anada'sidentity as a nationshaped bythe Fi hangingrelationship to Great Britain and th(
Toexplore this Esserijfcal Question, you will Key TeRMe . examinethe evolutionof Canada'srole in internationalaffairs domesticaffairs froma position of subordination to Britain to one of independence foreignaffairs . becomefamiliar with theorigins of theFirst World War and nationalists Canada'sinvolvement in the war, and the impact of thewar on Canada'shome front imperialists militarism . investigatethe end of thewar and its political and cultural WesternFront significance VictoryBonds armistice War MeasuresAct GETTING STARTER enemyaliens internment In 1867,Canada was largely self-governing andwas making propaganda Rgure10-1 Canada's Grand Armada, 1914, byFrederick Sproston independentdecisions about its domesticaffairs, which are matters Statuteof Challener,1919.This painting shows the First Canadian Contingent takingplace within thecountry. However, as a memberof theBritish Westminster sailingfor Britain inOctober 1914. Over 30 000 troops on-board more Empire-and still a colonyin some ways-Canada was subjectto thanthirty ocean liners were escorted bythe ships ofthe Royal Navy. Britishauthority when it canaeto foreignaffairs, which are matters concerningrelations with other countriesor internationalactivities. Canadians,however, were becoming increasingly unwilling to acceptBritain s decision-makingon theirbehalf. Canada beganto assertitself in variousways and, by 1931,the federal government gained theright to makeforeign policy decisions without Britain's consent. 6NPURING.\JW?eR5TWVWG6 Studythe two imagesand captions on page284. Britishcultural traditions and political . How arethey similar in content? institutionshave played a role in shaping . How do theycontrast as representations Canadianhistory and identity. of significantmoments in history? Thehistory of governance in'Canada is characterizedbya transition from Indigenous How could their content have been used self-governmentthroughFrenchand' asarguments that Canada"deserved" colomalruletoaself-governing confederation to be treatedby Britain asmore than a of provincesand territories. colony? . Canadacontinues tobe influenced byissues^ ofwar and peace, international relations,! globalinteractions. Figure10-2 this1917 photo, awounded Canadian arried adressing In is to . Sincethe beginning ofthe twentieth centyry,_ . station(medical unit) across muddy fields at the Battle of Passchendaele Canada'has'playecTan'""easingWactivei^ in Belgium.During the three months ofthe battle, more than 15 000 jnworld'affairsthrough trade and development, Canadianswerekilled, wounded, orreported missing. militaryengagement, andparticipation in internationalorganizations.
KMWGINGCANADIAN INWPENDBNC^ ALASKAeOUMDARY DISPUTE, 1905 Anotherissue between Canada and the United States was sparked by ^ ^ Estatilisl-iinghtStOfijealsignificance agold rush in theYukon Territory. In March1867, the United States
Usingpritnafy^ourGB evidenee ? ^ 11 (j ^; COLONIAL $TATU$ purchasedtheterritory Alaska-nearly1 000 000 square kilometres of [lit g §. Identifyingcontinuity and change ofland-from Russia for $7. 2 million,or about seven cents per square In 1867,Canada was a colony struggling todefine its identity and gain W[& Analyzing cause and consequence hectare.The Americans understood that they were purchasing both morecontrol over its destiny. It hadfull autonomyover its domestic Alaska's"pan, " thebulk of theterritory, which was west oftheYukon Takinga historical perspective affairs,aslong as its laws did not contradict any existing British laws. Territory,and its "panhandle, "a stripof connected territory along the Consideringthe ethical dimensions However,the BritishNorth America Act {SNA Act),which established coastlineco ofnorthern British (folumbia. The "panhandle" of history theDominion of Canadaand its system of government,did not contain i'l boundary,however, wasnot certain in thisregion of Figure1(M Alaska Boundary: Disputed Claims and Finai anysignificant mention of foreignaffairs. Like other dominions-the mountains and inlets. self-governingmembers of theBritish Commonwealth-Canada did Boundary Whengold was discovered in the Yukon Territory in not controlits ownforeign affairs. Britain did takeinto accountthe Today,almost half of the British Columbia coastline is 1896,and access to thegoldfields became important, Canada Canadiangovernment's views on its foreign affairs, but Britain remained Americanterritory. During the gold rush, thousandsof disputedthe boundary separating the "panhandle" ofAlaska thefinal authority on any international agreements relating toCanada. prospectorssailed into Skagway's portbefore heading north fromCanada. It preferreda boundarythat saw the town of Canada'shead of state, the Governor General, was appointed byBritain to thegoldfields. Both Canada and the United States wanted Rejectthe treaty [of Washington], Skagway,Alaska, as part of Canada.The government stationed andgoverned in accordancewith Canadianwishes for domesticmatters. thebooming town ofSkagway. andyou will find thatthe bad severaldetachments ofNorth-West Mounted Police at key butwas directed by British policy when it cameto foreignaffairs. Canada feelingwhich formerly and until locations,such as the Chilkoot Pass,to establishCanada's did nothave any official foreign representatives or ambassadors. Neither latelyexisted in the United States preferredinternational boundaries and to collectcustoms didCanada have acompletely independent judiciary. Itshighest court of againstEngland will betransferred dutiesfrom American gold seekers entering the country. to Canada.The United States will appealwas still theJudicial Committee of thePrivy Council in London. In 1903,the United States and Britain set up a commission say,and say justly, "Here, when ofthree Americans and three British representatives-one twonations like England and the CANAPA-U-$. RELATIONS fromBritain and two British-appointedCanadians-to settle UnitedStates have settled all their Britainhad its own relationshipwith the UnitedStates, and this thedispute. During negotiations, the Americans refused to differencesand all their quarrels giveup Skagway. The votewas four two support upona perpetualbasis, these relationshipinfluenced itsdecisions onbehalf of Canada. Several post- final to in of a boundaryfavourable to the United States.The two happyresults are to befrustrated Confederationissues made many Canadians believe that Britaindid not andendangered bythe Canadian putCanadian interests first when representing them to theUnited States. Canadiansfelt betrayed by the British representative, who people...." hadsided with the threeAmericans in an effort to maintain TUE TREATYOF WA5MIMOTON.1871 Britainsgood relations with the United States. The boundary - PrimeMinister John A. Macdonald,speaking inthe 1871,tensions between the United States and Britain were still settlementwent ahead, although the Canadian negotiators In Canadianclaim Houseof Commons,May 3, 1872 angrilyrefused to signthe announcement of the settlement. simmeringfrom theAmerican Civil War (1861-1865),when Britain United States claim hadremained officially neutral so it couldcontinue to tradewith the -.. - Boundarysettlement, eoUNDARVWATERS TREATY, 1909 1903 southernstates. There were other issues ofcontention aswell, including In 1909,Canada once again asserted itself-this timewith Rgure10-3 On May 3, 1871,the Treaty of Americanships fishing illegally in Canadian waters and disagreements more success.Because of increasedindustrialization in the late Washingtonwas signed. Prime Minister overnavigation rights on the St. LawrenceRiver. Macdonald,oneof the treaty's negotiators, wantmgto restore good relations, British and American delegations nineteenthcentury, both Canada and the United States were using the is in the centreof the backrow. met in Washington.In recognitionof Canada'sinterest in someof the waterresources along their border for waste disposal, particularly along the mattersunder discussion. Prime Minister John A. GreatLakes. Asa result, both countries were concerned about decreasing Macdonaldwas invited to be oneof five British waterquality. At internationalcongresses in 1894 and 1895, the Canadian commissioners.This wasthe first time a Canadianhad delegateintroduced aresolution suggesting thata more permanent '^ beenincluded on a British team negotiating aninternational commissionbeset up to jointlymanage the shared water resources. The treaty.However, Macdonald had little Influenceover the resolutionwas adopted unanimously, andthe International Waterways negotiations,andthe agreement settled many British and Commissionoperated from 1905 to 1913. Even though negotiations hadto Americanissues, but satisfiedfew Canadianinterests. includeLondon, the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909helped toestablish arelationship of equality between Canada and the United States. The Readthe Voices feature on this page. Why did Prime treatyset up a commissionwith anequal representation of Americans and MinisterMacdonald sign the treaty, even though it did not Canadianswhowould follow agreed-upon stepsto resolve, and prevent, giveCanada everything he wanted? waterdisputes along Canada-United States boundaries.
CLUSTERSBecoming . a Sovereign Nation (1867-1931) .MHR KlHR TheFirst World War and Beyond CHAPTER10 LAURIER ANP CANAPIAN FOREKSNAFFAIRS INSTITUTIONS
AUTONOMY . Canada'spursuit of moreinternational autonomy was formalized in 1909,when Prime Minister Laurier established Canada's Department of THE &OER WAR, 1899-1902 ExternalAffairs. That sameyear, Canada and the United States ^- createdthe International Joint Commission (IJC) to serveas Throughouthis years as Canadian prime minister, from a permanentmeans of resolvingCanadian-American border 1896to 1911, Wilfrid Laurier worked successfully tobring disputes.The IJC still existstoday. Canadagreater autonomy from Britain. One opportunity- ^<-» resultedfrom the BoerWar in SouthAfrica. Like Canada. . f?? UAVALSERVICE CR1515 ^ SouthAfrica was a colonyof Britain.Descendants of Dutch settlers,called Boers, had established two independent Laurier'sfinal assertionof theright of Canadato makeits republicsin SouthAfrica decadesearlier. Hostilities ownforeign affairs policies occurred during the creation of the Figure10-5 This photo shows Canadian Canadiannavy. In 1909,Britain and Germany were in a racefor infantrymenfighting against the Boers in betweenthe Boers and the British had been ongoing since then, mainly worldnaval superiority. Tensions had been growing in Europe, SouthAfrica on February 18, 1900, overthe control ofgold-rich territories. In October1899, the Boers declaredwar on Britain. especiallybetween Britain and Germany. Britain had the largest Britainexpected Canada's military help, but Prime navalBeet, but Germany was expanding itsown navy. It wanted Minister Laurierhesitated. He did not believeCanada had to expandits territory and takeover British and Frenchcolonies. Figure10-7 These are the first recruits for theCanadian navy in November 1910, In to automaticallycome to the aid of Britain. But shouldit? Britainasked Canada and other members of the British Empire to help battleships, asdreadnoughts. thebackground, youcan see the mast of Canadahad a standing army of just over 3000 troops and fundthe building of its known HMCSNiobe,oneof the Canadian navy's therewere about 70 000 men in local militias. Launer knew ? In 1909,Britains navy was Canada's only naval defence. For many vessels. it mightbe difficult to raiseenough volunteers to send a years,however, Members of Parliamenthad discussed creating alocal naval significantforce. militiafor policing Canadian waters, especially for monitoring fishing Canadianswere divided about whether they should activity.Most Members of Parliamentagreed that the solution for Canada was moveahead plans establishits own fleet. However,Britain supportBritain and, if so,how. Many believed that the to with to BoerWar, halfwayaround the world, had little to do with thenpressured the Canadian government to include a dreadnought,three Canada.This groupincluded many French Canadians, new destroyers,three cruisers, and threesubmarines in the Canadianfleet. immigrantsto Canada,and nationalists, people who put Laurierinsisted that "weare not to bestampeded from what has been the Canada'sinterests above those of theBritish Empire. The settledpolicy and deliberate course which we have laid down, by any hasty, feverishaction, however spectacular such action may be." nationalistsdid not want to sacrifice Canadian lives to protect Britains empire.Henri Bourassa,a French-CanadianLiberal In 1910,Laurier introduced a bill to createthe navy. The Naval t anttended in Quebecas a tfaitor to the FrencUnd IBQntanfi as a Memberof Parliamentand nationalist,believed Canada ServiceBill proposeda naval college and a smallCanadian navy of traitorto theEnglish. .In . Quebec shouldtake care of its own interests first. He argued against elevenships-without an expensive dreadnought. The bill specifically rejectedcontributing moreships navy,but I amattacked as an imperialist and aprecedent Canada fundsto build for theBritish setting forinvolving in Britain'smilitary in Ontarioas an anti-impenalist I it establishedthe principle that, in theevent of warand with agreement conflictsOther people the imperialists, supported strong am neither:I am Canadian. fromParliament, Britain could use the Canadian navy. tiesto Britain.They believed Canada had a duty to support -Prime MinisterWilfrid Lawier, Figure10-6 This 1899 cartoon by Henri the mothercountry. Thebill wasdebated fiercely. Although it passed,once again Laurier's duringthe election of 191 1 Julienshows Prime Minister Laurier solutionwas met with general dissatisfaction. Theimperialists believed the layinglow while Canadian volunteers ^, Atthis time, why do you think French Canadians usually had newCanadian force-what they called a "tin potnavy"-was inadequate. marchto war.Why? Most Canadians nationalistviews and English-speaking Canadians usually had imperialist Thenationalists believed Laurier had gone too far in supportingBritain and viewedLaurier's decision about Canada's views? weredispleased that Canada's navy was available for Britain'suse. Laurier was involvementin the BoerWar as a notre-elected in 1911,in partbecause of thenaval controversy. compromisethat satisfied few. PrimeMinister Laurier decided not to send the Canadian Army, . ^AtWAMI. fif&.L^, -AA .._^-m^^. ^^. -.«B»rf-^'. dtos*^'^^0.,,^ butinstead torecruit volunteers whowould join the British Army 0 A;x"':te^ iti&t. j^-'mj &. 'is-. . whenthey reached South Africa. Britain agreed topay the soldiers and RECALL... REFLECT ... RE^FONP transportthem home at theend of thewar. More than 8000Canadians assertedadegree servedinthe three-year conflict. Laurier's compromise 1. Howwould you checkto see if the words in the 2. Selectthreeevents described on pages 286to ofCanadian autonomy: Canada had supported Britain, but had it ") Voicesfeature on this pagewere actually said by (^', 289and explain their significance inthe history of successfullysetthe conditions for its participation. Prime Minister Laurier? Canada'sautonomy.
3. Describetwo historicalperspectives on the Naval ^~'^ ServiceBill. What is your opinion ofthe bill?
CLUSTER3 Becominga Sovereign Nation (1867-1931) .MHR MHR .The . First World War and Beyond CHAPTER. 10 TH£ FIRSTWORW WAR TKE ALLIANCESDRAW EUROPE INTO WAR In 1914,this volatile mix of suspicionand competition ignited into all-out war.On June28, 1914,a radicalSerbian nationalist shot and killed the CAU^E^ OP TKE PtR$T WORLP WAR ArchdukeofAustria-Hungary, Franz Ferdinand, and his wife. Duchess As 1914 dawned, a combination of four main fact ors-militarism Sophia.In response,Austria-Hungary made several demands of Serbia. WhenSerbia did not agree to meet all the demands, Austria-Hungary (abelief in thenecessity ofbuilding and maintaaaing astrong military declaredwar on Serbia on August 1. Due to itsmilitary alliance, Russia force),imperialism, nationalism, and military alliances-set the scene ally, for warin Europe. -; cameto the defence ofSerbia, its ally. Germany, Austria-Hungary's declaredwaron Russia and then ot France.Enroute to attacking France, Germanyinvaded neutral Belgium. Britain had an agreement to assist Figure1(^8 The Triple Alliance and Triple Entente, 1914 MILITAR15M Belgiumif everit wasattacked, and France was Britain's ally, so Britain
In theearly twentieth ©sntury, European nations, declared a the TripleAlliance war on Germanyon August 4. Canada,as memberof TripleEntente especiallyGermany, begin to buildup their BritishEmpire, was automatically at war. Neutral,1914-1918 militaryarsenals in orderto competewith Britain, F',What kind of graphicorganizer would you use to bestindicate the ff
. a need employmentor a kilometres '^w Nationalismled some Europeans to want for to be united with others the sameethnic desirefor adventure-resulted . '' '"". -.. . - . -.-. -. -,».... Militaryalliances played akey role in the of in 30 000 menregistering to FirstWorld War. Italy was an original background.Austria-Hungary, for example, was home to 50million fightin just overone month. memberofthe Triple Alliance, but it didnot Austrians,Hungarians, Bosnians, Ukrainians, Serbs, and other groups. Most the troopstrained allywith them when the fighting started. Manyof thegroups wanted their own independent countries. For of at Valcartier,near Quebec InApril 1915, Italy officially changed its example,many Serbs living in Bosniaand Herzegovina, which was part allegianceto the Triple Entente, Some ofAustria-Hungaryat this time,wanted liberation from Austrian control City. On October3, 1914,the first contingentof neutralcountries, such as Portugal, Belgium, andto become part of Serbia. Many Serbian nationalists in Serbia agreed. Canadian ,/ Romania,and Greece, joined Entente soldiers Britain. the At thesame time, Serbia feared being taken over by Austria-Hungary. leftfor Many ^ sidelater in thewar, while some, such as believedthey would be home by Turkeyand Bulgaria, joined the Alliance side. MILfTARVALLIANCES Christmas.
Membersofa military alliance promise one another mutual military supportif attacked byanother country There were two major military alliancesin Europe in 1914:the Triple Entente, or Allies, which included Rgure10-9This photo shows Britain,Russia, and France, and the Triple Alliance, orCentral Powers, twentymen and two instructors whichincluded Italy, Austria-Hungary, andGermany. Thenetwork of (inpeaked caps) at a militia militaryalliances established asystem in which even asmall conflict could trainingcamp in Manitobain 1915. quicklyspread throughout the continent and beyond.
CLUSTER3 . Becominga Sovereign Nation (1867-1931) .MHR MHR* TheFirst World War and Beyond, CHAPTER . 10 Figure1MO The First World War Western Front, 1914-1918" TRENCH WARFARE i, Thismap shows the front lines on the Western Front between 1914 and 1918. In PICYURI - UFg ^ TH£ TReNC(4e5 ThoughGermany came close to takingParis, thischapter, youwill read about some ofthe major battles inwhich Canada was thecapital of France,in late1914, the Allies i involved.Asyou do, turn back and locate them on this map. preventedthis. Both sidessettled into a series .^ Rgure10-13 Soldiers suffered from ^ *-^. '
CLUSTERSBecoming . a.Sovereign Nation (1867-1931) MHR uwS. .The First World War and Beyond CvwrrvR\Q . ( 293) h| w yi\W7\W. ra^raTW T ^- - - .."i."
/V14JORCANAPIAN BATTLED IN TME FIR^T WORLP WA Canadiansmade significant contributions to the FirstWorld 'Wa on 3 theWestern Front, as well ason thesea and in the air.The Canadian:1 ExpeditionaryForce gained a reputationfor beingcapable and 1914, onthe front lines. Canadians on the home front felt pride in their . /henthe war beganin mostpeople called it InFlanders Rdds by John McCrae, 1915 "theGreat War. " Noone called the FirstWorld troops-anda senseof unityas they pulled together to supportthem. ; it fl/arbecause they did not know another war would inFlanders fields the poppies blow some.John McCrae, of Guelph,Ontario, enlisted at Betweenthe crosses, row on row, k TUB 5ECOND&ATTLE OF ypRE. :hebeginning ofthe war. A phy^cian,he became a Thatmark our place; and in the sky The Canadians'first majormilitar irigadesurgeon for soldiersin anartillery brigade. Thelarks, still bravely singing, fly engagementwas near the Belgian VlcCraespent over two weeks helpingthe wounded " Scarceheard amid the guns below. town ofYpres.The Germans troopsand performing surgeries at Ypres.When 8 held the town and were attack!) oneof McCrae'sclosest friends was killed at Ypres, i Weare the Dead. Short days ago - the thesoldier was buriedbeneath a simplewooden the French and British in g Welived, feltdawn, saw sunset glow, cross. poppies alreadybeginning bloom countryside.On April 22, 1915, Wild were to Loved,and were loved, and now we lie betweenthe crossesmarking the manygraves. theGermans released poisonous . InFlanders fields. In responseto what he saw andfelt, McCraewrote chlorinegas to pushback the Allies. thispoem the dayafter his friend was killed, while Soldierschoked, suffocated, and ^ Takeup our quarrel with the foe: stillat the battlefieldatYpres. It wasfirst published died. The Allies retreated and the L Toyou from failing hands we throw anonymouslyin Punch, a Britishmagazine, in the ^ Thetorch, be yours to holdit high. Canadiansstepped in to fill the '.u- December8, 1915,issue. Within months it was the gap.They, too, werehit with the ' mostpopular English poem about the FirstWorld Ifye break faith with us who die chlorinegas, but they held the line. War.It is still recitedtoday by childrenand adults 1 Weshall not sleep, though poppies grow Somebreathed through urine- alikeas they rememberthe war dead,especially on i In Flandersfields. Figure10-17 The Second Battle of Ypres, soakedhandkerchiefs to survive. RemembranceDay. 22Apr!/ to 25May, 1915, by Richard Jack, Althoughhampered by jammed rifles, the Canadians prevented the LieutenantColonel John McCrae died of pneumonia ca.1915. This painting was commissioned Germansfrom advancing.However, victory did not comewithout a cost. andmeningitis on January28, 1918. bythe Canadian War Memorials Fund, In fony-eighthours of fighting,there were 6035 Canadian casualties. Of whichwas founded to recordCanada's these,more than 2000 died. The battle lasted until May 25. Word of the wareffort. Jack, Canada's first official war greateffort and courage of theCanadians spread around the world, and artist,was not at the battle. He mainly evenafter only one major battle, Canadians gained a reputationas a force Figure10-19 This fundraising poster was usedphotographs taken at the battle as to be reckoned with. used sellVictory Bonds Canada 1917. referencesforthe painting. To use these to in in paintingsas historical resources, what Peoplewho bought the government's Victory Bondscould cash them in at the end of the issuesmust you consider? warfor face value plus 5percent interest. The moneyraised went to support the war effort. Mc&ae'spoem was translated intomany languagesandused inmanyfundraising Rgure10-18 When the First World War began, Canada campaignsduring the course ofthe war. How hadno air force and a small navy more appropriate for doyou think McCrae might have felt about his patrollingCanadian shorelines than for fighting awar. poembeing used in this way? By1918, Canada hadmore than 100 ships escorting / convoysoftroops and supplies across the Atlantic. Would-beaviators joined the British Royal Flying Corps orthe Royal Naval Air Service. By war's end, about . "yw^. ^-^-i.v ^ 40percent ofBritain's pilots were Canadian, including 1. Whois the narrator ofthis poem? Why do you think oneof the war's most successful "aces, " fighterpilot toneof the third stanza and how it mighthave affected McCraemade this choice to expressthe sentiments in W.A. "Billy" Bishop, shown in this photo. What do you s^--^, readers.How do you think^eaders of othernations - the poem? think an "ace"was? 1EyS mighthave felt if theyreacfthis poem during the same -^ time 2. Howdo you think most Canadians might have felt as period? ; theyread this poem in 1915?In particular, describe the
CLUSTER3 . Becominga Sovereign Nation (1867-1931) * MHR MHRt'''The . First. ^yorld War and Beyond CHAPTER. 10, ^.'y" :-(f*U\TT-n2 ^
TME &ATTLE OF T14E50MME Figure10-20 This photo shows soldiers in theNewfoundland Regiment ina support Earlyin 1916,the Western Front was still at a stalemate. Allied troops trenchon July 1, 1916,before the Battle decidedto try to pushback the Germans at theSomme Valley in ofthe Somme. northernFrance Newfoundland, aBritish dominion at the time, had sem troopsto fightalongside the Allies, and its regiment of closeto 700men Thereare different opinions on the significanceof Otherhistorians say the battle'simportance to Canada wasat the Somme. For over one week, the Allies bombarded theGerman theBattle of. VimyRidge. Many historians explain its is exaggerated.Their reasons include the following: troopsto destroytheir barbedwire and trenchesand weakentheir importanceto Canada: . Whatmany Canadians call the "BattleofVimy defence. 1, attackbegan. Tens thousandsBritish Then,on July the of of . Thebattle atVimy representedthe first time in over Ridge," other people consider a minor event in the andFrench troops poured over the top through no man's land toward the twoyears that the Allies had acHSfeved victory. It gave war.For example, Canadian historian Michael Valpy Germantrenches. The Newfoundland Regiment advanced near the town allthe Allied forces, including Canadian troops, hope. refersto eventsat Vimy Ridgeas "a minorbattle for of Beaumont-Hamel. . All fourof Canada'sarmy divisions fought a Frenchhill." Theresult was catastrophic forthe Allies. The Germans had dug in togetherfor thefirst timeat VimyRidge. After . Thebattle was not won by Canadians alone. Many deeplyand were ready for the attack. German artillery fire devastated Vimy,the Canadiancontribution was recognized Britishofficers, tacticians, artillery, and supporting waveafter wave of advancingsoldiers. Ninety percent of thesoldiers in bythe creationof the CanadianCorps, Canada's Britishinfantry fought with the Canadiansto win theNewfoundland Regiment were killed or wounded in onehour. At the independentmilitary unit. controlof VimyRidge. endof the first day of battle,over 20 000 mostly British troops were killed . Canadasucceeded by using superb battle tactics, . Canadianshad just as manycasualties and and 40 000 wounded. suchas designing a full-scalereplica of the battle foughtjust asvaliantly in otherbattles, such as Nevertheless,thebattle continued. Canadian soldiers joined the Allies areamonths before the attackand training in mock Passchendaele,which occurredin the autumnof in Augustand fought with distinction, capturing the German-occupied trenches,rehearsing exactly what Canadianforces 1917.In 1920,Canadian General Arthur Currie,who villageofCourcelette. By the time winter arrived and the battle ended, would do on the day of the battle. It was the first ledthe FirstDivision atVimy Ridge, reflected, "I battle plan that Canada'scommanders conceived about1 250000 Allied andGerman soldiers had died. The Allies ha-d wouldnot want to havethe impression left that Vimy and put into action on their own. advancedtheir position 13 kilometresat most. was our greatest battlefield." . Canadianssucceeded in capturingthe ridgewhen, Weknew very well that we are '.: C^'' ^eadthe Voices feature on this page. How do you think a soldier for overtwo years,the Frenchand British hadfailed headingto ttieslaughterhouse. couldfeel like Tremblay did before abattle? Do you think a soldier to do so. Four Canadiansreceived the Victoria Thetask seems nearly impossible, headinginto a simila.rly diresituation today would feel so determined? Cross,which is the highestmilitary award for valour consideringhow ill prepared Why or why not? in the British armed forces. weare, and how little we know thelayout of the front, Even so, . Manyhistorians suggestthatthe battle played a moraleis wonderfully high and we TMe &ATTLE AT VIMV RIDOE significanthistorical role in Canada'sdevelopment aredetermined showthat we asa nation,especially gainingautonomy from to VimyRidge is a heightof landnear the town ofVimy, France, which lies in Britain.Brigadier-General Alexander Ross, who Canadiansarenot quitters. about40 kilometres north of the Somme Valley, near the French-Belgian foughtat Vimy Ridge, said of the battle, "I thought - CanadianLieutenant Colonel Louis- the border.The Germans had captured theridge near the beginning of then ... that in thosefew minutesI witnessedthe ThomasTremblay's diary entry prior to the war.Its height made it a strategic vantage point and, in addition,arailway a nation." Battleof the Somme, September 19W birth of stretchedfrom its eastern side to Vimy and onward into Germany. The =?> railwaywas useful for transporting supplies and soldiers into the region. ....A_. _.. BetweenApril 9 and 14, 1917,the Allies Figure10-22 The Vimy Monument, erected atthe highest point ofVimy Ridge, was unveiledin1936 asa tribute tothe Canadians whofought towin the ridge. Itis meant to madeathird attempt to captureVimy Ridge, , honourthedead, not to glorify their battle victory, Doyou think having awar memorial, withthe Canadians taking a majorrole. andnot a victory monument, reflects achange inhistorical perspective? If so,how? UnderBritish General Sir Julian Byng, four .tt,^ r divisionsofCanadian soldiers-totalling IF-; ^ 100000 men-fought together asa single Researchopinions on the significanceof the Battle HistorianGeoffrey Hayes, associate director the unit;each division was led by a Canadian 2. of ofVimy Ridgefor Canada.Create a chart with two Centrefor MilitaryStrategic and Disarmament Studies commander.The attackwas successful, and columns,each side representing one opinion. inWaterloo, Ontario, says, "Mythology isa funnything. theCanadians took the ridge. (a) Listreasons to supporteach opinion. Wedon't need to knowwhat happened, we simply needto knowwhat the myth tells us is significant.... (b) Basedon your chart, choose the position you VimyRidge has become so closelyassociated with support and explainwhy. Figure10-21 This photo shows soldiers returning fromthe Canadaas a nationthat in someways it almostdoesn't trenchesofthe Battle of the Somme in 1916. matterwhat happened there. " Whatis hesaying about historicalsignificance? What do you think of this view?
CLUSTER3 . Becominga Sovereign Nation (1867-1931) .MHR TUE &ATTLEOF PA55CUEMDAELE CANAPIAN^ ON TME HOME FRONT Afterthe strong performance ofhis division at Vimy Ridge, Arthur Figure10-24 In this 1918 photo, women Anocean away from the battlefields, Canada was a safe place in which Carriewas promoted and eventually made commander-in-chief of the areat work in the Canadian Aeroplanes to train menfor war,especially for air warfare,and to manufactureand newlyformed Canadian Corps. In October1917, he and his troops were factory.Up to 30000 Canadian women producewartime goods. The high demand for food, uniforms, munitions orderedto takePasschendaele Ridge as part of alarger battle to break foundwork as labourers in the new (weaponsandammunition), equipment, and other products was good iSil Figure10-23 This photo, taken on throughthe German lines at Ypres. Carrie argued forcefully against munitionsfactories. They often worked forCanadian businesses. Thecountry experienced significant economic November1917 after the Battle of engagingin thisbattle. Years of shelling,combined with autumnrains, alongsidemen and performed the same growth.Wages went up, and jobs became plentiful. As demand for wheat tasks.However, inmany cases, women Passchendaele,shows soldiers of the16th hadcreated awet, muddy, uneven quagmire ofa battlefield. In addition, soared,prairie farmers focused l^eir efforts on production and export. werepaid half the wages men were paid. CanadianMachine Gun Company taking Carriebelieved the British officials in chargewere disorganized and Canadaalso exported meat andv:heese tofeed the troops overseas. shelterinmuddy shell holes, ^ incompetent.His troops would have little preparation time and sparse Prior thewar, Canada had one munitions-producing factory. artillerysupport, so he feared heavy losses. to In 1915,the British created an Imperial Munitions Board in Canada Curries protestswere dismissed. On October26, the Canadiansand toproduce weapons and ammunition and, by 1917, was the largest twoBritish divisions were ordered to begintheir advance. By October 30, it they reachedthe outskirtsof Passchendaelein a violent rainstorm. businessin Canada, employing 150 000 workers. Many other Often manufacturersconverted their operations to make munitions. By 1918, waist-deepin mud, they held on, even as they were swelled by Canadawas manufacturing airplanes and airplane engines, guns, cargo theGermans. On November 7,the 27th (City ofWinnipeg) Battalion ships,chemicals, weapons War-relatedmanufacturing in capturedthe village. On November10, the Canadians captured andother ofwar. Canadaincluded 1500 factories employedover people. PasschendaeleRidge. However, as Carrie had predicted, the cost had and 300000 beenhigh. There were 4000 deaths and over 12 wounded.Many 000 WOMEN'5CUAMGING ROLES haddrowned in themud. The totalnumber of Allieskilled or wounded wasabout 250 000. The Germannumber was similar. The Battle of In 1914,some women worked outside the home, but their job choices were Passchendaelebecame regarded by many as one of themost futile battles oftenrestricted tolow-paying work, such as teaching, domestic labour, in the war, with an enormousloss of human livesthat achievedno andlow-skilled factory work With 620 000 Canadian men fighting significantgain. overseasduring the course ofthe war, women were encouraged totake onskilled work at munitionsfactories. Women also ran businesses or '1|^Can moral codes be applied to militarydecisions during wartime? Isit workedonfarms, assisting with the harvest. Women's volunteer groups, unethicalsend people battleswhere clear alarge number to into it is that suchas the Red Cross and the Good Government Club, rallied to support oflives will belost? Explain whether you agree or disagree. Canadiantroops. Women sewed pyjamas and socks and sent care packages Rgure10-25 This poster, produced containingthings like toothpaste and writing supplies totroops overseas. CANADA'5 UUN&REDDAY^ between1917 and 1918, was direct in Thecontributions Canadian women during the of itsrequest tothe Canadian public to buy warwere a keycomponent to Canada'ssuccesses in the InApril 1917, the United States declared war against Germany, although ^ war bonds. it did notjoin thefighting until 1918.In December1917, Russia warand growth asa nation. However,when the war .. ^^. withdrewfrom the war and negotiated atreaty with Germany, and the ended,women were expected to returnto thehome. ; Germanslaunched a new offensiveon the WesternFront. Canadianshad Not all wishedto do so.Women used their wartime distinguishedthemselves atthe battles ofYpres, the Somme, Vimy Ridge, contributionsto argue for greater equality in post-war CHECK^MCK andPasschendaele. They continued to provethemselves aseffective and Canadiansociety, including the right to vote. You learned about the capablemembers ofthe Allied fighting force over the final 100 days of the contributionsof First Nations, WAR M^tis, and Inuit volunteers to warOn August 8, 1918, General Currie led the Canadian Corps at the EXPEN5E5 Canada'swar effort in Chapter9. BattleofAmiens, one of thefirst of manycounteroffensives that would Althoughthe war effort benefited the Canadian leadto theend of thewar. Canadians captured over 5000 Germans on the economy,the costs of financingthe war quickly became firstday of the battle and pushed back the German line. On September 2, staggeringlyhigh. To raise funds, the federal government » theyhelped tobreak Germany's main line of defence, theHindenburg introducedabusiness tax in 1916,and in 1917,the Line.The Allied forces continued toadvance, attacking time and again governmentintroduced an income tax, originally withaircraft, tanks, and infantry. The tide had turned. On November1, plannedas a temporarymeasure, but never removed. despiteexhaustion and substantial troop losses, the Canadians took back Thegovernment also borrowed money from American thetown ofValenciennes, France, from the Germans. On November 10, banks,going into debt for over $1 billion, and it sold theytook the Belgian townofMons, capturing over 30 000 German $600million worth of Victory Bonds and Thrift Stamps. ' soldiers.At 11o'clock on November 11, 1918, an armistice, a cessationof hostilities,took effect.The war wasover.
CLUSTER3 . Becominga Sovereign Nation (1867-1931) * MHR MHft . TheFirsi 299 ) fal i>' ^P^FAGANPA ANP ENL1$T/Y\ENT Thefederal government worked hard to getCanadians to support the ,yareffort. Speeches, posters, and full-page advertisements in newspapers In October1914, the Conservativegovernment of Theinterned men were forced to buildroads and communicatedthe government's message. Much of the communication The RobertBorden passed the War MeasuresAct. railways,work in mines,and clear land. The internee, waspropaganda, which is a form of communication aimed at influencing act permittedthe governmentto passlaws without at CastleMountain Internment Camp in Alberta,for theattitude of readersor observersin orderto movethem toward a the approvalof ParliamentwhileCanada was at war. nion. example,helped develop Banff NationalPark. The s particularopi Most posters producedby the government during the In addition,the act gavethe governmentthe power internmentof enemyaliens continued for two years FirstWorld War served one offo^r purposes: to censorthe news media,tell manufacturersand In 1917,some internment camps were dismantled. . . to encourageyoung men to enlist farmerswhat they must produce, and imprison people Someinterneeswere relocatedwithin Canada. without trial. interneeswere released as the economyexpanded . to urgeCanadians to buy Victory Bonds to helppay for thewar as Thegovernment could also label people and employersneeded workers for their factories. . to convinceCanadians to conserve food, so that the troops could have "enemyaliens. " Enemyaliens were people who had more immigratedfrom nations now considered the enemy. . to urgeCanadians to contributeto thePatriotic Fund, which assisted In particular,the governmentwas suspicious of the millionor moreimmigrants from Germany and the thefamilies of menfighting overseas Austria-Hungarianempire, especially the Ukrainians, However,as the war progressed, Canadians learned about conditions Austrians,Poles, Czechs, and Slovaks,who had been onthe front from newspaperaccounts and from wounded veterans who encouragedto settle the West. The government Figure10-26 This photograph shows agroup of Ukrainian internet hadreturned home. Many families had lost loved ones, and the casualty fearedthey were still loyalto theirhomelands and in December1916. Why do you think it wasprimarily men who / listspublished in Canadiannewspapers made the human costs of thewar Figure10-27 How did this First World mightbecome spies and sabotage the war wereinterned? Warrecruitment poster try to persuade effort. clear.As the war showed no sign of ending,some Canadians lost their initial enthusiasm. Letters from soldiers moreCanadians to enlist? The governmentlabelled more than overseasdescribed the horrible conditions 80000 people as enemyaliens. They were forcedto registerwith the policeand in thetrenches, devastating casualties, and carry identification paperswith them at problemswith shoddyequipment. For all times.Canadian employers fired some example,until 1916,Canadian soldiers were enemyaliens from their jobs. Their clubs issuedRoss Rifles that performed poorly in and churcheswere closed,and their thetrenches, often jamming or misfiring.In homes and businesses were vandalized. addition,many Canadians had lucrative jobs Schools and universities were not allowed ;-s in the boomingwar industries.The number to teach German.The public pressuredthe of enlistingsoldiers dropped. governmentto fire governmentofficials of When Prime Minister Borden visited German descent. thetroops overseas in thesummer of 1915, In addition,more than 8579 enemy hewas moved by theirefforts and sacrifices, aliens,mostly menof Ukrainianand enduring ||lal1 Germandescent, were placed in twenty- andthe harsh conditions they were in the trenches. He was also concerned four internmentcamps across Canada. aboutthe thegrowing number of casualties, butBritain was pressing the Canadian governmentto providemore reinforcements. At thebeginning of 1916,Borden announced that Canadawould maintain a forceof 1. Why doyou think the governmentfelt it necessary 2. Inwhat types of situationsmight governments 500000 troops. This was a largenumber to enactthe WarMeasures Act7 How do youthink todayhave difficulty both protecting their citizens consideringCanada's population was eight Canadianscitizens felt aboutit, especiallythose who andupholding human rights and freedoms? In what millionpeople. Borden's promise resulted in were manufacturersor newimmigrants? Explain situationsmight a governmentbe inclined to prioritize a moreconcerted effort to getCanadians to whether or not you think it was ethical to enactthe oneover the other?Which do you think should be the War Measures Act. priority? voluntarilyenlist. The propaganda campaign intensified. 3 . Becominga SovereignNation (1867-1931) * MHR MHR'*The First World 'War and Beyond CHAPTER 10 CON5CRIPTIOMCRI$1$ O-T-UEROPP051TIOM In 1917,however, enlistment campaigns fell short of theirtargets. This Othersobjected to conscriptionaswell. Organized labour, such as the meantCanadian soldiers lost in battlewere not being replaced. There was CanadianTrade and Labour Congress, opposed the measure. Farmers, onlyone way the government could maintain the number troops had CaecKfacK of it especiallyin the prairie provinces, relied on their young men to operate their guaranteed.Despite his 1914pledge not to conscripttroops, in May1917 familyfarms. The difficult work was time consuming and labour-intensive. Youread about conscription Bordenannounced his plans to passthe Military Service Act, which would ^lanyfarmers worried that they would lose their farms if theirsons and in Chapter8. includeconscription. farmhandswere forced to serveoverseas. Some Canadians were conscientious Theannouncement divided Parliament along French and English objectors,opposed tofighting on the basis of their religious ormoral lines.Although French Canadians had not been against Canada's beliefs.After conscripuon wasenacte3t conscientious objectors who refused involvementin the war, they were nearly unanimous in opposing inilitaryinvolvement were persecuted andjailed, even though the Canadian CQnscupdon.Most French Canadians did not feel an allegiance to governmenthad previously promised some groups, such as the Mennonites eitherFrance orBritain, and they did not believe the war had anything andHutterkes, that they would be exempt from military service. Figure10-28 Canadian Enlistments and to dowith theirsafety or Canada'ssecurity. In addition,some French Ourfirst My isto winat anycost Casualties.1917 Canadianswho volunteered toserve overseas reported that they had not T«E 1917 ELECTIOM thecoming election sothat we may Whymight casualties have been higher in beentreated well. The First Division had gone to Europewith a French- continueto doour part in winning TheMilitary Service Act ^became law on August 29, 1917. Prime Minister speakingbrigade as a singleunit. However,once there, the soldiers had the warand that Canadabe not April,May, and November? Tohelp you with Bordenasked Wilfrid Laurier, the leader of theopposition, tojoin youranswer, review the events of theFirst beenseparated and distributedto other battalionswhere instructions disgraced. withhim in forminga "uniongovernment" that would make way for WorldWar discussed earlier inthis chapter. andorders were given only in English.Hearing of theseproblems, fewer theact and eliminate two-party politics. However, only nine Liberal - PrimeMinister Robert Borden, writing Whatmight explain the highs and lows of FrenchCanadians volunteered, andtensions increased between English in hisdiary, September 1917 andindependent Members ofParliament agreed tojoin. In December, enlistmentsthroughout the year? andFrench Canadians on the home front. English Canadians were Bordencalled an election, and conscripdon was the main issue. Borden's unableto understandthe factorsthat influencedthe FrenchCanadians' 'u^'^y' government passed WartimeElections help win perspectives.They scornedFrench Canadians and accusedthem of not then the Actto hisparty January 9194 4396 doing their part. theelection. The Wartime Elections Actgave the vote to peoplelikely to February 6809 1250 supportconscription, such as women with relativesfighting overseas. However,the same act took the vote away from immigrants from "enemy" March 6640 6161 countrieswho had becomeCanadian citizens after 1902.Mennonites Figure10-29 This anti-conscription protest was held on April 5530. 13477 didnot regain the vote until 1920. On election day, Borden's Union May24, 1917,inVictoria Square, Montreal. May 6407 13457 Governmentwon with a sizeablemajority. June 6348 7931 1How do you think people felt about Borden's tactics during the 1917 July 3882 7906 election?Consider this question from a variety of perspectives, suchas August 3117 13232 aFrench Canadian, aprairie farmer, awoman with family members September 3588 10930 overseas,German or Mennonite immigrants, soldiers overseas, injured solidersat home,and so on. October 4884 5929 November 4019 30741 Figure10-30 The Canadian soldiers December 3921 7476 inthis photograph arevoting from Total 64339 122946 overseasin the federal election of 1917, ^;: Whymight Prime Minister Borden havewanted to makesure soldiers had accessto a voting poll in this particular election?How do you think soldiers wouldhave felt about voting in the election? CLUSTER3 . Becominga.Sovereign Nation (1867-1931) .MHR MHR .The First World War and Beyond CHAPTER. 10 TH£ WAR ANP SOVEREIGNTY IMPERIALWAR CABINET Canadamade significant contributions tothe Allies throughout the First PrimeMinister Borden's adoption of conscriptionwas highly controversial. Read the following WorldWar. In return.Prime Minister Borden expected greater dialogue It canhardly be eypected thatwe ': viewpointsfrom the ConscriptionCrisis of 1917. betweenCanada and Britain. Despite travelling to Britainseveral times in shallput 400000 or 500ODD men thefirst two yearsof the war, he wasneither consulted, nor eveninformed inthe field and willingly aecept the Thisexcerpt froma speechgiven by PRIME is Thisexcerpt is from an article by HENRI BouRASSAthat byBritain on war policy or^lanning. To his anger and frustration, the positionof havingno more voice MINISTERBORDEN before the Houseof Commonson appearedin the QuebecDaily Telegraph, a Montreal primeminister of Canadawas expected to relyon the press for newsof andreceiving no more consideration May 18,1917: newspaper, in 1917: thewar, like any other British or Canadiancitizen. thanif wewere toy automata, In December1916, Britain elected a new prime minister, which -Prime MinisterRobert Borden, Whathave we done in thiswar?... It isa greateffort, Conscriptionissure to bringserious troubles in the labour broughta significantchange in Britishpolicy toward Canada and the January4, W16 butgreater still is needed. Hitherto, we have depended circles.Indiscriminate enlistment has already disorganized otherdominions, which included Newfoundland, South Africa, New uponvoluntary enlistment.... It is apparent to methat labourconditions..., There isalso in Canada alarge 1 Zealand,and Australia. British Prime Minister David Lloyd George thevoluntary system will not yield further substantial foreignelement to whichconscription isdistasteful to the - believedthat, to defeatthe Triple Alliance, the Allies needed more results.... extreme.... Thesituation and sentimentsof the French i helpfrom the dominions. Lloyd George stated his belief that Britain's Allcitizens are liable to militaryservice for the defence of Canadians,who form between one-third and one-fourth of dominionsshould "feel that theyhave a sharein our councilsas well as theircountry, and I conceivethat the battlefor Canadian thepopulation of Canada, have also to bereckoned with. in our burdens." libertyand autonomy isbeing fought to-day on the plains Suchsilly things have appeared about them in someof the Heinvited the prime ministers ofthe various dominions to gather of Franceand of Belgium.There are other places besides the English-Canadianpapers... that elementary truths have to ' inLondon to forman Imperial War Cabinet. "I want to say that we feel soilof a countryitself where the battlefor its libertiesand be recalled.... thetime has come, " hetold Parliament, "when the Dominions ought to its institutionscan be fought; and I ventureto thinkthat, Withoutany previous declaration of war, Canada has i; bemore formally consulted as to theprogress and course of theWar, as if thiswar should end in defeat, Canada, inall the years thrownherself into the conflict as a meresatellite of Great !1 tothe steps that ought to be taken to secure victory, and as to thebest methodsof garneringin thefruits of theirefforts as well as of our own." to come,would be under the shadow of Germanmilitary Britain.She was not forced to doso, either by constitution >, domination.... orprevious understandings.. .. ti PrimeMinister Borden was pleased. The Imperial War Cabinet, made upof representativesfrom Canadaand the other dominions, first meton I bringback to thepeople of Canadafrom these men [the Oppositionto conscription and war-madness in Canada is . |j March2, 1917,todiscuss war policy. Borden was permitted access towar Canadiansoldiers] a message that they need our help, that notanti-patriotic; it is essentially patriotic and dear-sighted. ' presented theyneed to besupported, that they need to besustained, documentshehad previously notbeen able to review. He also Figure10-31 In this photo of the that reinforcementsmust be sent to them.... Common ResolutionIX to the Imperial War Cabinet, which gave the dominions ImperialWar Cabinet meeting inLondon recognitionas autonomous nations of an Imperial Commonwealth,and gratitude,apart from all other considerations, should in 1917,you can see Prime Minister Thisexcerpt is from a 1917article about conscription theresolution was passed. bringthe wholeforce of thisnation behind them. I have Bordenseated third from the right in the that appearedin SaturdayNight, a magazinefounded promised,in so far as I amconcerned, that this help shall be frontrow. British Prime Minister Lloyd in Toronto,Ontario, in 1887: jt Whatcircumstances brought about changes in Britain's policy toward given.... Canada? Georgesits fourth from the right. I [It]is certainly not the intention ofEnglish Canada tostand j idlyby and see itself bled white ofmen inorder that the j Quebecshirker may sidestep his responsibilities. ^Pi. ORATtONS v ^ 1. What might have been some reasonsfor the different 2. ManyCanadians at the timeof the FirstWorld War <§;;perspectives shown on this page? (^) belleYed.conscriptlonwasnot ethical. Why might they . havebelieved this? Explain your views on this issue. MHR . TheFirst World War and Beyond CHAPTER. 10 EMPTY PROM15E5? Figure10-32 Canadian Gunners inthe TOWARDPOST-WAR AUTONOMY However,despite these political advances,Canada still did not have a Mud,Passchendaele 1917,by Alfred Bastion,1917. Canada had no choice sayin war campaignsinvolving its troops.Serious reservations about Canadacontinued to gainmore autonomy over its own foreign affairs in IBL aboutsending its soldiers into the Battle Passchendaelewere ignored in thefall of 1917,and a furiousPrime thepost-war years. The League of Nationswas formed in 1919to preserve ofPasschendaele. MinisterBorden advised Prime Minister Lloyd George, "I wantto tell internationalpeace. In aneffort to avertwar, forty-four nations agreed on you that, if everthere is a repetitionof the Battle of aprinciple ofcollective security, meaning aggression against one member f Passchendaele,not a Canadian soldier will leavethe wouldbe treated as aggression against all andmight lead to economic shoresof Canadaso long as the Canadianpeople trust sanctionsand the use of militaryforce against the aggressor. Canada thegovernment of theircountry to me." joinedthe League ofNations, tRereby winning recognition that it was Figure10-33 The opening session ofthe Whenthe Imperial War Cabinetmet again in morethan simply acolony of Britain. Although they were unsuccessful, firstassembly ofthe League ofNations thespring of 1918,Prime Minister Lloyd George Canadianofficials lobbied to havethe collective-security provisions inGeneva, Switzerland, took place on suggestedthat a committeeof prime ministersbe removedfrom theLeague charter, November15,1920. formedto examinethe war effort. However,the war ^ arguingthat a smallcountry like " .------. endedbefore the committee took shape. Canadashould have the right (^) Readthe Voices feature on this page. What was to decidewhether to become Bordensuggesting, and how did this demonstrate involvedin military actions. : a hisperspective onCanada's status as a self-governing Canadaalso became member nation? of the International Labour Organization,an agencyof the THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES Leagueof Nations. In 1920, Prime Minister Thewar came to anend on November 11, 1918, and the Treaty of Bordenresigned government Versailleswas drafted and signed at theParis Peace Conference in June from on the insistenceof his doctor. He Unless[Canada] could have that 1919.The termsof thetreaty were harsh. Among other requirements, voicein the foreignrelations of the Germanywas forced to limit thesize of its army,give up all its coloniesin wasreplaced by Arthur Meighen, Empireas a whole,she would before oneyear Africaand the Pacific,and pay the Allies reparations, which are a formof wholed the country for longhave an independent voice in duringthe post-wareconomic compensationgiven by a defeatednation to the victors. herown foreign affairs outside the depression.In the 1921election, Empire. Althoughconscription had created divisions among Canadians, PrimeMinister Borden firmly believedthe country had matured as a WilliamLyon Mackenzie King, -Prime MinisterRobert Borden. 1918 leaderof theLiberal Party, became nationduring the war years. With a populationof onlyeight million, it primeminister. Like Bordenand hadbeen a majorparticipant in thewar. Almost 620 000 Canadianshad Meighen,he alsowanted more servedoverseas. Canada had also made major sacrifices. Over 66 000 Canadiansdied (onein ten who went overseas),and another172 000 were autonomyfor Canada. (^ Let'sDiscuss wounded.The Canadian Expeditionary Force had earned a distinguished record.Fuelled by his pride in Canada'swartime recordand his senseof T14ECUAMAK AFFAIR Whd+do you -Hunk qualrfies nationalism.Prime Minister Borden demanded, and was given, a seatfor Thewar had taught Prime Minister Borden and his successorsnot to be a na+ion-for poli-ticol Canadaat theParis Peace Conference. However, Canada barely played a drawninto foreign entanglements where the fate of Canadiansrelied too andeconomic independence? rolein thenegotiations, and Britain signed the Treaty of Versaillesfor the muchon the decisions of another country. The first real indication of wholeof theBritish Empire. Prime Minister Borden nevertheless insisted PrimeMinister King's pursuit of autonomycame with the Chanak Affair thatCanada sign the Treaty of Versaillesseparately. in 1922.That fall, a smallgroup of Britishsoldiers had been threatened <£ L_ ^\., . 'SU i, ri4-__:^,r "LAB byTurkish nationalist forces in Canakkale(known to theBritish as © ^ ^ 'tU,, ^^-., RBCALL... REFLECT.. . RE^PONP Chanak),asmall seaport southwest ofIstanbul, Turkey. Britain sent a telegramtothe nations in itsempire calling upon them to contribute 1. Which of the majorbattles fought by Canadians 3. Whatsimilarities and differences you thinkthere are soldierstoassist British troops if an open conflict should begin. King (IT^ in the FirstWorld War do you think was the most |^ betweenthe experiencesof Canadiansoldiers in the respondedthat Canada would no longer automatically send troops to aid significant, andwhy do you think so? FirstWorld War and the experiencesof Canadian Britainin foreignconflicts. It was a matter to bedecided by a vote in the soldierson active duty in conflictzones today? Explainhow someCanadians saw PrimeMinister CanadianParliament The crisis in Canakkalesoon passed, butKing had ^"fc 1 Bordenas an imperialist,while others saw him as i onceagain signalled the Canadian desire to controlits own foreign policy nationalist. decisions. © Oi CLUSTER3 . Becominga Sovereign Nation (1867-1931) .MHR MrfR . TheFirst World War and Beyond CHAPTER. 10 TUE UALI&UT TREATY fKE PALFOURREPORT stocks Pacificcoast Canada Afterthe First World War, halibut off the of At the1926 Imperial Conference, Prime Minister King again pursued the Statesbecame endangered overfishing. early andthe United by In goalof greater Canadian autonomy for its foreign affairs. The conference 1923,Canadian and American representatives negotiated a treaty to set concludedwith theBalfour Report, which contained a resolutionthat limitson catches and on the fishing season. The British ambassador in recognizedthe growing political and economic autonomy of Britain's Figure10-35 This photograph shows Washingtonwanted agreementalongside Canada, Prime to signthe but formercolonies. The Balfour Report said that Britain could no longer PrimeMinister King running for MinisterKing argued that the matter was the sole concern of Canadaand niakedecisions or lawsfor itsdominions. Furthermore, the report re-electionin 1926. What do you think the UnitedStates, and that Britainneed not beinvolved. Britain strons statedthat Britain and its Commonwealthcountries were "autonomous hemight have been saying in his objected,but when Canada threatened to appoint an independent Communitieswithin the British Apire, equalin status, V'f electionspeeches? diplomaticrepresentative in Washington, Britain conceded. Canada in noway subordinate to one another in anyaspect of signedthe treaty independently onMarch 1923. HisEx. [the Governor General] 2, theirdomestic or externalaffairs, though united by a spokeof the [Halibut] Treaty, said commonallegiance to theCrown, and freely associated it hadgiven him pleasure to see TME IMPERIALCOMFERENCE5 asmembers of the British Commonwealthof Nations." it accomplished...I told His Ex I M.. TheImperial Conferences (called the Colonial Conferences until 1911)were It alsoredefined the role of Governors General, stating i wassure it wasright to removeany WlLCONt£ - periodicgatherings ofgovernment leaders from the colonies and dominions thatthey should no longer automatically represent the : badgeof "colonialism." ofthe British Empire. The conferences tooktaken place at the invitation of Britishgovernment in diplomaticrelations between the - PrimeMinister William Lyon Britainto make decisions oneconomic, trade, and defence policies. dominionsand Britain. The GovernorsGeneral were now MackenzieKing, Elevenconferences were held between1887 and 1937.Before the solely sovereign'spersonal representatives. 1929, Excerptfrom a diaryentry made the By afterdining at GovernmentHouse with FirstWorld War, the nations of theempire were obliged to followBritish- Canadahad set up diplomatic offices in Washington, theGovernor General, March 2, 1923 sponsoredpolicies formed at the conferences. During the war years, London, and Paris. Prime Minister Bordentried to ensurethat Canadainfluenced decisions ?)Why do you think Canada's pursuit of more autonomy "" madeat the conferences. After the war, Prime Minister King insisted fromBritain was achieved without aggressive conflict? uponmore autonomy. When he attended the 1923Imperial Conference, shortlyafter signing the Halibut Treaty, hewas tenacious in arguing his views,and Britain agreed toaccept the Halibut Treaty as a precedentfor STATUTE OF WE^T/YMN^TER its dominionshaving authority to maketheir own treaties. In addition, OnDecember 11,1931, the British parliament passed the Statute of largelyupon Prime Minister King's insistence, the1923 conference report Westminster.This documentdeclared that the constitutionsof Canada concludedwith the statement that any views of the Imperial Conference andthe other Commonwealth dominions were no longer subordinate to CHECKFORWttRP' onforeign policy "are necessarily subject to theaction of theGovernments Britain'sconstitution. The statute gave Canada the right to makeits own You will read about the " andParliaments ofthe various portions of the Empire. Thismeant foreignpolicy decisions without seeking British approval. Canada had full 1982 Constitution Act in thedecisions ofthe Imperial Conference were not binding on member legalfreedom except in thoseareas where it choseto remainunder British Chapter15. This act finally countriesuntil approvedby theirown parliaments. control. example, chose Committee gaveCanada control over For Canada to maintainthe Judicial amendments to its own ofthe Privy Council as its final court of legalappeal until 1949,when constitution. (^ 'Whatwas the significance ofthe Halibut Treaty for Canada? theSupreme Court of Canadatook overthat role.Because the federal andprovincial governments could not agree on their relative roles in changingthe BritishNorth America Act, Britain also retained control over constitutionalchanges. TheStatute of'Westminster 'wasa significantlandmark in thehistory of Canada.It signalled Canada's growing maturity as a nation. Figure10-34 the ^^.. uHiteMK- . Inthis photo of -Au&. ^A-iwA, * teaSito j aauiB- "-jteaA ^c. . . iA. Mti*k«tUiU. tlh-aiU.M.-J-iA.;^ 0 *. tf. A: . A^!6fc^^, ^i^ GAiM&T^-ffi., '^^, .^ representativesatthe 1923 Imperial 0 Conferencein London, Prime Minister RECALL... REFLECT ... RE^FONP Kingis seated in the front row on the left. 1. Somehistorians, including Norman Hillmer, who is a 2. Makea graphicorganizer of yourchoice to show professorof historyand international affairs, have fc^ thevarious causes leading to the Statuteof calledthe StatuteofWestminster"Canada's declaration Westminster.Share your organizer with a partner, of independence." Makea T-chartwithtwo columns: andadd or changeinformation to completeyour proand con. Fill in the chartto decide whether you organizer. agreeor disagreewith the statement. 0 0 CLUSTER3 . Becominga Sovereign Nation (1867-1931) .MHR MHR' TheFirst World War and Beyond CHAPTER. 10 CHAPTBR10 QUEST/ONSAND ACTIVmBS ; Chooseone of the following perspectives: 6. ExamineFigure 10-37. What impression does this . a Canadian the photogive theseCanadian soldiers? How do your soldierliving in the trenchesduring |r) of 113 First World War impressionschange when you learnthatthese soldiers 1. Referbackto the EssentialQuestion on page285. Make 3. Wheninvestigating theethical dimensions ofhistory, arenot in a battle,but are instead on a training two lists: . anenemy alien living in an internmentcamp 1)1 |gDhistorians tryto avoid "presentism, " whichisapplying exercisenear St. Pol,France? The photographer added . a conscientiousobjector incarcerated during . aspectsof the First World War that shapedCanada's current ethical standardsand cultural normsto a plumesof smoketo makeitappearthattheywere theFirst World ^. identity as a nation historicalevent or issue. Discuss with a classmatehot War . involvedin a realbattle. Why might photographers . factorsthat shapedCanada's changing relationship to avoidpresentism when examining First World War . awoman newly employed in a Canadianfactory 'forge" photoslike this oneduring wartime, and do you to Britain and the world issues such as thinkthis is ethical? Writea letterto a lovedone who is far away, explaining . enemy aliens and internment For each list, what life is like for you. Be creative,but also be as . conscnption authenticand as historically correct as possible. a) rankthe factors from mostto least historically Reviewthe information inthis book and do some of your significant * the enactmentof the War MeasuresAct ownresearch to collectdetails to sharein yourletter. b) recordwhat it is aboutthe events near the top of 4. Thefollowing is anexcerpt from an interviewwith yourlist that makesthem more significant fT) RobertLeckie, who was a Canadianinthe Royal Naval c) recordwhat similarities these top-ranked events Air Service.He is describingshooting down German share Zeppelins,or airships,from his aircraft while on patrol. a) Whatdoes Robert Leckie's story reveal about the 2. Whatcould have happened if Canadianshad not war? i I ^ ^^ contributedto the war effort in the waysthey did? How mightthe outcomeof the war have been different? In b) Doyou think oral testimony is a goodsource of informationaboutthe First World War? Discuss whatways might Canada be different today? its strengthsand limitations with a partner. Figure10-36 At anyone time, the Castle Mountain Internment . ever a l,n in the CampinAlberta housed several hundred men, mainly of jn did^eeZeppe airwrfchoutbeingthnlled ^ the sheer Ukrainiandescent. Prisoners provided thelabour todevelop ship.Itwas a th, marvel aufa^e n§to at, exquisite beauty.On the manysites in BanffNational Park. ^ s I was fortunate or successful I occasion in my at±acks^eaj oT . i-ngexaltation,ifeltafce had ifngo^orrorthatl destrot,eJsucha Figure10-37 This 1916 photo, "Over the Top, " isknown as a ;; b'eautiTuIthing.... famouswar shot of Canadian soldiers going into battle, " bul!ets °.use^_spe cy?madeexp!osive th^ NA^re designedfor this ' ^w ro yow ^ fuArpox^"l7hewasa} PCTCUSSion caP°" the "°seofth=buli=ts. ^nheated^the^noftheairortheexplos^^e^^1 WAIUV661 ouu on n'Nation (186,