Revisiting Tell Deir 'Alla: a Reinterpretation of the Early Iron

Revisiting Tell Deir ‘Alla: A reinterpretation of the Early Iron Age deposits Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Master in Philosophy by Diederik Johannes Herrius Halbertsma 31 May 2019 School of Histories, Languages and Cultures Department of Archaeology, Classics and Egyptology 2 Acknowledgements Working with an old excavation archive is a daring and complicated endeavour, but can yield intriguing results. Few know this better than Dr Margreet Steiner. While contemplating Iron Age archaeology in a small café in Leiden, she notified me of the potential of the Tell Deir ‘Alla archive, and ignited in me the flame of curiosity. This fascinating archaeological site, which created such a legacy for archaeologists both in- and outside of the Netherlands, deserves to have its full potential explored. It is how I got in touch with Dr Gerrit van der Kooij, whose passion for, and knowledge of, the archaeology of the Southern Levant is hard not to be inspired by. Through both Margreet and Gerrit I got to know about Henk Franken and his legacy. My thanks go first and foremost to these three remarkable scholars, who have elevated the field through inspiration, criticism, and continuous effort. As anyone who’s ever started studying mudbrick archaeology will know, the first confrontation with a complex cross-section can be an overwhelming experience. One can easily “not see the layers for the lines”. I was fortunate enough to be taught the principles of mudbrick archaeology at the Tell Damiyah Project, co-directed by Dr Lucas Petit and Prof Zeidan Kafafi. My thanks go out to them for their ongoing commitment to the archaeology of the Jordan Valley. Furthermore, my thanks go out to the Jordanian people, who never fail to impress me by showing their hospitality, friendliness, and generosity. For allowing me to work with the Tell Deir ‘Alla archive I’d like to thank the Dutch National Museum of Antiquities, especially Dr Lucas Petit (curator of the Near Eastern collection), and Dr Pieter ter Keurs (head of collections). For aiding in the digitisation process I’d like to thank DANS, the Faculty of Archaeology of Leiden University, Dr Meelco Wansleeben, and the two data-assistants: Elisa van Veldhuijzen and Rens Cassee. Thanks to all their efforts the Tell Deir ‘Alla archive is now safely stored for the future, and soon available to all who are interested. From the University of Liverpool, I’d like to first thank Dr Bruce Routledge, my primary supervisor. Working with someone who shares a passion for the Iron Age Southern Levant was one of the reasons I came to Liverpool. Working with him in Liverpool and at Tell Dhiban was a great experience. Furthermore, I’d like to thank my secondary supervisor, Prof Douglas Baird, who was always available to advise me on matters of research and the Near East. Dr Matthew Ponting advised me on the fascinating discipline of archaeometallurgy, and helped shape several of the ideas outlined in this thesis. My family’s support throughout this research has been fantastic, and I thank my parents in particular for their continued faith in me. Heart-felt thanks go out to my partner, Hannah Plug. Apart from elevating the quality of this thesis, she elevates all aspects of my life through her love, patience, and Dutch directness. Our Liverpudlian adventure, together with Calcifer, has been fantastic. Lastly, I’d like to thank Renuka Wikramasinha, who helped make this adventure in Liverpool possible. Your son, my dear friend Christiaan, is sincerely missed, and this thesis is dedicated to his memory. "What makes the desert beautiful," said the little prince, "is that somewhere it hides a well..." (Antoine de Saint-Exupery: The Little Prince, 54) 3 Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 – Tell Deir ‘Alla 9 1.1.1 – The 1960s excavations 11 1.1.2 – The Iron Age I Deposits 12 1.2 – Research Question and Methodology 13 1.2.1 – Thesis structure 14 Chapter 2: Tell Deir ‘Alla and the 1960s Excavations 2.1 – Tell Deir ‘Alla and the Jordan Valley 17 2.1.2 – Tell Deir ‘Alla 20 2.2 – Franken and Tell Deir ‘Alla 21 2.3 – Identification of the site 24 2.4 – Excavation strategy and methods 28 2.4.1 – Excavation grid and squares 28 2.4.2 – Field documentation 32 2.4.3 – Find documentation 33 2.4.4 – Excavation at Tell Deir ‘Alla after the 1960s 34 2.5 – the 1960s Tell Deir ‘Alla archive 35 2.5.1 – State of the archive 36 Binders 37 Boxes 37 2.5.2 – The archive’s original outline 39 4 Drawings 39 Photography 40 Fieldnotes 41 Samples 42 Unexpected content 42 2.5.3 – Digitisation process 45 2.5.4 – Digitisation results 46 Chapter 3 – Regional background for the 12th century BCE 3.1 – The Iron Age I 48 3.1.1 – The Iron Age I in the Southern Levant 49 3.1.2 – The Jordan Valley in the Iron Age I 50 Survey results 52 Excavations of Iron Age I layers 54 3.1.3 – Conclusions 61 3.2 – Debates regarding the Jordan Valley in the Iron Age I 62 3.2.1 – Itinerant metalworkers in the Jordan Valley 63 The role of biblical narratives 63 Mobility in the Jordan Valley 65 Itinerant metalworkers at Tell Deir ‘Alla 66 Other evidence for metallurgy in the Jordan Valley 67 3.2.2 – Egyptian presence in the Jordan Valley 68 Egyptian influences at Tell es-Sa’idiyeh 70 Egyptian influences at Tell Deir ‘Alla 71 Egyptianizing behaviour in the Jordan Valley 72 5 3.2.3 – the ‘Sea Peoples in the Jordan Valley 73 Who are the Sea Peoples? 74 Metalworking ‘Sea Peoples’ and the Jordan Valley 77 3.3 – Conclusions 85 Chapter 4: The Tell Deir ‘Alla Phase B installations 4.1 – Phase B and the installations 88 4.1.1 – Tell Deir ‘Alla during the ‘First Period’ 88 4.2 – Stratigraphic analysis of the Phase B installations 90 4.2.1 – Data from the archive 91 Sections 91 Top-plans 91 Fieldnotes 92 Photographs 93 Metal samples 93 4.2.2 – Franken’s publication of Phase B 94 4.2.3 – Re-evaluating Phase B’s stratigraphy 96 The reinterpreted chronology 97 Sub-Phase 1 105 Sub-Phase 2 106 Sub-phase 3 107 Sub-phase 4 109 Sub-phase 5 110 The end of Phase B 112 4.2.4 – Discussion of the stratigraphy 113 6 4.3 – Interpreting the Phase B installations 115 4.3.1 – Franken’s interpretation 115 4.3.2 – Possible parallels 116 4.3.3 – Alternative interpretations 118 Domestic oven 118 Lime kiln 118 Pottery kiln 118 Metalworking 120 4.3.2 – Recent data 122 Results from Trench M 122 The Tell Deir ‘Alla excavations after the 1960s 123 4.4 – The phase B installations: a renewed interpretation 124 Chapter 5: Synthesis and conclusions 5.1 – Working with old data 126 5.2 – The Tell Deir ‘Alla installations and their implications 128 5.2.1 – Skill and organisation 128 5.2.2 – Supply and demand 130 5.3 – Future research 133 5.4 – Concluding remarks 136 Bibliography 138 Abstract 148 List of Figures 149 List of Tables 150 7 8 Chapter 1: Introduction “Scholarly the value is to reach a better understanding and knowledge of what happened in the past. (...) Socially speaking, knowledge about what happened in the past has to be democratised, and will then bring our own existence in a relative position, which is generally bringing modesty in our mind and social thinking. And it triggers responsibility for the remains and heritage in general. In any case, the obligation exists towards the predecessors, that lived in the Jordan Valley, to take them and their legacy seriously, and with respect” (Van der Kooij 2006, 56). When researching Iron Age I excavations in the Southern Levant, one realises just how many have never had a final report published. Much, but often not all, of the information with which such comprehensive publications were to be written, is still left waiting within numerous boxes comprising excavation archives. These are situated in basements, attics, storerooms, or depots, often simply collecting dust. Over time these archives weather: refurbishment activities, moving locations, or even vermin, mould, and leakages all contribute to possible damage to and mixing of their contents. Fortunately, the value of such archives is being appreciated more and more. Resultantly, there is a growing awareness for the fact that they should be digitised and stored for safekeeping. Digitisation provides new opportunities for such old datasets, which can then be browsed through digitally, from anywhere in the world. The archive from the 1960s excavations at Tell Deir ‘Alla, the first and one of the most important archaeological projects conducted by the Netherlands in the Near East, is an example of this. 1.1 – Tell Deir ‘Alla Tell Deir ‘Alla is one of the most prominent settlement mounds in the Central Jordan Valley (see figure 1), known locally as the ‘Ghor Abū ‘Ubaydah’, in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (see figure 2). It is one of the most important archaeological sites in the Jordan Valley, and because of its uninterrupted and well-stratified occupational sequence has proven essential 9 in understanding the role of the Jordan Valley during the Late Bronze Age to Iron Age II periods (ca. 1350 – 600 BCE). The site was first excavated by the late Prof Dr Hendricus J. Franken of Leiden University, between 1960 and 1967, and in 1976 and 1978. From 1979 until 2008, the site was excavated on and off by Professor Gerrit Van der Kooij of Leiden University in co-directorship with the Department of Antiquities of Jordan (Dr Mo’awiyah Ibrahim), and later the Yarmouk University (Prof Zeidan A.

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