like praaasa, yathi, alankaara etc., Multilingual kriti of K.C. Kesava Pillai 181

Among the compositions of K.C. Kesava Pillai, the kriti, Atimalarina thozhuthen’ in Adi tala set as a ragamalika deserves v special mention. This is a multilingual kriti wherein the author has used 4 different languages such as Malayalam, Tamil, English and Sanskrit. This manipravala kriti is in praise of Lord Krishna and set in Adi Tala. This piece is usually presented as a ragamalika avoiding the english portion. The dhatu as well as the mathu is very simple and charming. The ragas used in this piece are Peelu, Sindhubhairavi, lastly Nadanamakriya. The theme of the song is a prayer to lord Krishna requesting for protection of the devotee who seeks the blessings of the Lord and surrenders himself at the Holy Feet of the Lord.

Pallavi

Atimalarina thozhuthen Hare Krishna!

Oh, Hare Krishna! I am prostrating before Your Holy Feet.

Anupallavi

Atimlarenniye Atiyanolaasrayam Vetiyaruthe mukundaa kripaanidhe (Atimalarina)

Your Holy Feet are the only solace for me, so please don't leave me Oh, Mukunda the kind one.

Charanam - Tamil

Sundaraguruvara darisanam tharuvaai Thandarul paragathi neeyen swaami Varamarulvatharkkoru samayamennaventru Therinthavar yaarulakil Unmaayai (Atimalarina) 182 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

You, who will provide vision of the Beautiful Lord, bestow Moksha or Salvation, who knows the time when you will shower thy blessings, who is there in this world who knows your mischeves and playfulness.

Charanam - English

My heart of God, please always Lay tainsiful matters You see all and no one sees you You are everywhere my God.

Oh God. my heart is always pleased with you, you can see all where as no one can see you, but Oh God, you are present everywhere.

Charanam - Sanskrit

Adharithabimba haranathasambha Yudhamukhabudharaase Govinda Thavapadanuthipara kesavadaase Navasubhasathamanisahm hare kuru (Atimalarina)

Oh God!, the red colour and beauty o f lips will beat even the bimba fruit, Siva who always worship you, I am the devotee and worshipper of Kesava and please bestow hundreds of nice things in this world on me.

The angaas figuring in this kriti are Pallavi, Anupallavi and three charanas in different languages set to different ragas. Each anga has got four padas in one avartha each. The tempo or laya of the piece is in madhyamakala or medium tempo. The vaggeyakara mudra or composers signature 'kesava’ is seen in the last charana. The raga setting of the piece is also noval. Pallavi and Anupallavi are set in Mulitlingual kriti of K.C. Kesava Pillai 183

Peelu. The first charana is set in Sindhubhairavi and last charana in Nadanamakriya. All the ragas figuring in this kriti are o f the desya category. We do not come across chittasvara or svarasahitya as seen in other ragamalikaas.

The literary quality of the composition deserves attention. The word 'Atimalarina’ means Flowery Feet is being used at the commencement of both Pallavi and Anupallavi. 'Taa’ is figuring as Dvitheeyaakshara Praasa. In the first charana the first two lines have 'ntha’ as Dvitheeyaakshara. 'Raa’ as the second letter for the 3rd and 4th lines. In the last charana, the first two lines contain 'Noha’ as second letter and 'vaa’ as the second letter for the last two lines. The structure o f the piece gives the trace o f an Ashtapadi. However the basic theme o f the song is a humble request to Lord Krishna to protect him from all wordly calamities. It seems that K.C. Kesava Pillai might have derived the inspiration for composing this krithi from the famous multi lingual kriti o f in Sri raga 'Sri Abhayaamba’ in Adi using four different languages such as Sanskrit, Tamil, English and Telugu.

The musical setting o f the kriti is highly melodic. The transition from one raga to the next raga is praiseworthy. The selection and arrangement of all ragas of desya category suit well with the bhava and theme of the piece. In all the angas we do not come across much sangatis or much improvisation since the author gives more importance to sahitya as evident in the song. In the Pallavi and Anupallavi the key phrases o f Peelu raga can be met with. In the first charana a crisp and brief outline o f Sindhubhairavi raga is obtained stressing upon vishesha prayogas as well as raga bhava svara sancharas. In the 3rd charana the last one Nadanamakriya raga is picturised in a beautiful manner touching upon the nuances and 184 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

delicate gamaka prayogas. Herein the svarasancharas are limited to one octave i.e, in the madhya sthayi.

On a general analysis we can presume that the musical as well as the literary setting is very ideal. Herein both the Dhatu and the Mathu are intermingled and coined in such an excellent manner like the beads and gems studded in a Necklace. It seems so closely imbibed that it is difficult to seperate or disbandle them. The flow of svarasancharas and diction of words are simple. The laya or tempo of the song bring out the identity and individuality of the song. All these qualities elevate this piece to the level of the ideal kriti.

The musical setting of the kriti was the efforts of late Sri. Sherthalai R. Gopalan Nair, the veteran scholar and Carnatic musician. He has popularised many hidden compositions of K.C. alongwith other popular composers of Travancore region such as Irayimman Thampi, Kuttykunju Thankachi, Rampani vaadan, Maanaveda Raja, Kuttamatthu and others. The role of many prominent musicians of Kerala in popularising these compositions deserve special mention and praise.

Multi-lingual Ragamalika

Tala : Adi

Pallavi - Raga : Peelu

p p , n n , s , s , r , g r Q n r, s r n , Ati mala ri na thozhu thin , , , kri . sh .na.

P.PP , s s , r , g r r p „ mg g , r , r s s , , , ati mala ri na tho zhu . the .n

r g - g r g , r , re kri . sh . Mulitlinguaf kriti of K.C. Kesava Pillai 185 rs pp ., s s , r , gr rp„ mg g , r, i rss' , „ n s r, g r na . ati mala ri . . na. . . . thozhu I the. n ha . re . . g r g r r s kri . sh na .

Sn pp ,s s , g , g g , m , g m n p mgpm grmg rsgr .. ati mala ri na thozhu the ... n ha . . . re ... krish.

Sn pp, ss, rg rp, gm rss, i s , n p , m na ati mala ri na .thozhu! then .... I ha . re . mg g , , r r s s n pp, ns , gm nn pm, ggr krish ...... na ati mala r in a ...... thozhu rss , ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,,, then ......

Anupallavi

„ P P , p p , p , , , p , d p d p mg , m n p m g g, , r Ati mala re nmye .... ati yani laasra . r,r, ,,pp, pp, , , p , n n d p mg , m n p m g yam . ati mala re . nniye . . . .ati ya ni . g, ,r rsrm rmpp,mgrs rmp dsn n d p , , , la . srayam . . .ata mala re. . . nmi ye . . . p d p, m g m g, mnp mgg,,rr,r , ... a ti . . . ya ni . la . / . . s ra yam .

,,ns,rg, rg,,g_rgpm m g g , , grg, veti . . . ya ru the mukun da .... kri . rs, r,g r sn „ns, gg, mgm, gm n n p m paa. n . . dhi. veti yaru the... mu . kun .... 186 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

m g g ,„ „ g r g , r s , r , g r s n de . . . . kri pa . ni . dhe . Atimalarina

Charanam - Sindubhairavi

„ s r, s r, s n s, n d n, s , s r m m g g s, g r , Sun da ra.gu ruvara da ri . sa . nam tha ru .

s >» > g, g g s „ sg , m m „ „ gm.nd dpm vai than . tharul paraga thi . nee . yen..

r , s, „ p d , p m p , m g m, I , , g m , d n , swa mi . vara marul vathar kkoru I sama yame

s > > > s , s, , n , r , s s n , , s n n d P m g g P , m , „ nna venntru I therin thavan yaa .... rula . kil „ sg m p, m r , s , un maa. . yai . Atimalarina

Charanam - Nadanamakriya „ s r , g r , m,„ m „ mm, mm, mgpm g r g r adhaartha bun ba dhara natha sam.. . tha . . snsr.gr, m,„ m,„ „ mm, mm, m gpm g,„ adharatha bim ba dhara natha sam . . bha „ g m „ p p p, p, p d pd p„, „ gm ddpm gmgr yudha mukhabudha raa . . se go...... van.. sn m p„ m g m , p, p, d, p„ „ p„ p p , d p, , d n d p da thava pa danu thi pa ra . . ke sa va da . se . . . m , mp„ m g m , p , p , d, p, „ p „ p,p, m, p, dndp mgmm, . thava padanu thi . pa re . ke sa va da . s e ...... , , m m , m m , mg pm g,„„pmgrr,,rgrss, nava subha sathamani sam . . ha re . . ku ru . . Atimalarina O 187

Music Theory Spectrum Lewis Rowell

The Tamils trace their lineage to the ancient Dravida people of South India, whose territory at one time covered the southern third of the Indian subcontinent and large portions of northern Srilanka. Tamil is now spoken by more than fifty million people, located mostly in the state of (whose capital Madras, is now known by its tradition Tamil name, Cheftnai), with smaller concentrations in the neighbouring states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala as well as Sri Lanka and various countries of Southeast Asia. Tamil culture flourished during the first millennium of the Common Era and is known largely through its epic literature, which has been rightly compared to Sanskrit epics Mahabharata and Ramayana and to the Illiad and Odyssey of Homer.

The ancient musical tradition of the Tamils was highly developed and supported by an extensive, detailed and explicit body of musical thought of which one of the most striking features is a set of scales and modes that resemble those of various ancient Meditterranean civilizations, but were derived and explained in fundamentally different ways. At the same time, the Tamil musical system has much in common with the musical system recorded in early Sanskrit treatises! What happened to the indigenous musical culture of the early Tamils is not clear -whether it (1) became contaminated and eventually replaced by the music and musical ideas brought out by the successive waves of Indo-Aryan settlers from the north or (2) was driven underground and preserved as a secret tradition, or (3) evolved gradually into the tradition of Carnatic music practiced in South India today. The latter differs radically from the Hindustani music heard 188 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII in the northern two thirds of the subcontinent, because of its relative freedom from Persian influence. But any links between Camatic traditions and the Tamil system described and analyzed in the following pages are, if not broken, at least greatly attenuated.

That no living a repertoire has survived is no reason to regard the great ancient theoretical systems as mere historical curiosities. Their teachings are both a fossil record of the music from which they nose and a tribute to human ingenuity in formaliz.ng the sensuous world of musical sound and translating it into concepts that can be taught, learned and remembered. And they are interrelated : in the case of Tamil music, there are probable connections to the ragas of modem South India, as well as possible historical links with the musics of neighbouring West Asia and the eastward spread of Indie culture throughout the Southeast Asian mainland and archipelago. Each new piece of evidence helps us refine our thinking about human musical preferences and the ingenious ways in which we have constructed complicated pitch systems - just as recent evidence for possible life forms on another planet compels us to call into question some of our most basic assumptions about the nature of life and the history of the universe.

As a music theorist, I am willing to make only two assumptions about music - that there is organization in what I hear, and that it is my business to find it. In the following pages I examine some provocative early evidence for what music theorists do when they attempt to make sense out of raw musical data, when all our instincts urge us to seek out pattern, grammer, and logic in the music we hear. I cannot think of a problem more central to the discipline of music theory than the concept of mode. The rise of early modal systems remains one of the great half-told stories in the history of Music Theory Spectrum 189 music and our confidence in the inevitability of the. systems and grammars of pitch organization in Western music is shaken or ought to be shaken - whenever we come in contact with the radically different scales and modes of the old high musical cultures of Asia. In this article I propose to revisit some of the basic questions, hypotheses and arguments about scale-binding in world musics, drawing upon the great Tamil epic, the Cilappatikaram.1 In any representative sampling of ancient i lusical systems the presence of certain common features and tendencies cannot be ignored among them (1) the strategic placement of stable intervals such as the perfect fourth and fifth; (2) the frequency with which similar pentatonic and heptatonic collections turn up again and again; (3) the tendency to rotate these collections, providing variety and flexibility; and (4) the tendency to assign modal functions (e.g. initial, final, axial, predominant, profuse, scarce) to stable and unstable scale degrees. But here is a problem. These so-called universals stop far short of explaining all the distinctive, colorful local features we hear in modal systems from around the world. Common sense tells us that musical organisation must draw upon some natural laws; but experience makes us wonder how vague and general these laws must be to become manifest in such different repertories and cultural contexts. For me, one of the most important understandings about music arises from our recognition and savor of the special blend of cultural diversity and basic human instincts we hear in various world musics. We shall encounter such a mixture in the music of the early Tamils. I conclude this introduction with some observations on comparing musical systems. Translating musical behaviour into musical concepts is, among other things, what music theorists do. From an anthropological perspective, it can be argued that this is at times a 190 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

completely unnecessary and useless exercise. Music making does not require musical concepts any more than verbal communication requires grammar, cases, tenses, conjugations, parts of speech, and syntax. But when music reaches a certain level of sophistication, we feel an almost irrestible urge to bring it into some kind of systematic order. Musical systems become formalized in several phrases. Phase one is concentrated with differentiating between notes, naming them counting them, in some order. This is a fascinating phase that often consists of several stages, but the present study focuses on phase two - how the basic sets are organized into a system. Most obviously, some cultures never progress beyond phase one, and others do not make it that far.

I distinguish between four terms in the following pages : diatonic, heptatonic, pentatonic and anhemitonic. The diatonic collec­ tion (set class 7-35) is heptatonic by definition and consists of two small and five larger steps, with maximal separation between the smaller steps. The term heptatonic signifies any seven-more scale, although most of the references in this article will be to the diatonic versions; it appears hear when I emphasize the number of notes, not their pattern. The term pentatonic signifies any five note scale, but all references in this article to the familiar anhemitonic pentatonic (set class 5-35): three small (M2) and two largers (m3) steps, with maximal separation between the larger steps.

Example 1 is a comparative display of the findings of two recent studies in which diatonic set theory is applied to the pitch systems of various ancient musics3. I have added comments in which I take the liberty of paraphrasing the studies conclusions in order to demonstrate underlying similarities. We shall soon see how ancient Music Theory Spectrum 191

Tamil musicians addressed these issues. My agenda includes the following topics : 1. the basic assumptions of the system. 2. modal functions and their relative strength. 3. which modes, scale patterns and degree sequences are preferred 4. generation and rotation procedures. 5. the special role of perfect intervals and 6. the relationship - if any-between nested collections, such as the intriguing nesting of 5 within 7 within 12 within 22, which we will examine shortly The next task is to sketch out what is known about the Tamil modal systems. To facilitate comparisons, I have substituted equivalent western terms wherever possible, and I have attempted to restore what has been lost in local color in the accompanying commentary and notes. What follows should be taken as an example o f a musical system that could have arisen in any part o f the world, or as Gauldin has playfully suggested, on another planet4. Example 1. Findings of two applications of diatonic set theory to ancient pitch systems. Gauldin 1983 (43-44) four conditions for a “viable hierarchial tonal system” : 1_ variety of distinct subset interval classes as compared to the cardinality of the set. 2. distribution of ic occurrences, thereby leading to norm/ deviant relationships. 3. a high frequency of stable acoustical intervals (especially P4/P5) which are useful for such things as tuning, tonality, and modulation. 192 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

4. a modal system that permits both (a) a choice of different key notes and (b) a realignment of functional relations around the reference tones. Comment : In other words, a good system features a variety of distinct intervals with uneven distribution (frequent/ambiguous to unique/certain), acoustical stability, and rotation without pattern du­ plication. Undesirable properties include equal partitioning, symmetry, few nd uniform intervals and the absence of molality. 1. exactly one tritone. 2. dual tetrachords. 3. distinct step sizes which are consecutive integers. 4. distinct sizes of fifths which are consecutive integers. 5. a maximal number of consonant fifths. 6. first or second order maximal evenness (as defined by Clough and Douthett 1991). Comments : In other words, a good system ought to be defined by one distinctive interval, balanced (around one axis or point of focus) ungapped, acoustically stable and as maximally even as possible (that is, each generic interval occurs in just one size or in two consecutive sizes). Desirable properties include definition, balance, distribution, stability and evenness, with the aim of insuring a complete set of discrete rotations.

There are to be sure, reasons why this sytem arose in India and I shall, not neglect them.

Scale and Mode in the Cilapattikaram and its commentaries

Most of what is known about the musical system of the Tamils comes from their most cherished literary treasure, the Cilapattikaram Music Theory Spectrum 193

(The Story of an Anklet) and its two principal commentaries5. Its title refers to a love token given by Kovalan (the hero) to his wife Kannaki, which subsequently - like Desdemona’s hand kerchief and Sakuntala’s ring -becomes the central symbol of a tragic tale of love gone wrong. Because of its many lyrical episode, the Cilapattikaram portrays a somewhat gentler world than that depicted in the Illiad and the Odyssey, apart from one grisly scene in which the abandoned Kannaki lays a curse on the city of Madurai by tearing off her left breast and casting to to the ground, after which the breast bursts into flame and engulfs the entire town, sparing the righteous while punishing the evil-doers6.

Authorship of the epic has been ascribed to the otherwise unknown poet Ilanko Atikal who lived during the second century C.E., but there is absolutely no evidence to confirm such an early date. The translator R. Parthasarathy, suggests the fifth century as a more likely date of origin7. The Cilapatikkaram consists of 5,730 lines in the standard meter of Tamil epic poetry (aciriyam), with occasional excursions into other meters and a few prose passages8. It is divided into twenty-five cantos and five song cycles, distributed into three books that represent “the three distinct phases through which the narrative moves-the erotic, the mythic, and the heroic9. The work was written at a time when the Aryans from the north were making their way farther and farther into the southern areas of the Indian subcontient, and its material almost certainly reflects the cultural friction between indigeneous Dravidian musical concepts and the Sanskrit system brought by the new settlers.

The Cilapattikaram is far from a technical treatise, but some of the passages on music contain extremely detailed information. The following account of the Tamil modal system is woven around five 194 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

text passages (reproduced here as Text 1-5) and amplified by information from the two commentaries (as discussed below). While the focus of the present article is upon interpretation and not textual matters per se, it will be useful to point out what we mean, in this case, by the “text.” The Cilappatikaram like other major epics of the ancient world, existed as flexible oral text long before it was edited and set down in the form in which we have received it. We do not know the age of the musical system whose details it records. The most that can be said is that the Tamil system apparently arose as an independent tradition, but susbsequently came under the influence of the central Sanskritic musical tradition, with which it shared or came to share many common features. Parthasarathy remarks that “By the time of the poem, northern Sanskritic ideas had become a part of the Tamil worldview” and the same can be said of the musical concepts set forth herein.10

The prevailing interpretations of the musical details depend heavily upon the commentarial tradition, particularly (1) an anonymous ninth-century glossary entitled Arumpatavurai (The Meaning of Difficult words) and (2) the twelfth century commentary by Atiyarkkunallar11. Both sources includes quotations from earlier commentaries, so their material is a composite of several historical layers - a common occurrence in early Indian literature. It is generally assumed that the musical system described in the Cilappatikaram and its commentaries evolved directly into the Carnatic musical tradition of modem South India but that process is no clearer than is the similar process by which the ancient system recorded in early Sanskrit music treatises evolved into today’s ragas and raga systems. For those who are understandably hesitant to place their trust in reconstructions of past musical practice that are based solely on written evidence, it is important to point out that the basic details Music Theory Spectrum 195 of the Tamil system have also been handled down in the form of a continuous oral tradition, and that no other credible interpretations have survived. And, because of its internal consistency, if any of it is wrong, it is all wrong!

The musical references in the main text and the two com­ mentaries are far between, but they are remarkably explicit. The commentators appear to have had two common objectives; to amplify the musical references in Cilappatikaram with technical detail, and to point out the ways in which the Tamil system resembled (or had come to resemble) the main Sanskrit musical tradition. The latter is, of course both a musical and a political issue. But the manner in which the commentators reconciled their two, often contradictory, goals gives us some reason to trust their objectivity; if they had been ardent Tamil nationalists, they would not have been likely to link their music with the central Indo Aryan tradition; and if they were writing as early ethnomusicologists reporting on an exotic, provincial music, they would scarcely have written in Tamil and demonstrated so much understanding of the local futures of Tamil music and culture.

Our “text”, then, consists of a written core and a body off supporting evidence, both oral and written. There is no doubt that some scholars have failed to keep separate the core and its surrounding layers, as for example, when Parthasarathy chose to replace the original Tamil names for the seven scale degrees with the Sanskrit sol-fa syllables (see Text 3 and Example 3)12 S. Ramanathan’s study, ‘Music in Cilappatikaaram” which was first presented as a Ph.D. dissertation at Wesleyan University in 1974, is a welcome exception and the primary source for the following analyses and interpetations13. Ramanathan had been working on this material since the 1940s and I have heard nothing from Indian 196 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

colleagues who are currently studying Tamil music that calls into serious question his textual scholarship or musical interpretations. While I take exception to Ramanathan’s claim that the intervals of the scale fell into just ratios (such as 9:8 and 10:9) for reasons I shall detail, I believe that he is otherwise on firm ground and represents faithfully the tradition of -so far as it can be known.

Modem scholarly interest in the Tamil literary classics devel­ oped in the second half of the nineteenth century, resting especially on the pioneering efforts of Uttamatanapuram Venkatacuppiramaniya Caminataiyar (1855-1942) who, according to Parthasarathy, “redrew, very much on his own, the literary map of India the late ninetenth century”14 It was he who prepared the first critical edition of Cilappatikaram and its commentaries (1892), based upon eight manuscript copies of the main text and fourteen of Atiyarkkunallar’s commentary15 More recently the epic has appeared in atleast three other Tamil editions and has been translated into Czech, English, French, Hindi, Malayalam and Russian16.

Apart from S. Ramanathan’s study I am not aware of any detailed study of the Tamil musical system prior to Sister Margaret Bastin’s recent University of Madras thesis, which has not been available to me but in which I understand she subscribes generally to S. Ramanathan’s conclusions and interpretations17. Neither the “India” or “Mode” articles in the New Grove includes any information on this topic, nor is there a separate entry for Tamil music. My contribution in this study is to examine this material from the point of view of a Western musicologisst, against the background of Western concepts of scale and mode, translating the musical details in western concepts and categories and providing appropriate analyses, Music Theory Spectrum 197 with the hope of testing many of the generalizations that have been made about the universality of the idea of mode.

The following discussion is based on the four most important musical passages from Cilappatikaram (reproduced here as Texts 1,2,3 and 4,pp 142-43) as amplified in the two commentaries. A fifth passage (Text 5) appears at the end of the article. I have not reproduced the text of the commentaries, which consist of either terse definitions or close paraphrases of the main text18

Texts 1 and 2 contain important information on tuning procedures and the musical gamut, although it is never obvious whether “the first”, “the second” and the other ordinal numbers refer to strings or notes of the scale. The yal (or yaazh is another popular Tamil transliteration system) is often referred to as a harp because of the large number of strings but the movable bridge and leather frets described in the first text indicate that it may actually be a lute, despite the apparent tuning by steps. The Cilappatikaram mentions yals with seven (Text 1), fourteen (Text 2) nineteen and twenty one strings. Example 2 is a tentative reconstruction of the gamut19. All pitches were relative, so the entire system could be transposed to accommodate one’s vocal range. In each text, I have taken the phrase “beginning with the fourth and ending with the third” to refer to scale degrees, not strings20.

To continue with comments on Texts 1 and 2: The reference in Text 1 to a mode that is pentatonic in ascent but heptatonic in descent is also an accurate description of modem Carnatic and Hindustani practice, in which the opposite is rarely true. Lines 34- 37 of Text 2 provide a clear description of tuning practice in which harsh (cempakai) sharp (arppu) and flat (kutam) notes are corrected, along with beats (atirvu, trembling). I am at a loss to explain lines 198 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

40-42 of this passage, unless the intent of the author was simply to establish the relationship between the strings and the scale steps. On the other hand, lines 43-46 of the same text-however they are interpreted - suggest some sort of preliminary exercise to establish the basic tonality.

Example 3 supplies the Tamil names for the notes of the scale, their meanings (from which certain inferences are possible) and their equivalents in the Sanskrit sargam sol-fa notation21. In all cases of which I am aware the original text of the Cilappatikaram provides only the Tamil names; the Sanskrit sol-fa syllables appear only in the commentaries.

Example 2. The gamui on (he fouriccn-stringcd yfil (Texts 2 and 4)

strings: i j 3 4 5 « 7 g v 10 11 12 u u

Texts 3 and 4, along with their accompanying commentaries, permit us to infer two different versions of the Tamil modal system - an Old tradition (examples 4 and 5) and a New Tradition (Example 7) and their tuning. The round dance of the young girls described in Text 3, in which each girl represents one of the seven scale degrees, is perhaps the most memorable image among the musical passages of the Cilappatikaram and circular projections of various types dominate the musical imagery of the Tamil system22.

Readers will see at a glance that the Tamil scales were diatonic, with none of the chromatic tunings of the Persian scales to the west and no hint of the equidistant scales and more restrictive sets of modal rotations heard today in various regions of Southeast Asia. Music Theory Spectrum 199

For our purposes the most appropriate comparisons are to the modes of the medieval Roman Catholic Church and the scales of ancient Greece and India. In this connection, two points should be made here. First, there are no indications that similarities among these musical systems are the result of the spread of culture from one region to another; there were cultural contacts between India and the ancient Mediterranean world long before Alexander the Great invaded northern India in the fifth century B.C.E., but the scales and modes described in early Snskrit treatises were conceived in such radically different way that the differences far outweigh the similarities23. And second, all the surviving evidence for early Indian music is verbal; any diagrams, pictures, or other visual representations of the musical data have been devised by later scholars. The diatonic scale num bered Sk.sol-fa Tamil meaning of scalesteps syllables names name (?)

1. sa kural resounding 2. ri tuttam fragrant 3. ga kaikkilai unrequired love 4. ma ulai place 5. pa i laughter 6 dha vilari tender 7. ni taram highest.

The distinctive features of the Tamil modal system include (1) the particular selection of modes (2) their circular projection along the twelve houses of the Zodiac, which seems like an attractive possibility for scale-building but one that I have not found anywhere else in the world, and (3) most intriguing of all, the apparent contradiction between the various nested divisions of the octave; into twenty two microtones, twelve chromatic “houses” seven diatonic 200 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII scale degrees, and a further selection of five pentatonic degrees24 I shall attempt to explain this contradiction and identify the reasons for these numbers in the following pages.

Example 4 is an overview of the Old Tradition, translated into Western staff notation and Western modal categories. Example 5 is a comparative display of the four authorised heptatonic modes projected against the twelve houses of the Zodiac- a visual representation of .he system as presented verbally in Cilappatikaram and its commentaries. Each example will be discussed in turn.

Text 1(13:131-41) He took up A seven-stringed lute and tuned its scale By tightly fastening the leather straps On the curved arm. He placed the bridge 135 Along the fingerboard and tuned the strings Beginning with the fourth and ending with the third On his ear he then tested the mode That had seven notes in its descending scale And five in the ascending, and was dear to the goddess 140 O f the leaping stag. He played it With three variations according to tradition.

SR texts 107-112

The basic scale of the Old Tradition was palaiyal. a mixolydian scale. Palai is an important Tamil word, meaning first desert, then a seven-leafed plant or tree that grows in the desert regions of extreme South India, and finally the heptatonic scale. The compound palayil signifies both the basic scale of the Old Tradition and the first mode (pan) displayed at the top of Example 4.

Both the Old and New Traditions featured (1) the familiar Music Theory Spectrum 201

heptatonic diatonic scale, with the same pattern of steps and step sizes (of two, three or four microtones) that prevailed in the Sanskrit grama system25 (2) circular projection along the twelve houses of the Zodiac, as shown in Example 5; (3) a complete set of rotations, which could be performed in either a clockwise or counter clockwise direction; (4) generation by perfect fifths, in which each scale degree is situated at the fifth note and eighth house from its predecessor26 and (5) the apparent contradiction that I have noted above between the twelve houses and twenty-two microtones of the system. If these values are correct as reported, then each individual house represents two microtones, while scale steps that span two houses were assigned either three or four microtones, I shall propose a solution below.

SR texts 27, 96-102, 105

... she took up the perfect lute 30 In her hands and sang a sweet song Entranced, she played it on the lute Bending the thumb o f her right hand And touching the neck with four fingers She gripped the screw-pins with the four fingers 35 O f her left hand, and played the cempakai Arppu, kutam and atirvu having learned To remove, in order the dissonance. The series Of fourteen notes she based on impeccable tradition Beginning with the fourth and ending with the third. 40 She looked for a hint of the notes made By the second, fifth, sixth and third And fourth strings, and played the first note On the fifth string. Besides following tradition She plucked the fifth and seventh strings. 202 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

45 Beginning and ending with the fourth note As well as beginning and ending with the first note} Strictly observing the three levels of pitch She performed well the four types o f ragas In the displays of Examples 4 and 5, each pan is conceived as a series of seven notes strung out in consecutive perfect fifths above its birth note. Each subsequent note falls, therefore, in the eighth house from its predecessor (counting the house in which the note is bom and moving clockwise) as shown in Example 5. Palaiyal for example, is bom with its seventh degree (taram/ni) in Leco-on F, as it were. The remaining modes arises in turn as the first note generated from the birth note becoms the birth note for the next mode. The notes shown in the left margin of Example 4 are, respectively, the birth note and first generated note for each of the pans.

Text 3 (17, vv.13, 17-18)

Matari turned to her daughter and said: “These seven young girls have each chosen A bull from the stable and raised it She made them stand in the traditional order And gave the name o f a musical note to each: Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni, Matari of the fragrant hair Gave these names which also represented Clockwise their positions in the round dance. 17 In the circle they took their exact positions Held one another’s arms with the crab’s grip And studied the rhythm for the dance. The girl Music Theory Spectrum 203

Who was Sa turned to her neighbour Ri and said: “Let us sing the sweet jasmine raga in praise of mayavan Who pulled out the citrus tree in the broad uplands”. 18 Sa began to sing on a low note; Pa, on a median note; and Ri, on a high note, Dha, on a low note, sings for her friend Pinnai SR texts 1, 5-25 Readers who have encountered Richard Crocker’s study of the clay tuning tablets from ancient Ugarit may see some similarities here, except that the Hittie modes were apparently rotated from a Phrygian scale (the scale that the Greeks knew as dorian), and, if one accepts Crocker’s explanation, proceeded by “correcting” each new diminished fifth to a perfect fifth - instead of viewing the scale as a continuous chain of perfect fifths27 Text 4 (3: 71-91) Her lute player was a wizard, To establish The seven scales within the pattern O f fourteen notes, he half nlucked the low first And the high seventh to l. 75 The sixth he produced b ig half O f the elegant and robu ich now vanished Into the third. As the si. third Dissolved with it. Likewise the rest o f the notes Melted into the others. He played on all 80 The fourteen strings, from the low fourth To the high third and sounded the cempalai In the new tradition. In order the scales Would arise; the patumalai from the third, cewali From the second, arum from the first, koti 204 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

85 From the seventh, vilari from the sixth and merceem From the fifth. It is thus they were combined The notes o f the lute got lower in pitch From the left to the right, With the flute they got lower From the right to the left. An expert lute 90 Player can harmonize the low, high And median notes to ravish the ear. SR texts 28-31, 44, 80,120

Exam ple 4. The Hve htpUlonic modes (p u p ) o O id Tradition

"-—I

|lqw»H» (H) in to » r io |

in S«qiW»rW»]

One colourful local feature is seen in the Tamil names for the modes: the names of the first four are also the names of four of the five types of terrain in South India: the desert (palai), the hills (kurinci) the cultivated land (marutam) and the seashore (neytal). Little remains of the forests (mullai) that covered large parts of South India as recently as a thousand years ago, but the name was reserved for one of the pentatonic modes28. While the basic musical scale was heptatonic, its modes could be performed in five, six, or seven note versions. It is easy to see how these may have proliferated into a large number of separate ragas (each particularlized by its own distinctive set of modal features), of which some undoubtedly survive today. Example 6 is a partial display of the many cultural Music Theory Spectrum 205

coordinates of the five principal modes and their corresponding landscapes, providing a romantic context for the prosaic details of the musical system.

The selection of modal possibilities illustrated in Example 4 is an interesting one: the basic mixolydian (from which the rest arise in turn by fifth generation), an ionian, a lydia, then a locrian (which was rejected) and after some effort - a phrygian. Two interesting things happen as the process of modal rotation unfolds. All goes smoothly until we reach the fourth mode (neytaliyal) but here the last note to be added lands in Scorpio (G) - not Libra (g) - and is thereby disqualified. It will surprise no one to leam that a locrian constrution is rejected as “impractical” but here is where the early Tamil theorists began to be really inventive. They needed another mode and had two choices- the two versions of phrygian bracketed at the bottom of Example 4. Of these the upper version is probably the correct solution: cewaliyal is bom with its second degree (tuttam/ ri) in Scorpio (G or A) which returns the “tonic” note to its proper position in Libra30. The decision was obviously a trade-off between (a) continuing the strict process of generation and rotation and (b) retaining the tonic note (kural/sa) in Libra. An atypical solution to a typical modal quandary! I must point out, however, that this solution also calls into question the sequence of microtones, which we have been able to infer from the proceeding modeal rotations.

This “tonic” note (kural or the Sk.sol-fa sa) remains in Libra, on G as it were, throughout the scalar projections of Example 4 and the circular projections of Example 5. When I use terms such as tonic and final in the following pages, readers should bear in mind that the musical meanings of these terms do not necessarily coincide with their range of meaning in Western modal theory and practice. 206 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

In particular, I use the term tonic with reference to the indexical role of a particular note, not its musical role as a generator of the other notes or a ground tone toward which the other notes eventually gravitate31.

The circle diagrams in Example 5 present the same informaton as conceived from a Tamil perspective32 I have included only the four authorized modes. The seven pitch class letters inside the circumference of each circle mark the houses into which each of the diatonic, scale degrees would fall. There is no information whatsoever in the Tamil sources that would suggest any link between musical qualities of the modes and the astral connotations of the houses of Zodiac. The astronomical basis for this material is largely dependent on Greek and Babylonian Science and does not reflect an independent native tradition; the Tamil names for the houses, with a few exceptions, are literal translations of the standard Western names33. For the sake of brevity, I have given the sol-fa names for the notes outside the circle, in preference to the longer and less familiar Tamil names. The Arabic numerals indicate the number of microtones in each interval of the scale34. But there is something vitally wrong here: the zodiacal displays in Example 5 obviously cannot represent both 22 tone and 12 tone equal temperament at one and the same time! This is the same contradiction I have noted above and will attempt to resolve below.

Circular projections of the scale and generation by perfect fifths go hand-in-hand in world musics and here is one aspect of the Tamil Musical system in which their modal thinking had more in common with ancient Mediterranean civilizations than with the mainstream Indian tradition of jatis and gramaragas35. With the sole exception Music Theory Spectrum 207 of Matanga’s projection of the diatonic scale around a circle superimposed on a nexus of six vertical and five horizontal lines, there is absolutely no mention of either circular projections or fifth

generation in the main tradition of Sanskrit musicological treatises36. Other metaphors of circularity abound in Sanskrit music treatises, but perfect fifths are mentioned only in connection with the consonant relationship that exists between the predominant note in a raga (the amsa or vadi) and a note that is situated either nine or thirteen microtones above or below. And it is important to point out that the quality of consonance, in this case is vested in the note, not the interval37.

The next task is to examine the numbers with which these scales were constructed and see what can be determined about their tuning.

The Tuning Problem

The system we have been exploring is based on a series of nested pitch collections: 5 within 7 within 12 within 22.38 Of these, 208 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

5, 7 and 12 have long been recognised as stages along a familiar numerical pathway. These numbers have turned up time and time again in too many parts of the world to be attributed either to cultural diffusion or to coicidence. They have their own magic, of which a part must be their mutual affinities. Twelve has proved as useful for music as it has for trade, because of its many divisors and simple ratios. Seven and five are sacred numbers in many cultures, perhaps because they cannot be easily divided, and their numerical properties are well known. So part or the appeal of certain numbers lies in the case of calculation they permit and an other part in the resistance they offer to easy calculation. A paradox indeed! (Recall that many ancient and medieval Western scholars preferred superparticular interval rations because they could not be divided into two equal parts). And the number ten, which one would suppose to be especially valuable for purposes of calculation is virtually unknown in the history of musical scales. landscapes hills forests farmland seshore wasteland musical modes kurichi mullai marutam neytal palai times of day dead of evening morning sunset noon night seasons cool, season rainy all all summer of morning season seasons seasons dew phases oflove meeting, sulking, un anxiety parting, lovers union waiting faithfuflness seperation hardship elopement Characteristic conehead jasmine queen’sflower dark lily ivory flower (krunici) (mullai) (marutam) (neytal) wood tree (palai) water waterfall river pool well stagnant water people hill tribes herders farmers fishermen bandits beasts elephant (deer buffalo crocodile tiger

But why 22, and what is its special relationship with 12 and 7? I know of other tuning system in which 22 is a significant number. Unlike 5 7 and 12, 22 is not a special cardinality - that is, one that Music Theory Spectrum 209 consists of no more than two distinct step-interval sizes. Of the larger numbers that have appeared and continue to appear in proposals for musical tunings, 19 and 31 have often been singled out for praise, but not 2240 It seems to me that the musical value of the number 22 must lie not so much in its usefulness for subdividing the pitch spectrum into smaller microworlds, but in its ability to represent the pitch relationships inherent in the diatonic scale. This in a nutshell, is my contention.

The scales notated in Examples 4,5 and 7 consist of three interval sizes (of 2, 3, or 4 microtones) deployed in a pattern that can be nothing other than the diatonic scale. We find the same set of microtones in both the Tamil scales and the scales of the central Sanskrit tradition of ancient and medieval India. They are called sruti (literally, 'that which has been heard’) in Sanskrit and 'matirai' (measure) in Tamil41 Most musical systems permit the indepndent use of the smallest identifiable interval; these do not. The interval of one microtone exists only as the measure of difference between one tuning and another. It cannot be directly perceived only inferred (a typical postulate in the Indian philosophy of perception). No one has suggested that the early Tamil system was a 22 tone equal temperament, but thinking of it in this way will help us compare the interval sizes. Measured in the system of centitones (1200 per octave) devised by A.J. Ellis, 1/22 of an octave equals about 55 cents. The interval of 2 microtones, therefore sums to 110 cents - a remarkable approximation of its counterpart in just intonation, the diatonic semitone or “leading tone” with a ratio of 16:15 (112 cents). So far so good, But the two generic wholetones of the Tamil system (the intervals of 3 and 4 microtones) contain 164 and 218 cents, respectively. Their just equivalents are 192 (10:9) and 204 (9:8) cents. 210 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

S. Ramanthan and many other Indian authors have contended that in practice these intervals gravitated toward “natural” ratios such as the 9:8 and 10:9 whole tones of just intonation42 but I am not persuaded by their arguments. Indian ears are far too sharp, and Indian mathematicians (who were the first to devise the concept of zero) were too sophisticated with numbers to have assumed these step sizes without comment43 To argue against exact tunings and specific sets of interval ratios is not to disparage a culture’s ability to render small intervals with precision. The following two arguments seem to me to be the most persuasive. First, in a mathematically sophisticated culture such as India’s, when a case for specific interval ratios has not been made in the musicological literature, it cannot be assumed or justified by an appeal to nature. And second, when the basic concept of interval is not fully developed (as in most of the traditional musics of South, Southeast and East Asia) no one should be surprised that a consensus on interval tuning has not emerged.

We must at least consider the possibility that early Tamil musicians had found an appropriate set of measures for what they played and heard. It may boggle the mind to conceive of a scale with two whole steps of such dissimilar size and we may rightly ask what then is the distinction between a semitone and a “tone?”. But this I suggest, brings us closer to understanding the nature and special allure of diatonicism. Ptolemy of Alexandria distinguished between five diatonic tunings, some of them as seemingly bizarre as this one44 In only one of this five, the Pythagorean “ditonic” diatonic, do we find two identical whole steps (9:8, 204cents) I find that the Pythagorean version of diatonicism smacks more of theoretical ingenuity than of a musical preference. It has obviously become a musical preference in many parts of the world, but convenience and Music Theory Spectrum 211 habituation can train the ear to prefer just about anything we want it to prefer. For me, the special appeal of the diatonic scale lies in the certainty of reference it provides within a highly flexible and yet easily calculable system. There is abundant evidence that earlier Western versions of diatonicism relished the subtle distinctions between secundal intervals, distinctions that later practice has all but rendered obsolete.

To dra\* this argument to a close, let us return to the pathway of magic numbers. What I have been referring to as the main stream Sanskrit musical system proceeded directly from 22 microtones to the 7 degrees of the diatonic scale, in precisely the pattern illustrated on the top line of Example 4. The twelvetone chromatic existed only as a theoretically possibility, to be demonstrated by comparing different scales on a stringed instrument such as the vina.45 Authors of musical treatises did not describe an octave with twelve equivalent semitones until the thirteenth century and that for practical purposes - was the end of 22. But the 22 microtones continued to be mentioned in the treatises as an ancient tradition, and also the reason why certain of the twelve chromatic steps were shaded up or down from their basic position, especially up! (The concept of sharp is present in the earliest layers of Indian musical thinking, but the concept of flat was very slow to develop46

Here, then, in the early Tamil system, is the only mention off the complete pathway of numbers: from 22, to 12 to 7 and as we shall soon see, on to 5. As I (and co-authors) have remarked elsewhere, it may reflect a political compromise between the ways in which the local Tamils and the encroaching Indo-Aryans conceived and heard their music47. I think we have not fully realized that the history of musical tunings is at the same time a history of politics, 212 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII imperalism, colonialism, resistance and submission in which there were both winners and losers48. We delude ourselves if we believe that some musical systems disappear and others survive solely on the strength of their intrinsic excellence or the ingenuity of their proponents.

The scales and modal constructions of the Tamils appear to validate - at least in part -the concept of maximal evenness which John Clough and Jack Douthett have been developing in a series of recent articles, of which one of the cardinal principles is that each generic interval is expressed in just one or two sizes of consecutive integers49. Each step along the pathway of numbers from 22 to 12 to 7 to 5 can therefore be described as a maximally even derivation from the larger parent collection. The pathway itself appears to satisfy the exacting set of conditions in Clough and Douthett’s award-winning 1991 article50 To put it in a simpler way, the distribution and relative sizes of the small intervals in a 22-note collection match remarkably well what I believe to be the basic pattern of and human preference for diatonicism.

It must have taken quiet some ingenuity to construct this system, and it is not clear whether it was all in place at one time or is a composite of several historical layers. As I have pointed out above, the zodiacal diagrams in Example 5 cannot represent both 22-tone and 12-tone equal temperament. If we examine these diagrams from the perspective of Clough and Douthett it turns out that a 22 pitch class sytem generated by ascending perfect fifths can be reduced directly to a 12 pc system one in which each of the 22 pc falls within the proper house and in which therefore a 12 note chromatic universe might have arisen logically in leveling out the differences between the smallest intervals51. This would have involved “correct­ ing” Pythagorean commas, but the scholars of ancient India had no Music Theory Spectrum 213

concept of enharmonic equivalence, nor did they conceive of distinct intervals or interval classes perse. An interval of 9 or 13 microtones might indicate a consonant relationship in certain contexts, but not in others.

This is about as far as I consider it prudent to speculate on the tuning of the early Tamil system, although I will return for some concluding comments in the final section of this article. Readers may note that I have yet to explain the special role of the number five in Tamil music and culture, of which Example 6 has provided a foretaste. The derivation and structure of the Tamil pentatonics will be the final topic of the next section.

Rotation, The New Tradition and the Pentatonics

Three remaining features of the Tamil system require our attention. In addition to the pans displayed in Example 4, the system provided for a complete set of diatonic rotations, which I have not diagrammed. From palaiyal, for example, the diatonic pattern was subject to rotation in either a clockwise or counterclockwise direction by shifting the functional names of the notes one position at a time. This process is called kural tiripu, a nice expression that means “wandering” or “meandering” tonic. These rotations seen to have been relatively neutral, theoretical conceptions that were introduced for the sake of completeness and correspond to the octave species of ancient and medieval Western modality or the Sanskrit murcchanas31. The interesting point here is the simultaneous existence of two sets of rotations: one complete set of generalized rotations through the diatonic pattern, and a more selective and particularized set of modes.

Like the later ragas, the Tamil modes were recognised by clusters of modal features, in addition to their interval patterns53. The commentator Atiyarkkunallar mentiond “eight actions” by which the 214 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

characteristics of a mode can be demonstrated; initial, final, scarce, shaking, crooked path, profuse, rolling and striking - difficult to describe in words but easy to demonstrate in the traditional face to face instruction54. As was the case in the early stages of the raga system, the concept of a note around which the mode revolved was more important than the concept of final. (Finality does not carry the same weight in the continuous world of cyclical time that it does in the world of linear time.)

I referred earlier to the so-called New Traditiom (Example 7) which is the result of the same process of tonic shifting. A dorain

Bxiunple 7. Modal roiationn in ihc Now ’i'rudliion

scale is now the basis for the successive rotations, the same dorain scale, (and we may presume, the same tuning) that served as the basic scale in the music of the north - the Sa-grama55 Here again we see an examplee of the powerful mixture of modes and politics that Plato pointed out in the fourth book of Republic56 This is the system described (none too clearly) in lines 79-86 of Text 4 and clarified in the ArumpatavuraiS7

To make it work, first play the 14 note gamut (Example 2) and then palaiyal, in the Old Tradition, which becomes cempalai in the New Tradition, a mixolydian on G. From this, find the scale on D called arumpalai, (this is the step omitted in the text) and use Music Theory Spectrum 215

it as the base for a new set of successive downward rotations: from the third (degree) from the second, from the first, from the seventh, from the sixth, from the fifth (of arumpalai, followed finally by cempallai from the fourth). The process is simpler than it appears to be in example 7. the result is one complete set of rotations of the mixolydian cempalai, from top to bottom. At some point, the missing step may have been unwittingly edited out of the Cilappatikaram’s original text or overlooked by a scribe, who like many of his colleagues - may not have fully understood the technical material he was copying.

We lack documentary evidence for the modes that arose from the various rotations of the New Tradition, but the Tamil commentaries put their number at 103 58 It has generally been assumed that these were the ancestors of many modem South Indian ragas and I see no reason to suppose that this was not the case.

Finally, the Tamil system provided for a complete set of five pentatonic modes, produced by rotating the familiar anhemitonic collection. Example 8 is an overview of the Tamil pentatonics which, like the heptatonics, were arrayed along the houses of the Zodiac and proceeded in regular rotation from mullaipan, the forest mode (the pentatonic equivalent of palaiyal). Example 8 also displays their sequence of microtones and the equivalent pentatonic ragas in today’s Carnatic music59. The numbers is parenthesea are the numbers of the equivalent heptatonic scales in the Southlndian system that was conceived by Venkatmakhin in the early seventeenth century and has become the theoretical basis for today’s Carnatic ragas60

The pattern of rotation reminds us of ancient Chinese practice, in which the basic pentatonic scale was derived by ascending perfect fifths and then rearranged in consecutive steps within the compass 216 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

Example 8. A con*poctu« Oi Uie live pcnU’tonic »m>Jes

of an octave61. As a valuable Tamil passage from one of the commentaries' puts it, “the notes arising by fifths are five: kural (1) ili (5), tuttam (2), vilari (6) and kaikkilai (3)62. This is extremely useful information, but the most dramatic insight to be gleaned from the Tamil version of pentatonicism is the provisional equation of each of the Tamil pentatonics with a “parent” heptatonic. This may be no more than a local interpretation of pentatonicism, but it runs counter to the general conception of pentatonic scales as (a) relatively indifferent to final and (b) conceived as a series of equivalent steps. And, consisent with general Indian modal practice, each of the five authorized pentatonics would be further particularized by its own distinctive modal features63.

We have much to learn about the various dialects of Asian pentatonicism, and the Indian version have not been as well studied as those situated farther to the East and Northeast. I see this as a priority. The antiquity and wide distribution of pentatonic scales have led many to conclude that scalar expansion, as from pentatonicism to diatonicosm, is the stands or even universal process in world musics. Indian pentatonicsm, including the present Tamil version, is in every case of which I am aware the result of a process of selection from a heptatonic base. The role of the pentatonics in early Tamil music can only have been enhanced by the extraordinary significance of Music Theory Spectrum 217 fiveness in Tamil geography, climatology, botany, zoology, sociology, poetics and other aspects of Tamil culture (see example 6).

Twelve Propositions

What can the Tamil system teach us about the early history of scales and modes? I would like to frame my answer in the form of twelve propositions - tentative conclusions that I have reached on issues that merit further exploration. These are the lessons as I see them :

First, diatonic and pentatonic are not necessarily separate orders, as many scholars have seen them, with separate generating procedures and directions -that is, the downward 'cascading’ tetrachords of the ancient Mediterranean and Indo-Iranian world as opposed to the ascending acoustical fifths of East Asia64. Nor is pentatonicism, in this case, a prior link in the evolutionary chain that leads eventually to diatonicism. The evidence here supports neither the contention of many Central and Eastern European musicologists that anhemitonic pentatonicism represents, as Bence Szabolcsi puts it, “ a consensus gentium” which at its most primitive level was probably once shared by the whole world65 nor Joseph Yasser’s hypothesis that diatonic scales have their origin in pentatonicism66. As I have pointed out above, the Tamil pentatonic appear to have been derived by selection from a diatonic base.

Second, the Tamil system confirms the complete numeric pathway through the set of nested pitch collections, I have identified from 22 to 12 to 7 to 5 apparently the only such pathway to survive in the musical records of early civilizations. The numerical properties of 22 deserve further investigation, not so much because this number may turn up elsewhere in the world but because of its prominence 218 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

in the early history of the music of some twenty percent of the world’s peoples.

Third, and this is a tricky but crucial point, scale degrees can be authorized, not necessarily by matching or approximating certain fixed positions, but by falling within a certain band of tolerance, within which there can be considerable variation - which may be to say that scale are bands, not points (as the Greeks thought) and that melodic intervals consequently are neither as precise or as meaningful as Western musicians have assumed them to be. As I once heard a great Indian musician say, “A note is not a point. It is a region to be explored”. In traditional Indian musical thought, a scale step is manifested after reaching the upper edge of its “band” when a sufficient number of microtones have accumulated67 Perhaps “to be a note” means to fall within a specified range not to hit a precise mark.

Fourth, we have seen what appears to be a universal phenomenon when, in seeking to close a diatonic pitch system generated by perfect fifths, sooner or later a tritone appears (as it did in generating the modes of the Old Tradition) This seems to get everyone’s attention and calls for action - and often a bit of fudging, a temptation to which our discipline has often been prone.

Fifth, rotation (of one sort or another) appears to be a universal tactic of modality and one of the basic operations in what I have called phase two. What I find especially interesting about rotation is that its products seen never to be fully or equally employed. Pleasure is more selective.

Sixth, the Tamil system has reinforced my hunch that mixolydian and dorain are the proto-diatonic constructions, perhaps because of Music Theory Spectrum 219

(among other things) the balance of whole steps, perfect fourths and perfect fifths above and below their nodal degrees. This is not to say that our ancestors were groping toward proto major and proto­ minor tonality - that is entirely a recent Western way of looking at it. Phyrgian, on the other hand, seems always to be a special case - essential for variety, at times even preferred, but isolated and hard to explain. What we have encountered in the Tamil system is a set of five basic modes - four familiar diatonic constructions and one pentatonic. I have not heard of this combination anywhere else.

Seventh, we have seen additional evidence that modes have been described with spatial and temporal connotations, as well as other cultural flavours such as the astral connections and the grid of cultural coordinates reproduced in part in Example 6. There is evidence of similar thinking in early medieval European music treatiss, but it seems to have been largely suppressed by the fathers of Church- for both political and theological reasons. I would welcome the opportunity to hear the various genres of Western chant performed with some of the intensity, ethnic color and emotional pathos of the repertoires from which their modal systems were assembled.

Are there some further lessons we can learn about the scales and modal systems of early western music? Perhaps these :

Eighth, music theorists might do well to shed some of their faith in numbers. Music can be numbered but is not a number. The mathematicians of ancient India were fully as sophisticated as their contemporaries around the eastern Mediterranean rim, but they were under no illusion that numbers were the key to ultimate reality. Number always retain their technical properties, which have a magic of their own, but. they‘carry no divine authority for music. We should especially mistrust claims on behalf of exact tunings. I am not arguing that 220 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

people cannot hear and perform very small intervals with great exactness; I am arguing that these microtonal traditions are always local and subject to no general laws. In practice (and especially in vocal practise) most scales dissolve into individual shadings and variations -not only ofipitch, but also of timbre, intensity and vibrato. In melody, pitch is not a self-sufficient domain. And music theory will continue to depend upon approximations, of which a recent example is the application of “fuzzy logic” to pe-set theory68

Ninth, the pattern of relative step sizes brings us closer to the ways in which humans organize their sounds. I have pointed out here and elsewhere that India does not have and never has had a fully developed concept of interval69. In the Asian modal systems with which I am familiar, melodies are conceived as sequences of fixed degrees, not intervals that retain their identity under transposition. In melodic music that is unsupported by a system of harmony, thirds and sixths are particularly “fuzzy” and sevenths are virtually unknown. Perfect intervals and steps are the building blocks of melody with perfect fourths and fifths at nodal points and a wide variety of steps- wider perhaps than we are prepared to admit70. And as for their tuning, not all steps can be no need to be divided, and equidistant steps can work very well in cultures such as Indonesia where the relative permanence of bamboo and metal bars and gongs and the evenness of their physical pattern seems to have encouraged a spectacular ability to resist the charms of diatonicism. If we renounce some or all of our faith in the concepts of interval and interval class, we call into question many of our basic assumptions about consonance and dissonance, concepts that are weak to non-existent in certain melodic repertoires.

Tenth : But there is something about diatonicism that seems to satisfy our contradictory desires for pattern flexibility and unambigious Music Theory Spectrum 221 tonal orientation. The 9:8 and 10:9 whole tones of just intonation represent only the among many versions of diatonicism. In my hypothetical division of scale-building into two phases, phase one clearly prefers dissimilar steps; phase two, where modality begins, prefers similar steps in a trade-off between subtley and flexibility. Part of what music theorists of I am afraid parallels what polyphonic music and movable type have done to early Western melody - streamrolling over minute inflections of pitch, time, color, intensity and ornament in search of synchronization and uniformity a uniformity that makes music easier to manipulate but for which we have paid a price.

Eleventh, scale-building- like evolution - seems to operate by natural selection, which means blind alleys, endangered and disap­ pearing species, viable systems for which no music has survived and 'fossils’ that are difficult to explain. No doubt we hear many of these fossils insome world musics today. A scale that ancient Indian musicians described but dismissed as being singable “only in heaven” may have turned up in Indonesia (the scale known as pelogxl) I do not know if we are justified in regarding the Tamil system as a “missing link”, but it does provide unique evidence for some of the claims I have been making.

And finally, the modes of India and of many other Asian cultures remind us that obsession with final has been an acquired taste in West. With respect to early music, axial - not final - is the basic modal function. Tonal gravitation towards a ground tone and insistence on closure are not universal preferences. If we want to see what Gregorian chant has in common with other early modal systems, we should look first at the office chants, in which the reciting tones are stronger than the finals. 222 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

Part of our job as music theorists is to reconize the raw nature of the world of musical pitch that' we are constantly working to tidy up. I am not suggesting that we should ease up in our attempts to formalize the material that we work with, but I have the feeling that we often accept without question some of the crucial assumptions on which we construct our theories. We can all profit from the occasional reminder that the world of pitch is not as neat as we would like it to be.

To return the focus of this article to the fragile music of ancient South India, I will let the author of the Cilappatikaram have the last word:

Text 5 (epilogue 1-14)

Here ends the Cilappatikaram It ends in truth With the story of Manimekalai. Like a mirror Reflecting the far hills it reflects the essence O f the cool Tamil country, enclosed by the Kumari 5 And Venktam, and by th eastern and western seas It comprises the five landscapes of pure and impure Tamil Where live gods and humans following their duty And practising virtue, wealth and love. Its noble language expresses in perfect rhythm 10 Good sense, the themes o f love and war Exquisite songs, the lute, musical mode,chants Drama, act and scenes, dances That conform to the established rules o f the vari Round dance and Cetam, put in simple and perfect Tamil ABSTRACT In this article I revisit some of the basic questions, hypotheses, and arguments about scale-building in world musics, drawing upon recent interpretations of the modal system of the early Tamil people of South India, as set forth in their national epic, the Cilappatikaram Music Theory Spectrum 223

(fifth century C.E.) The body of the paper consists of an exposition of the Tamil modes, their generation, tuning, rotation and their pentatonic derivatives. Among the distinctive features of the Tamil system is the circular projection of the modes along the twelve houses of the Zodiac, which allows us to examine the unique nesting of 22,12, 7 and 5 divisions of the octave and infer their tuning. Further local color is provided by the cultural connotations of the five principal modes, which are mapped across a grid of five landscapes, times of day, seasons of the year, phases of love, sources of water, flowers, beasts and the like Mode in music thus encapsulates all the flavours and colors of Tamil civilization. The article concludes with twelve observations on what the Tamil system can teach us about the early history of scales and modes.

Notes : The original version of this article was first presented at the Eastman School of Music on 4 October 1996 as part of a lecture series celebrating the seventy fifth anniversary of the founding of the School. This study is dedicated to my good friends Bob Gauldin and Bob Morris, from whom I have learned a lot. 1 For further information on the music of ancient India and Sanskrit treatises on music, I shall refer frequency in the following pages to Lewis Rowell, Music and Musical Thought in Early India (Chicago: University of Chiacago Press 1992; New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal 1998) 3. John Clough, Jack Douthett, N. Ramanathan and Lewis Rowell, “Early Indian Heptatonic Scales and Recent Diatonic Theory”, Music Theory Spectrum 15/1 (1993) : 36-58; Robert Gaudlin, “The Cycle-7, Complex: Relations of Diatonic Set Theory to the Evolution of Ancientf Tonal systems”, Music Theory Spectrum 5(1983): 39-45. 4. Gauldin, “The Cycle-7 Complex” 53. 5. Hereinafter abbreviated as C. 6. C-21: 49-77: Parthasarathy (12) mentions that the Amazons of ancient Greece, as their name implies (a+mazos = without breast) reported removed a breast for greater freedom in combat. 7. ibid 5-6. 8. For analysisf of the epic. Tamil metrics, poetics and other valuable background information see Parthasarathy 1-16-279 - 369. 9. Ibid., 6 10. Ibid., 318 224 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL. LXXII

11. See notes 15 and 18; see also Parthasarathy, 297-99, 348-50. 12. For the Sanskrit sol-fa syllables, see Rowell, Music and Musical Thoughts 78-80. 11 S. Ramanathan (1917-1988) Music in Cilappattikaram (Madurai: Madurai Kamaraj University 1979). 14. Parthasarathy 346. 15. Cilappatikaram of llanko Atikal, with the Arumpatavari anfl the commentary of Atiyarkkunallur ed., U.Ve. Caminataiyar (Madras Sri Tyakaraca vilaca veliyutu 1892). 16. For details see Parthasarathy 385-89. 17. Margaret Bastin, “Battapalai: A Study" in Tamil (M.Phil thesis University of Madras, 1990) I am grateful to Professor N. Ramanathan, Head of the Department of Indian Music, University of Madras, for his kind assistance with the present article and other studies over the last twenty years. 18. There is no easy way to compare parallel passages from the Cilappatikaram and its commentaries, as presented in Parthasarathy’s translation and S. Ramanathan’s study (see notes 2 and 13) not only because of the unavoidable differences in line numbering in the former’s English translation, but also because Parthasarathy has drawn liberally on the commentaries in preparing his translation - too liberty for my taste. S. Ramanathan has selected the main references to music and dance from both the main text and the commentaries, which he has then divided into 156 “texts” (from a few words to a paragraph each) and presented in two versions: (1) a free English translation (107-28) and (2) an extremely valuable interlinear translation that combines a word for-word Tamil transliteration with the literal English meanins (131- 77)The problem is compounded by Ramanathan’s decision to rearange these texts into a topical order that matches his exposition of the material. I have attempted to solve the problem in two ways : first by giving only page references to S. Ramanathan’s study in the following notes; and second, in the case of the five passage on which the present article is based (Texts 1- 5) I have supplied both canto and line numbers from Parthasarathy’s translation (in paraenthesis following eachf caption) and the relevant 'text’ numbers from S. Ramanathan’s study (underneath each translated passage). Readers should bear in mind that the latter include experts from the main text and both commentaries. I have chosen (with some misgivings) to follow the Tamil transliteration protocols in Parthasarathy’s translation, which differ considerably from the systems followed by S. Ramanathan and other Tamil Scholars. 19. As heard on the open strings of the yal, which correspond to the basic scale paalaiyal (see examples 4,5 and 7) 20. Text 1, line 136 and Text 2, line 39; the Tamil text of the latter passage reads “from ulai to kaikkilai” (see example 3). 21. See note 12; I have included provisional translations of the Tamil names Music Theory Spectrum 225

for the notes in Example 3 but in most cases the connections between the notes and their names remain obscure. 22. I have pointed out above that the original C contains only the Tamil names for the scale degrees for which Parthasarathy has substituted the Sanskrit sol-fa syllables given in the commentaries. Ariyarkkunallar mentions also the intriguing possibility of linear, triangular and quadrangular projections of the musical scale but it is hard to imagine what these might be. 23. For the scales and modes of ancient India as presented in Sanskrit treatises, see Rowell Music and Musical Thought 77-85, 145-79 24. Clough et.al., “Early Indian Heptatonic Scales” 46-48. 25. See ibid., 38-41. 26. See below for further discussion of scale generation procedures. 27. Anne Draftkon Kilmer, Richard L. Crocker, and' Robert R. Brown, Sounds from Silence (Berkeley, Calif: Bit Enki Publications, 1976) 7-11. 28. For the Tamil pentatonics, see Example 8 and the accompanying discussion. 29. More elaborate versions of the cultural coordinates displayed in Example 6 appear in the following studies : The Interior Landscape: Love Poems from a Classical Tamil Anthology, trans. A.K. Ramanujan (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1967), 107; Poems of Love and War from the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Long Poems of Classical Tamil, trans. A.K. Ramanujan (New York: Columbia University Press/UNESCO, 1985) 242; and Kamil V. Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan : On of South India (Leiden : Brill, 1973) 100. 30. See S. Ramanathan, Music 12 and his Diagram 6. 31. See the final two sections of this article for further discussion of modal functions. 32. These diagrams have been adapted from those given in S. Ramanathan Music 61-71 and amplified. 33. For information about early Indian astronomy, see C.R. Kay, Hindu Astronomy (1924: reprint, New Delhi: Cosmos Publications 1981) and A.L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India (New YorkL Macmillan 1954), 489-91. 34. See below for further discussion of the tuning problem. 35. The jatis and gramaragas are discussed in Rowell, Music and Musical Thought 168-79. 36. Matanga’s projection (Brhaddesi 1:44-47) is discussed in Rowell, Music and Musical Thought, 152. 37. On the important concept of sonance, see Rowell, Music and Musical Thought, 157-60. The Tamil version of consonance and dissonanceis explained in the Arumpatavari’s gloss on 8:33 (S. Ramanathan, Music 113): Notes can be “paired” (i.e, octaves) “related by (perfect) fifth generation” (1,5,2,6 and 3) “friendly” (the fourth note) on “enemies” (the sixth and third notes). 226 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

38. See Clough et al., “Early Indian Heptatonic scales”, 46-48 we have not yet come to five. 39. Iam indebted to Jack Douthett for this observation. 40. For an excellent history and analysis of tuning proposals, I recommend Mayer Joi Mandelbum, “Multiple Division of the Octave and the Tonal Resources of 19 -Tonne Temperament” (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1961); the pros and cons of 19 tone and 31-tone systems are given on pp.201-18 and 343-36. It is a pity that this valuable study has never been published. 41. For the sruti, see Rowell Music and Musical Thought, 15-52; for the mattirai see, S. Ramanathan, Music 12-17 and 101-102. 42. S. Ramanathan, Music 12-17. 43. For the contributions of ancient Indian mathematicians, see Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, History of Science and Technology in Ancient India: The Beginnings (Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd. 1986) 112-240. 44. Namely, the soft diatonic (8:7+10:9+21:20) the tonic diatonic (9:8+8:7+28:27) the tense diatonic (10:9 + 9:8+16:15) the even diatonic (10:9 + 11:10+12:11) and the diatonic diatonic (9:8+9:8+256:243). For the passage in question see Greek Musical Writings, vol.2 trans and ed., Andrew Barker (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 306-14. 45. As for example, when Bharata demonstrated the existence of the twenty two srutis (in chapter 28 of his Natyasastra) by comparing the tuning of two vinas; for details of Bharata’s celebrated experiment, see Mukund Lath, A Study of Dattilam (New Delhi : Impex India, 212-17). 46. See Rowell, Music and Musical Thought, 154-56. 47. Clough et al., “Early Indian Heptatonic Scales” 48 48. For an extraordinary account of the political history of bell tunings in ancient China, see Lothar von Falkenhausen, Suspended Music: Chime-Bells in the Culture of Bronze Age China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993) 310-24. 49. See in particular, John Clough and Jack Douthett, “Maximally Even Sets, “Journal of Music Theory 35/1-2 (1991): 93-173; and John Clough, John Cuciurean, and Jack Douthett, “Hyperscales and the Generalized Tetrachord” Journal of Music Therapy 41/1 (1997): 67-100. 50. Clough and Douthett ‘Maximally Even Sets”. 51. I am indebted to Jack Douthett for these calculations. 52. On the murcchanas see Rowell, Music and Musical Thoughts 153-54. 53. For a discussion of modal features in early Indian scales, see Rowell Music and Musical Thought 170-71. 54. S. Ramanathan, Music, 114 (Atiyarkkunallar on 3:26); in a similar passage (3:41-42) Atiyarkkunallar mentions eleven features by which a mode can be recognised while being elaborated: initial (proper) order, final, fullness, deficiency,. Music Theory Spectrum 227 its own properties (!) high, low, medium, range and quality S. Ramanathan has omitted two of these from his list (114) but has correctly translated them in his word for word text. (146). 55. See Rowell, Music and Musical Thought, 146-49, 152-54: and Clough et al., ‘Early Indian Heptatonic Scales”, 38-39. 56. See Capacity 423d-425a. 57. See S. Ramanathan, Music 112. 58. Their names are listed in S. Ramanathan, Music 43-46. 59. See S. Ramanathan, Music Diagrams 13-17: for an encyclopedia survey of the modem South Indian ragas, see Walter Kaufmann, The Ragas of South India (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976) 60. For information on the melakarta system, see Bonnie C. Wade, Music in India : The Classical Traditions (New Delhi: Manohar, 1994) 82-87. 61. See Joseph Needham, Wang Ling, and Kenneth Girdwood Robinson, Science and Civilisation in China vol. 4 pt. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univesity Press, 1962) 157-76. 62. Arumpatavurai on 8:33 (S. Ramanathan, Music 153) 63. See note 54 64. See Bence Szabolcsi’s essay on “Pentatonicism and Cultural History” in his A History of Melody, trans Cynthia Jolly and Sara Karig (London : Barrie and Rockliff, 1965) 216-43. 65. Ibid 217. 66. Joseph Yasser, A Theory of Evolving Tonality (New York: American Library of Musicology, 1932); for commentary see Gauldin, “The Cycle-7 Complex” 46-47. 67. This is why the musical examples in this article have been notated with microtones below the lowest scale step:for further explanation, see Rowell Music and Musical Thought, 145-52. 68. See, for example, Ian Quinn, “Fuzzy Extensions to the Theory of Contour”, Music Theory Spectrum 19/2 (1997):232-63. 69. See Lewis Rowell, ‘Early Indian Musical Speculation and the Thoery of Melody”, Journal of Music Theory 25/2, (1981 ):228-29. 70. And including (in certain systems and repertoires) intervals we might under other circumstances identify as skips. 71. See Clough et al., “Early Indian Heptatonic Scales”, 39-40. O 228 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

The Dictionary of Hindustani Classical Music by Bimalakanta Roychoudhary was among the first of its kind. Published originally in Bengali (which received the Sahitya Academy award) and later translated into Hindi, it has recently been brought out in English as rendered by the author himself.

The dictionary is a major effort and is very useful, covering a vast range of terms used in Hindustani music. The author states that while it is-his intention in the English rendering of the dictionary to present correct interpretations of technical terms in Hindustani music for the English speaking person, he has consciously restrained himself from using terms from Western Music to explain Indian musical terms. Given the time of the preparation of the English Version (1967) by the author, it is admirable that he should have been sensitive to the pitfalls of this tendency. It is, for instance, annoying to find 'raga’ translated as 'scale’, as many do. It is woefully inadequate to capture the complexity of the concept raga, and could be quite misleading to Western musicians, for the word “scale” carries a whole baggage of connotations in Western music, all of which would not be applicable to raga.

The author exhibits great sensitivity to cases where terms have come to acquire a different meaning from the sastric descriptions. Take the cluster of terms vadi, samvadi, anuvadi and . These are widely used in describing the raga lakshana in modem Hidustani music. The term Vadi refers to the most important note in the raga, and Vivadi to notes that do not occur in the raga. This is the interpretation widely used, even by people like Bhatkande, Deodhar and others in their very popular works. But the author points out, Book* Reviews 229 this is inaccurate from the sastric angle. In the texts, the word used to refer to the most important note in a raga is not “vadi” but “amsa ”; other terms used in describing the raga lakshana are nyasa, graha, apanyasa etc., In the texts, Vadi, Samvadi etc., refer to relations between notes, and cannot be used to refer to notes themselves. So, for instance, sa and pa have a vadi-samvadi relation.But to call sa the vadi swara of a raga is like saying the house is to the left (without any indication of to the left of what). However well this point has been made, if a term has come to acquire a different meaning over the years like Vadi has, we just have to give it its due. It does not look likely that the “mistake” will be rectified and people will revert to using "amsa” etc., instead of "vadi” etc., Perhaps it would be best to accept this as a changed meaning that the word "vadi” has acquired, rather than resist it as a mistake. Indeed a dictionary should ideally do just that - describe the usage of terms without comment, may be indicate the history of its usage but no more.

The note on sruti is detailed where, again, we find the author arguing on contentious issues such as whether the sruti-s are separated by equal intervals or unequal ones. However important these issues, they have no place in a dictionary. This is not to detact from the value of the discussion; only it is out of place.

There are detailed notes on various aspects of instrumental music. Well known technical terms used in tabla playing such as Oharad, Rela, Peshkar and also abstruse terms like Peradi (where each bol of the tabla is 1 11/21 times the duration of the beat of the tala) are included. The notes on tabla playing include actual bol-s which are immensely useful and enlightening. Techniques of playing instruments such as the sitar are also very informative. But 230 THE JOURNAL OF THE MADRAS MUSIC ACADEMY, VOL LXXII

the dictionary seems to reveal a bias towards instrumental music. Consider, for instance, the note on alapa. It talks of Jhala, Taraparana etc., which are aspects of alapa in instrumental music such as the sitar. They are certainly not aspects of vocal alapa. Surely, alapa should have been a given generalised treatment so as to apply to Khayal, Dhrupada, as well as to instrumental music? The note here definetely applies to instrumental music. Different aspects of ilapa in vocal music such as bot alapa, bol tana as well as nom tom alapa of dhrupada music find no mention although, by any standards, they deserve separate entries in the dictionary and at least mention in the note on alapa.

Other omissions such as , Sawani (all forms akin to ) and also technical terms such as Ahir bhav, Tiro bhav are striking. The note on Swara Lipi (notation stystem) contains no mention of the Paluskar system devised by Vishnu Digambar Paluskar - surely one of the major such systems used in many publications. The publishers’ decision to omit the gharana table (they plan to bring it out separately) renders the dictionary incomplete in an important respect. Included here it would have been immensely useful. The note on gharana is therefore quite inadequate, carrying out even a mention of the important gharana-s of Khayal Sangit.

The dictionary uses standard diacritical marks for technical terms. However, there is no explanatory note on this, an omission the publishers could rectify.

The dictionary is a major enterprise, and the author deserves out gratitude for embarking on it. It would certainly be a valuable aid to any student / aficionado of Hindustani music.

Dr. Lakshmi Sriram Book-Reviews 231

Classical Musical Instruments - Dr. Suneera Kasliwal

Being an instrumentalist herself, Dr. Suneera Kasliwal’s opening lines in her preface itself are very thought provoking. The combination of a teacher and researcher is a great advantage.

The work on Classical Musical Instruments is a fascinating research volume in excellent English and impeccable details on length and breadth of India. She has limited the scope of the book to that of the concert class. The research and details are worthwhile, thorough and update.

What is commendable, is the systematic work, commencing from the textual sources to the oral traditions, to the contemporary published material, to seminar papers, to personal interactions with the stalwarts, she left no source untapped. She has given the sources for acquiring authentic and high quality instruments. The youngest generation of performers is also listed unlike most works, which are more on the past than the contemporary. Her chapterisation is logical and expansive.

This book shall be very useful as a reference book. The author deserves all praise for her successful attempt in bringing out this as a publication.

Dr. T. Lokanadha Sarma

(Dr. T. Lokanadha Sarma is a member of the Executive Committee of The Music Academy, Madras and has been the Director o f Sangita Vidyalaya, Chennai.) by TMSutbaJamkmm$n-' 4 6 m : .

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