New Approaches to the Study of Arctic Warfare
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Nordia Geographical Publications 43: 1, 87–99 Pasi Tuunainen New approaches to the study of Arctic warfare Pasi Tuunainen PhD, Docent of History, University of Eastern Finland Abstract: This article uses the Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939–1940 as a case study to introduce several approaches that can be employed when studying Arctic warfare in winter. The study of Arctic warfare is a highly context-related field: the Finnish-Russian border area had a character of its own. Combat here essentially was sub-Arctic forest fighting. Unpreparedness for such peculiarities and special conditions, in particular for the harsh sub-zero weather, ice, deep snow and shortened days of winter, complicated military action and even led to military failures. Many historical antecedents show that those armies that have adapted and correctly realised the implications of the effects of adverse weather on terrain and of the northern environment on soldiers, materiel, organisation and operations could prevail. Unlike in many places, the hostilities normally have not ended in the Far North of Europe as the winter set in. Winters were utilised for offensive combat operations provided that the attacking force had secured its over- snow mobility and logistical support. The Finnish case demonstrates that the terrain and weather not only dictated the operational capabilities in northern forests but also that better preparation in the utilisation of the possibilities offered by military geography explained the eventual outcome of military operations. Arctic warfare is an important research area with wider significance. Surprisingly, the literature on the topic is scant. Keywords: Arctic warfare, the Winter War (1939–1940), northern operations, winter tactics, forest fighting, military geography, terrain analysis Introduction did not realize this fact until after the war was in progress. The German troops which “The features peculiar to the theater of were sent to Finland during World War II operations in the Far North of Europe were not prepared for the special difficulties have given the recent wars in the Finnish they encountered in combat in that trackless area a character all their own. Terrain and wilderness, in the endless virgin forests, and climate always have a decisive influence on during the long Arctic night. Only after warfare. The tactical rules which had been paying dearly for their experiences did they worked out on the basis of experiences become adjusted to the requirements of in central European theaters of war and that theater” (Erfurth 1951, 19). which are adapted to normal conditions General Erfurth was a German liaison officer in the Finnish High Command were applicable only to a limited extent in the cases of Karelia and Lapland. In many during the Continuation War (1941–1944), respects warfare in the Arctic follows rules and his text confirms that the Wehrmacht of its own. The German High Command soldiers stationed in Finland ignored military 87 New approaches to the study of Arctic warfare NGP Yearbook 2014 geographical factors of the Arctic regions effectiveness in winter? Arctic operations at their peril. The German (Austrian) could be conducted in all seasons but in Mountain Jaegers had been trained to fight this essay I will focus on military action in in mountainous surroundings, and were winter. To this end I will look at preparations unable to perform their offensive tasks and training in the Finnish Army. I will also in the Finnish-Soviet border areas as the demonstrate how geographical factors northern flank of Operation Barbarossa affected the planning and execution of even in summer, let alone in winter. The winter operations in northern regions. correct appreciation of weather, terrain Terrain analysis is investigated in depth as it and daylight conditions have proved to be may explain why commanders and soldiers of paramount military importance as they acted as they did. set the limits on operations and relate to the ability of the individual soldier and his unit to live, work, move and fight in the Military geographical sub-Arctic and Arctic. Unpreparedness for characteristics of the such peculiarities and special conditions, Finnish-Russian border in particular for the harsh sub-zero winter areas as cold regions weather, ice, deep snow and shortened days of winter, could complicate military At the time most of the Finnish territory action and even lead to military failures. was forested sub-Arctic i.e. the forested Many historical antecedents show that cold weather regions south of the actual those armies that have made winter an Arctic that include most of Alaska, Canada, ally and systematically exploited weather Iceland, northern parts of Scandinavia, and climatic conditions could compensate Siberia, northern Mongolia, and even the for inferior numbers and achieve success. northernmost areas of the British Isles. This is exactly what the Finns managed to Only one third of the Finnish territory accomplish in World War II, especially in the lies above the Arctic Circle and constitutes Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939–1940, treeless tundra, with just a few mountains. a famous contemporary armed conflict in Finland has reasonably high summer the age of total war fought in its entirety in temperatures, cold winters and snow cover the Arctic winter. for over half of the year. The summer This article uses the Winter War as days are long, but in winter darkness an example to introduce some novel prevails. The Arctic regions have been approaches to the study of Arctic warfare. battlefields in all seasons, often in winter. I will explore what Arctic warfare was in the The existing natural obstacles (such as Nordic context, and how it can be studied. swamps, marshlands, lakes, rivers etc.) have What kind of factors need to be taken into presented a serious hindrance to movement account when researching various aspects in summer conditions. Likewise the autumn of Arctic warfare and what could be and spring thaws caused by the melting of possible explanations for Finnish military snow, ice and permafrost can lead to huge difficulties. 88 Nordia Geographical Publications 43: 1, 87–99 Pasi Tuunainen The Finnish-Russian border area, There are numerous examples of how extending 1400 kilometres in the 1940s, ill-prepared armies have suffered serious was characterized by long distances, military setbacks. Training, equipment and underdeveloped road networks and vast overall preparation, particularly logistical wilderness areas. Physical geographical support, have been the keys to effective factors shaped military operations in military performance in the Arctic and many ways, and topography determined sub-Arctic. Many of the non-combat all operations. The terrain constrictions casualties were due to the cold. “General channelled movement, shaped the Winter”, as the harsh cold Russian winter battlefields, and influenced events. Climatic weather is known, has contributed to the conditions and seasonal changes could demise of many invading armies, including create advantages and disadvantages or the Swedish Charles XII’s attack in 1707, obstacles to military forces. The weather Napoleon’s campaign of 1812 and Hitler’s and terrain could help one side or become Eastern Front in World War II (O’Sullivan their worst nightmare. Success in northern & Miller Jr. 1983, 65–66; Winters et al. 1998, operations depended on the ability to adapt 74–96). to conditions, to overcome and to exploit In most wars larger scale fighting ceased them. as the winter set in and armies went to In cold regions (including mountainous winter quarters. In northern Europe, areas receiving snowfall) the armies have however, winter operations have been two adversaries: the cold and the opposing conducted for centuries. Winters have been force. Cold weather reduces the efficiency utilized for offensive operations provided of men and machines. Appalling weather that the attacking force had secured its over- could be fatal to soldiers and make weapons snow mobility and logistical support. The dysfunctional. This placed requirements best time has usually been from midwinter on the preparation and training of soldiers to early spring prior to the breakup period. and units. The effect of the northern For instance, the Russian Army started its environment could be hard on personnel, war against Sweden-Finland in the winter matériel, organization and operations. The of 1808 because the defence of the reign’s soldiers needed to be issued with the right Eastern provinces was based on the arrival kind of protective clothing and equipment. of reinforcements from Sweden, and, They also needed to be taught to adapt with the freezing of the Baltic Sea, boats their use of weapons and equipment to the could not sail. The Gulf of Finland rarely circumstances. Moreover, the soldiers had froze completely, except suddenly during to be acclimatized, tempered and taught the extremely harsh winter in early 1940, relevant survival skills and field craft, and offering the Red Army the opportunity needed to be physically and mentally fit to to advance along the ice of the Bay of be able to survive and fight in the adverse Vyborg to the right flank and rear of the weather conditions of the North (Nelson main Finnish forces. The opening of this 2006, 13–20). “ice front” seriously threatened the Finnish 89 New approaches to the study of Arctic warfare NGP Yearbook 2014 supply lines. The Finns could only contain The proper ability to conduct winter the bridgehead by the end of the Winter operations depended on technical tests and War with difficulty. experiments. The results of the Finnish developmental activities were published in Talvisotakäsikirja – T.S.K.K. (Winter Logistics, shelter, clothing, Warfare Handbook) in 1928. The Finnish weaponry and equipment Army, the Border Guards and the Civil Guard Defence Corps had systematically Logistical preparation and support were improved their capability to orienteer and then the key military considerations in bivouac in a trackless wilderness. They had winter operations.