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Created in 1889, the Inter-Parliamentary Union Headquarters: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) is the international organization that IS PARLIAMENT OPEN TO WOMEN? 5 chemin du Pommier brings together the representatives of parlia- Case postale 330 AN APPRAISAL ments. The IPU is the focal point for world-wide CH-1218 Le Grand-Saconnex / Geneva Switzerland parliamentary dialogue and works for peace Conference for Chairpersons and Members of and cooperation among peoples with a view Telephone: +41 22 919 41 50 Fax: +41 22 919 41 60 Parliamentary Bodies Dealing with Gender Equality to strengthening representative institutions. E-mail: [email protected] http://www.ipu.org

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Inter-Parliamentary Union Inter-Parliamentary Union IS PARLIAMENT OPEN TO WOMEN? AN APPRAISAL

Conference for Chairpersons and Members of Parliamentary Bodies Dealing with Gender Equality

28–29 September 2009 Geneva

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ii Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Foreword

Ever since the first United Nations World Conference capacity to promote gender equality, the IPU holds on Women, held in Mexico City thirty five years annual seminars for members of parliamentary bod- ago, the international community has been striving ies that deal with gender equality matters. The 2009 for the elimination of discrimination against women conference, Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal, and for women’s economic and political empower- held in Geneva from 28–29 September, brought to- ment. In 1995, at the Fourth World Conference on gether around 80 parliamentarians from 38 countries. Women, the Beijing Plan of Action called on States The conference appraised progress made in terms to increase women’s participation in decision making of women’s parliamentary participation across the and leadership and to ensure women’s full partici- world since the Beijing Conference. The objective of pation in political life. In 2000, the United Nations, the meeting was to answer the question: is parliament recognizing the central role of women in develop- open to women? As the readers of this report will ment, included the empowerment of women as one discover, the answers to this ostensibly simple ques- of the Millennium Development Goals. tion are multifaceted and diverse. The world conferences on women have provided The IPU wishes to thank both the experts for their political visibility to women’s rights worldwide, yet presentations and the participants for their enthusi- there has not been a commensurate increase in the astic interventions. The Seminar would not have representation of women in parliaments. In 1995 women been possible without the generous support of Irish accounted for 15.9 percent of parliamentarians world- Aid and the Canadian International Development wide; by 2009 they accounted for 18.5 percent, hardly Agency (CIDA). a mark of great progress. We hope that this report will serve as an inspiration The year 2010 represents a milestone since it is 15 to members of parliament in their efforts to integrate years since the commitments and pledges were made gender equality into every aspect of parliamentary life. in Beijing. Given that women’s access to and influence in parliament has been so frustratingly slow, can we really be satisfied with the progress achieved? The Inter-Parliamentary Union adheres to the principle that democracy requires the inclusion of both men and women in decision making. It therefore works to promote a gender partnership by facilitating Anders B. Johnsson women’s involvement in parliament and political Secretary General life. As part of its efforts to strengthen parliament’s Inter-Parliamentary Union

Foreword iii iv Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Contents

Summary of the Conference ...... 1

Opening Remarks Mr. Anders B. Johnsson, Secretary General of the IPU ...... 5

1. Challenges and Obstacles to Parliament: Current Trends

Overview and Debate ...... 8 Presentations Women in Politics 15 Years after Beijing: Progress and Setbacks Ms. Kareen Jabre, Manager, Gender Partnership Programme, IPU ...... 11 The Challenges Faced by Women Running for Election Ms. Linah J. Kilimo, Member of Parliament and Assistant Minister for Cooperative Development and Marketing, Republic of Kenya ...... 14 The Road to Parliament: A Memoir Ms. Kay Hull, Member of Parliament, Australia ...... 16

2. Overcoming Barriers: Electoral Gender Quotas

Overview and Debate ...... 20 Presentations Is Parliament Open to Women? Quotas in Global Perspective Dr. Drude Dahlerup, Professor of Political Science, Stockholm University, Sweden ...... 22 Women and Quotas in Uruguay Ms. Daniela Payssé, Member of the House of Representatives, Uruguay ...... 26

3. Overcoming Barriers: Other Special Measures and Strategies

Overview and Debate ...... 34 Presentations Campaign Finance for Women: Challenges, Incentives and Recommendations Dr. Marcela Tovar Restrepo, Director of the Latin American Studies Program, Queens College, City University of New York ...... 38

Contents v Is Parliament Open to Women? Supporting Women’s Political Participation Ms. Colleen Lowe Morna, Executive Director, Gender Links ...... 43 Assessing Women’s Political Party Programmes: Best Practices and Recommendations Ms. Alyson Kozma, National Democratic Institute for International Affairs...... 47

4. Women in Parliament: Challenges Inside the House

Overview and Debate ...... 52 Presentations Challenges Faced by Women in Parliament: An Overview Ms. Kareen Jabre, Manager, Gender Partnership Programme, IPU ...... 55 The Role of Women: Expectations and Challenges Dr. Masouma AI-Mubarak, Member of the National Assembly, Kuwait ...... 57 Is Parliament Open to Women? The Experience of Burkina Faso Ms. Irène Yameogo, Member of Parliament, National Assembly, Burkina Faso ...... 60

5. Legislative and Policy Outputs: Facilitating a Gender Perspective

Overview and Debate ...... 66 Presentations The Role of Women Parliamentarians in Advocating for and Safeguarding Women’s Rights Dr. Bahiya J. Aljishi, Member of the Shura Council, Kingdom of Bahrain ...... 68 Gender Mainstreaming in Parliament: Experience from Cyprus Ms. Dina Akkelidou, Member of Parliament and Chairperson of the House Standing Committee on Equal Opportunities for Men and Women, Cyprus ...... 71

6. Gender Sensitive Parliaments

Overview and Debate ...... 76 Presentations Women in the House in Namibia Ms. Margaret Mensah-Williams, Vice-President of the National Council, Namibia ...... 79 Gender Sensitive Parliaments Ms. Julie Ballington, Programme Specialist, Gender Partnership Programme, Inter-Parliamentary Union ...... 81 Gender Sensitive Parliaments: The Swedish Experience Ms. Hillevi Engström, Member of the Riksdag, Sweden ...... 84

List of Participants ...... 86

vi Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Summary of the Conference

The meeting brought together some 80 members of that women face in accessing parliaments need to be parliament and parliamentary staff from 38 countries addressed in order to respond to them in the most to discuss and assess progress made in terms of women’s concrete and effective way. parliamentary participation. The meeting elected In the discussions about challenges faced by Ms. L. Kilimo (Kenya) and Mr. M. Affey (Kenya) women, a key point raised was that regardless of as its rapporteurs. They presented the following sum- region, level of development and cultural background, mary remarks at the meetings closing session: women face similar challenges in running for parliament in all countries. It was also recognized that The theme of women’s access to and participation in women running for election were usually held to parliaments was timely in the run-up to the 15th anni- higher expectations from society and were often versary of the Fourth World Conference on Women scrutinized far more closely than men seeking elec- held in Beijing in 1995. Under the Beijing Platform tion. This pressure often results in women having to for Action, States undertake to promote gender equal- work harder and more than men, which nevertheless ity and to increase women’s participation in decision- ultimately serves them well in their careers. making bodies. The seminar therefore appraised One of the overarching challenges highlighted progress made in terms of women’s parliamentary was the prevailing cultural attitudes regarding the participation across the world since the Beijing Con roles of women and men in society. These affect the ference, took stock of special measures that have been nature and forms of women’s political participation taken to open parliaments up to the participation of and impact their levels of success in seeking posi- women and identified remaining challenges. tions of power. Cultural attitudes affect not only how The objective of the meeting was to answer an women are perceived by the electorate, by also by apparently simple question: is parliament open to political party leaders and the media. Some partici- women? The seminar first began by considering the pants even noted that women were seen as intruders question from a quantitative point of view. Despite in the field of politics. Others underscored that the incremental progress over the past 15 years, the aver- electorate often overlooked the specific and valuable age of 18 per cent women members of parliament contribution that women could bring to politics. remains well below the 30 per cent target established Cultural attitudes also impact on how women see in the 1990s. It also recognized that the pace of progress themselves, affecting their confidence and resolve to was too slow, and that with an average increase of pursue a political career. Discussions highlighted the less than one percentage point per year, the 30 per importance of challenging stereotypes and mentalities cent target would not be reached for another 15 years. by promoting different forms of education, including From a numerical point of view, yes, parliament providing education for women and girls, imple- is open to women. Compared with other spheres of menting civic and voter education programmes and political decision-making – where for example 16 per promoting gender equality in the school curricula cent of ministerial posts were held by women and and within the home. just 4 per cent of Heads of State were women in Participants also discussed the challenges of bal- 2008 – parliaments are more open. However, progress ancing public and private responsibilities, which needs to be stepped up and the many challenges was one of the main perceived deterrents identified

Summary of the Conference 1 by women. Although it was noted that both women measures have been implemented. Electoral gender and men have multiple commitments that are time- quotas, for instance, have become an increasingly used consuming and can make it difficult to pursue a policy measure to promote women’s participation in political career, the challenge of balancing family parliaments. Of the 25 countries to have reached 30 and public responsibilities was often felt hardest by per cent or more women members of parliament, 22 women. The support of the family was seen as crucial have applied quotas in some form or another. Quotas for women with political ambitions. are a simple and effective answer to the complex Political parties were identified as the main gate- historical problem of inequality in decision-making. keepers to elected office, but often did not seem to Gender quotas can also be framed in a gender-neutral be doing enough to promote and support the candi- way, thereby safeguarding the participation of both datures of women. Political parties were largely seen women and men. as operating as men’s clubs where women have yet For quotas to be effective, they have to work with to make their way. They were criticized for often the electoral system in operation. Proportional rep- overlooking the value of women candidates, and resentation systems, which are recognized as the most opting for the safety of male incumbents rather favourable for supporting the election of women, are than taking the perceived risk of supporting women also the easiest under which to implement candidate aspirants. quotas. For quotas to be successful, they must have Running for election is increasingly costly and strict enforcement mechanisms, which include place- financing women are affected by a shortage of and ment mandates, financial sanctions and the rejec- campaign support. Some participants highlighted tion of lists that do not comply with the law. They that societal roles often mean that women are not in also need to be understood by the electorate. Quotas charge of family resources and often do not have are not a miracle solution but by levelling the play- access to money to fund their campaigns. Discrimi- ing field they can fast track women’s participation natory laws in some countries limit and even forbid in parliament. They can also facilitate more internal women’s access to property and land ownership. party democracy by formalizing and making recruit- Combined with women’s lesser earning power, banks ment rules more transparent. often do not grant them loans, adding a further In terms of other special measures, the seminar challenge to women seeking office. These have an also discussed other incentives to promote women, even more pronounced impact on women running such as political finance. Funding can be used as an as independent candidates. The media and the stereotypes it perpetrates incentive to encourage women’s participation, whether constitute a challenge to those seeking election, both it is public, private or a combination of both. Finance men and women. However, the mainstream media legislation can include incentives for political parties was particularly prone to cultivating a negative and to earmark specific allocations to support women’s stereotypical portrayal of women politicians, with a candidacies. Spending limits can also be implemented tendency to put them down and not focus on their as a way to level the political playing field. The op- political achievements. Participants recognized that tion of including a gender-sensitive finance component it was necessary to learn to work with the media, in laws and policies on political participation was and use it as effectively as possible, with a “don’t get also mentioned. angry, get smart” approach. Political parties can do much more than imple- Other factors that were highlighted as impacting ment quotas to promote women’s candidacies. Internal on women’s political participation included the role party democracy leads to more inclusiveness and of civil society movements, which can be an impor- can thereby favour women’s increased participation. tant political support. Violence against women in Parties should be encouraged to implement specific politics and in campaigning was also underscored as training programmes (such as communication or an increasing challenge in some countries. leadership training) that specifically target women. Having identified the main challenges, the par- Mentoring between women can also serve as an im- ticipants then focused their attention on the possible portant way to cultivate new leaders. Political parties responses. On an encouraging note, over the past dec- should work with women not only during elections, ade solutions have emerged and a variety of special but also keep them engaged between elections.

2 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Another potential entry point for enhancing In addition, the importance of engaging and women’s participation in national politics is experi- collaborating with men as partners for change was ence gained in local government. Local government noted and participants called for greater efforts to be may serve as a launching pad for women to become made to involve men in gender equality work. national leaders and a stepping stone for accessing Parliamentarians have a crucial role to play in national parliament. Furthermore, measures adopt- the promotion of gender equality and in overseeing ed to encourage the higher participation of women the implementation of policies and programmes to at the local level can open the way to implementing ensure that they meet the standards and goals set. such measures at the national level. It was recognized Much of the detailed policy work and oversight is that this is an area that requires further research. done in parliamentary committees and it is here The question of whether parliaments are open to that gender equality strategies need to be imple- women was then considered from a second point of mented. Specialized parliamentary committees on view, moving beyond the question of numbers. The gender equality are an important mechanism for participants assessed the extent to which parliaments gender mainstreaming. To be effective in their work, are including the contributions of women and how they require sufficient funding and support. However, parliaments are addressing gender equality issues. in some parliaments, monitoring and implementa- Participants noted that when women take up tion is not done in specialized gender committees, their seats in parliament, they usually enter a male but through mainstreaming gender equality in the domain with a potential set of new challenges. Parlia- existing committee structures. There is, however, ment’s rules and procedures were typically estab- no single model – it varies from country to country lished by men, and “men’s clubs” still in operation depending on parliamentary practice. A particular in some parliaments by nature exclude women. It challenge was ensuring that mainstream committees was underscored that women need to learn and use are also accountable for gender equality issues, and these rules, but it may also be important to revise that they do not be become systematically relegated and rewrite the rules of parliament for the benefit not to specialized gender committees. only women, but also for men. The achievement of gender mainstreaming also Given the low numbers of women members in depends on coordination with other committees in most countries, parliaments were by and large viewed parliament. The example was cited of convening com- as enduring male bastions. Participants noted that mon sittings with other parliamentary committees the critical mass of women, of at least 30 per cent, was important for several reasons. In parliaments to debate the contents of a bill and ensure the inclu- with low numbers of women members, there some- sion of a gender perspective. Other gender main- times are not enough women to take part in all par- streaming mechanisms could include alternating liamentary committees, or women have to spread positions of power in the parliament between women themselves thinly taking on several committee assign- and men, such as ensuring that committees Chairs ments. A critical mass of women members is also and Vice-Chairs are of either sex. Including the needed to begin to change political priorities and place Chair of the gender equality committee as a mem- women’s concerns on the parliamentary agenda. ber of the bureau of parliament was also suggested. Women must display solidarity and support The third aspect it examined was related to the each other. Participants highlighted the advantages institution of parliament itself. How gender-sensitive and benefits of acting together and uniting for are these institutions? The participants began by de- change, even across party lines. The importance of fining the notion ofgender-sensitive parliaments. cross-party caucuses of women parliamentarians was A gender-sensitive parliament responds to the needs underscored as carving out a space for women to and interests of both men and women in its struc- cooperate closely and define common priorities in tures, operations, methods and in its work as a nation’s pursuing gender equality. Establishing a clear mandate primary legislative institution. When looking at gender- and defining rules for the operation and structure sensitive parliaments we need to consider two com- of women’s caucuses is vital for them to function ponents: (1) gender mainstreaming, as in parliament’s effectively and contribute substantively to the work ability to mainstream gender in policy development of parliament. and the work of parliament, and (2) parliamentary

Summary of the Conference 3 working arrangements, including parliament’s opera- The meeting also highlighted the importance of tional and institutional culture. partnerships in order for parliament to fully contrib- Participants heard about a very interesting initi- ute to national efforts to promote gender equality. ative at the Swedish Parliament, where an internal Parliamentarians can be isolated and need to develop process to assess the gender sensitivity of the Parliament cooperation with government and civil society. There was instigated. The results of the assessment high- is a need to work closely with national women’s lighted that women faced several challenges in parlia- machineries and women’s ministries, as they have com- ment: they usually struggled to reach high positions plementary roles to play. Cooperation with ombuds within the parliament; they viewed themselves and persons and the judiciary was also highlighted. their work as being invisible; they were often subject Finally, the importance of disseminating the to ridicule and belittling, and they often did not have findings of the seminar to all members of parliament access to full information about parliamentary work. was noted, and delegates agreed to report back to This resulted in a document with “15 proposals for their parliaments to ensure that members are aware gender equality in Parliament”. A gender equality plan of the meeting and its summary and recommenda- must be adopted for each parliamentary session, which tions. It was also noted that it is important to share requires reporting and follow-up, falling under the country experiences, especially in countries under- responsibility of the Secretary General of Parliament. going constitutional and political reform.

4 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Opening Remarks Anders B. Johnsson Secretary General of the Inter-Parliamentary Union

The year 2010 will be yet another milestone. It is 15 life also finds expression in the 1979 Convention on years since the Beijing Conference on Women and the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination the Platform for Action and 35 years since the first against Women, which has received near universal women’s conference in Mexico. The conferences on endorsement. women have had the merit of providing political In 2000, the United Nations recognized the cen- visibility to women’s rights worldwide. Thirty five tral role of women in development in the Millennium years later, however, can we be satisfied with the level Development Goals, which include the empower- of change? In 1975, the issue of women in decision- ment of women as one of the measurable goals. The making positions was barely discussed – if at all. At proportion of seats held by women in parliament is the time, it was not an issue and there were cer- one of the key indicators in measuring progress in tainly no data to present on the situation. This this regard. In 2009, women accounted for 18.6 per- prompted the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) to cent of the members of parliament. But this is pro- begin work on women in politics and women in par- portion is far from enough. We should not accept a liaments, starting with research and the collection pace of progress of less than one percentage point of data to take stock of the situation. per year. At that rate parity will be achieved only in Since that first conference in Mexico there has 2030. We cannot wait that long. Democracy cannot been an increased focus on women’s representation be entrenched or sustained without the participation in, and impact on, decision-making structures. At of women. least initially, however, this focus did not lead to Eighteen percent remains short of the 30 percent any substantial increase in the representation of target that governments set themselves in the Beijing women in parliaments. In 1975 women accounted Plan of Action. It is, however, still a fair proportion for 10.9 percent of parliamentarians worldwide: 10 compared to other decision-making positions. Only years later it was 11.9 percent. Maybe because of nine percent of mayors in the world are women and this, the 1985 Nairobi conference saw the beginning women are still largely absent from the highest levels of more sustained action towards equality in decision- of government. Only 16 percent of ministerial posi- making structures as governments and parliaments tions were held by women in 2008 and only 4.5 per- pledged to promote gender equality in all areas of cent of the Heads of State were women. political life. Parliaments are therefore more open to women The commitments and pledges of states to promote than other areas of decision making. More impor- gender equality were consolidated in the Beijing Plan tantly, parliaments are the obvious place to require of Action, which was adopted at the Fourth World and benefit from the balanced participation of men Conference on Women in 1995. States were called on and women. This prompts the apparently simple to increase women’s capacity to participate in decision question: is Parliament open to women? A first way making and leadership, and to take concrete steps to consider the question is to focus on percentages to implement special measures to ensure women’s and figures. In this case, it is fair to say today that, access to and full participation in power structures yes, parliaments are open to women. Only nine such as parliaments. The commitment to ensuring the single/lower houses are exclusively composed of men, equal participation of women and men in political but in over 40, less than 10 percent of members are

Opening Remarks 5 women. Parliaments are no longer an exclusively male in parliament? Do parliamentary committees deal- domain but they are far from being gender balanced. ing with gender issues benefit from strong support Women’s political participation remains hampered in parliament? Are they effective gender-mainstreaming by multiple factors. Women’s campaigns often suffer mechanisms? One issue given even less consideration because of a shortage of financing, cultural barriers is that of parliaments as workplaces. Places of power, and conflicting demands on the time of women can- such as parliaments, contain inherent male biases that didates due to their domestic and social responsi- have to be identified, challenged and reconstructed. bilities. Political parties are often men’s clubs where Parliaments themselves have to implement family- women still have to make their way. Media coverage friendly and gender-sensitive measures. The level tends to portray women using stereotypes that can of gender sensitivity should also become a measure prevent women from obtaining and maintaining of good institutional performance. This is an area positions of power. that has to be further explored and where creative In recent years, some solutions have been found solutions must be found. Parliament is the right place to these problems. Political will at the top is more to start and will lead the way to change in other visibly supportive of women’s political participation workplaces. and concrete initiatives have been taken to address The question of women’s equal political partici- challenges. Quotas and other temporary special mea- pation is not just a question of women’s rights. It is sures, for instance, are proven means for supporting at the core of democratic governance and progress. women’s engagement in politics. Eighteen of the 24 In 1997, the IPU consolidated its views and the ex- parliaments that boast 30 percent or more women perience of women’s political participation in the in their lower houses applied quotas in some form. Universal Declaration of Democracy, article 4 of which There are other mechanisms as well. This meeting explicitly endorses the link between democracy and will discuss some creative solutions. ‘a genuine partnership between men and women in A second way of responding to the question re- the management of public affairs’. This principle has quires us to go beyond the numbers. Openness is not informed the work of the IPU for the past decade. only a question of access. It is also important to assess As an organization, the IPU has tried to promote the degree to which women have real as opposed to women’s participation within its own structures. symbolic opportunities to contribute to the work of This has resulted in the adoption of special measures parliament. Can women provide effective input to within IPU governing bodies, a revision of its rules policy development and setting political priorities? and ways of functioning to facilitate a more gender- This question must be examined more closely, and it balanced participation and the mainstreaming of is arguable that we have spent less time and effort and gender issues in its work. Gender equality is one of developed fewer solutions on this point. Historically, the organization’s priorities. The IPU continues to women have been sidelined from the structures of closely monitor its ways of working. It is a constant governance that determine political and legislative battle which requires the contribution of all. In priorities. Here again, challenges remain. When women seeking solutions, whether within the IPU or within enter parliament, they enter a world that historically parliaments, men have probably not been engaged has been governed by men’s rules and perspectives. enough. The keyword is partnership and we still have To make women’s voices heard in parliament requires a long way to go. existing practices to be challenged, rules to be changed The small, albeit important, presence of men at and the building of a space of their own. the conference demonstrated that women’s political A third dimension to be considered is to exam- participation is still perceived largely as a women’s ine the institution of parliament itself. How gender- issue. The conference will provide for fruitful debate sensitive are parliaments? How do men promote which will result in the identification of new ideas gender equality issues? Is there a common platform and initiatives to support women in parliament. There for gender equality in parliament? Are there mecha- are no miracle solutions but joining forces will lead nisms that facilitate the mainstreaming of gender issues the way to progress.

6 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal CHALLENGES AND OBSTACLES TO PARLIAMENT: CURRENT TRENDS

Challenges and Obstacles to Parliament:1 Current Trends 7 Overview and Debate

Overview of the Session women increasing by a global average of less than This session examined the obstacles that women face one percentage point per year since 1995. Although entering parliaments, including socio-cultural bar- the percentage of women in parliaments has been riers, such as gender stereotypes and structural bar- increasing across all regions, there are still major riers, such as political parties and electoral systems. disparities. One-quarter of all parliamentary cham- The session addressed the following questions: bers have less than 10 percent women members, and nine parliaments still have no women at all. • What are the primary socio-cultural challenges, In terms of ministerial portfolios, women were such as dual burden and stereotyping? again under-represented: in 2008, women held only • What are the main structural barriers, such as elec- 16 percent of all posts, the vast majority of which toral systems and influence of money in politics? were ‘soft’ portfolios such as social affairs or educa- • What role do political parties play as gatekeepers tion. The numbers were also very low for the top to politics? executive position, where only 4.7 percent of heads of state were women in 2008. The panelists for this session were Ms. Kareen Of the 25 parliamentary chambers that had reached Jabre, Manager, Gender Partnership Programme, IPU; the 30 percent threshold in 2009, 75 percent had Ms. Linah Kilimo, Assistant Minister for Coopera- adopted special measures to promote women’s par- tive Development and Marketing and Member of ticipation. This statistic demonstrated the importance Parliament, Kenya; and Ms. Kay Hull, Member of the of parliamentary initiatives and suggested that par- House of Representatives, Parliament of Australia. liamentarians should be more proactive in adopting Ms. Jabre provided statistics detailing the progress measures to overcome factors preventing women’s towards gender parity that has been made in national participation in politics. parliaments since 1945. She also outlined some of Ms. Jabre outlined the main challenges women the main factors impeding women’s participation in faced at the various stages of the candidate recruit- politics. Ms. Kilimo discussed the current situation ment and electoral process. As aspiring women passed of women in politics in Kenya. Ms. Hull then drew through the steps necessary to become a candidate on her personal experience of campaigning to de- and then elected as a member of parliament, their scribe some of the challenges that women face when progress was often impeded by challenges posed by standing for election to parliament and provide advice their social-cultural environment, the need to recon- on how they may be overcome. cile the demands between a political career and Ms. Jabre showcased statistics that illustrated that family life, and difficulties in gaining financial and between 1945 and 2009, there was a six-fold increase moral support. The way in which a political party in the proportion of women parliamentarians in lower functioned, a country’s electoral system and how houses, and a nine-fold increase in upper houses. transparent the selection process is, were other fac- The world average for women in both houses of par- tors that affected a woman’s chances of becoming a liament was 18.6 percent in 2009. The data indicates candidate and being elected. that there has been a slow pace of progress towards Ms. Kilimo noted that women in Kenya face parity across all continents, with the percentage of many of the challenges already outlined, including

8 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal lack of support from family members, domestic obli- learn how to adjust an approach if is not working. gations and patriarchal social-cultural attitudes which For example, if the media acts as a barrier by propa- were critical of women seeking a career in politics. gating damaging stories, negative stereotypes, or For many women, their chance of participating in misinformation, other campaigning techniques (such politics was curtailed from a young age as they often as door knocking and organizing forums) should be had less access to education as compared to males. relied upon instead. Once elected, it was important Girls were often taken out of school by their parents to maintain courage in parliamentary work. Some- in order to be married and that put them at a signifi- times it would be necessary to vote across party cant disadvantage later in their lives. lines, and in those cases women should not accept Political parties were, furthermore, closed orga- being intimidated by their colleagues into voting nizations and the ‘old boys club’ mentality that still against their better judgment. Time was another persisted represented a major challenge for women key factor. Political campaigns required financial aspirants and candidates. Important decisions regard- resources, a significant amount of time, and the ing nominations were often made during exclusively support from friends and family. Lastly, it was nec- male social meetings. Many women consequently essary to achieve a balance between family life and felt discriminated against within their own parties. political life. It was also common for women candidates to be intimidated by their male counter-parts and several women had, during previous campaigns, given up Plenary Debate their political ambitions because of negative stereotyping in the media, physical abuse and destruction Participants noted that the biggest obstacle facing of their property. the majority of women aspirants and candidates The Kenyan society was still largely influenced was still how to finance their campaign. This was by patriarchal values. Candidates were usually especially true for women in countries where laws chosen by exclusively male leaderships who were re- relating to family, property and inheritances pre- luctant to support women candidates. Campaigns were, vented them from having their own funds or having moreover, prohibitively expensive. Since men control collateral with which they may take out a loan. In wealth in most families and it was difficult for women general, candidates did not know how to effectively to obtain loans, female candidates were frequently run and fund a political campaign. Participants bound by the permission or support of their husbands suggested that successful men and women could be for funding. invited to workshops to teach aspirants how to man- Ms. Hull was the first woman from the National age their campaigns. Party in New South Wales to be elected into the Cultural stereotyping of women remained a Australian Parliament. She described her path into problem in all regions. In many countries, the notion parliament as one requiring perseverance and rapid of a female political leader still met with resistance. learning to overcome the challenges she faced as a Participants suggested that women could minimize woman candidate. Some of the challenges included the effects of these cultural stereotypes by becoming a ‘boys club’ mentality within her party, where more aware of their individual strengths and rights. norms and rules of behavior seemed to apply to men Women should be encouraged to share their experi- but not to women; lack of support of women’s ences and advice with each other and with the elec- groups to assist lobbying for women candidates and torate to inform them of the valuable contribution a ruthless media. In order to overcome these chal- they could bring to politics. Developing role models lenges, she noted that it was essential to develop key could help aspirants build confidence. There have skills in such areas as mediation, conflict resolution, also been some examples of civil society organiza- negotiation and marketing. tions that have lobbied successfully for more support It was important for candidates to be strategic in for women candidates, particularly in securing fund- their campaigning and to know how – and to ing and encouraging parliaments to adopt gender- whom – they should promote themselves. Standing sensitive quotas. Solidarity between women at all for election takes courage. It requires an ability to stages of the political process, from aspirants and par- focus on the positive aspects of a campaign and liamentarians, was crucial.

Challenges and Obstacles to Parliament: Current Trends 9 Women candidates must make sure that they Participants highlighted that religious or custom- did not marginalize the male electorate. In order to ary laws that discriminated against women must be be successful, women candidates should gain the reformed, and discrimination perpetuated through respect of their male colleagues and the male mem- religion or custom must be addressed through edu- bers of the population. Political parties remained the cation programmes. gatekeepers to elected office, and it was therefore Participants also noted that there were structural important for women candidates to strike a balance factors, such as electoral systems, which hindered between having confidence in themselves and their women’s electoral success. Parliamentarians may give identity, and being able to transcend the gender di- consideration to adopting legislation and undertak- vide to focus on factors that unite the party and the ing electoral reforms to enforce principles of equality, electorate. such as through the adoption of electoral quotas. Education was a key component for developing Some countries had, however, found that, on their policies to combat discrimination and gender in- own, quotas were not sufficient. Laws on quotas should equality. Education was crucial for both men and therefore be accompanied by enforcement mecha- women in that it teaches them of their respective, and nisms to ensure compliance. In Brazil and Burkina equal, rights and duties. It was suggested that re- Faso, for example, parties were subject to financial forms of the educational system should be a central penalties and sanctions if they failed to comply with part of policies targeting discriminative practices. the quota requirements.

10 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Women in Politics 15 Years after Beijing: Progress and Setbacks Kareen Jabre Manager, Gender Partnership Programme, IPU

This intervention aims at providing some statistics was the Bahamas. It had a 60 percent presence of and data on women in parliament and in politics women in parliament in 2009. since 1945 and in particular since the Fourth World There are also poor performers. In a quarter of all Conference on Women held in Beijing. It presents parliamentary chambers in 2009 women made up trends of progress and setbacks and discusses some of less that 10 percent of members. These are the ones the main challenges that women face when running that bring the world average down. Nine lower for election, based on research carried out by the Inter- houses of parliament had no women members in Parliamentary Union (IPU) and other organizations. 2009. The vast majority of these are in the Pacific There has been significant progress since 1945 on Islands states, and some are in the Arab states. increasing the proportion of women in parliament, A closer examination of the 25 countries that have from around 3 percent of women in parliament, on 30 percent or more women in their lower or single average, across both upper and lower houses to18.6 houses of parliament brings light to several common percent in 2009. This represents a six-fold increase – a characteristics. First, it is interesting to note that just relatively slow rate of progress. over half of these countries are developing coun- It is significant that there is an unequal division tries. While this was not the case a few years ago, within the regions of the world. The Nordic countries more and more developing countries are taking the have an average proportion of 42 percent women in lead in promoting women’s political participation. their parliaments, and this percentage has been in- The Nordic states, which historically have been in creasing year on year. Two regions of the world are the top five or six in terms of the highest percentage above the world average: the Latin American coun- of women in parliament, no longer have the monop- tries and the European countries, with 22 percent oly in terms of top positions. Rwanda is followed by and 21 percent, respectively. Two other regions have Sweden, but then there is South Africa and other reached the world average of 18.6 percent across both African countries. A second interesting factor is that houses – Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. The remain- six of the 25 countries are post-conflict countries. ing two regions, the Pacific and the Arab states, have Some post-conflict countries have taken the oppor- made progress in recent years but are far from the tunities presented by reconstruction to address the world average. challenges that women have faced in the past and to There have been some significant achievements try to remedy them while building a new and fairer in recent years. In 2009, 15 percent of parliamentary society. Last but not least, 75 percent of those 25 chambers worldwide had 30 percent or more women countries have adopted measures to promote women’s members. This is a first and represents important political participation, be they legislative measures progress. The lower house in Rwanda became the or voluntary political party measures. first to elect a majority of women parliamentarians The situation of women in government is rela- in September 2008, putting Rwanda at the top of tively similar to that of women in Parliament. The the list with women making up 56.3 percent of par- IPU and the United Nations Division for the Advance- liamentarians. Rwanda also elected a woman Speaker ment of Women produced a map in 2008 presenting for the first time in its history. The first upper cham- data on women in the executive and women in par- ber to appoint a majority of women in parliament liament. Based on the figures collected for the map,

Challenges and Obstacles to Parliament: Current Trends 11 16 percent of ministerial portfolios worldwide were Union of Local Authorities says that there are more held by women. This was up from 15 percent in 2005. women elected to local councils than to national In Finland, Norway and Granada, women held more parliaments. However, the lack of comprehensive than 50 percent of ministerial posts – up from two and comparable data makes it difficult to identify countries in 2005. Twenty-two countries had cabi- trends and progress. nets with 30 percent or more women ministers in From a more qualitative point of view, many 2008, compared to 16 countries in 2005. Only 13 challenges have been identified that affect women’s countries had no women ministers at all, and this is political participation levels. The diagram shows three down from 19 countries in 2005. In sum, this again areas which each have different elements that im- amounts to slow progress but progress nonetheless. pact on women’s political participation: first, their The ministerial portfolios held by women are environments – where women are, the level of eco- mostly what are called “soft portfolios”. This is a nomic development, the societal culture, the electoral confirmed trend over a number of years. Women have system; second, the recruitment structure – how a greater chance of being ministers of women’s affairs, candidates are recruited for election, the party rules social affairs, education, and so on, than foreign affairs and the party norms; and, third, the recruitment ministers, finance ministers or budget holders. As for process – the different steps from eligibility to aspi- women as heads of state or government and leaders rant, and then from aspirant to candidate and from of parliaments, the numbers are extremely low: 4.7 candidate to member of parliament. These are the percent, 4.2 percent and 10.7 percent, respectively. different steps that need to be analysed, and for each It becomes difficult for women to make it higher up of these steps there is a need to identify the challenges in terms of the level of responsibility at the top of that women face. the State. Local government is an area where it is more dif- • Step one: from being eligible to run to aspiring ficult to find research and data worldwide on the to run. What challenges have been identified by presence of women. Around nine percent of the research? The one that is raised most often is the mayors in the world are women. The International system of values and practices in politics, or the

Figure 1: The Recruitment Process: From Aspirants to Candidates1

RECRUITMENT ENVIRONMENT Level of Economic Development Societal Culture Electoral System

RECRUITMENT STRUCTURES Party Rules Party Norms

RECRUITMENT PROCESS Ambition Eligibles Aspirants Candidates MPs Resources Party Gatekeepers Voters

12 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal social and cultural environment. Another com- major deterrents were for them in terms of running mon problem is reconciling politics and family for election. Their priorities were very different. For responsibilities. Getting financial support is also women, the major deterrents identified were domes- key, as is support from women’s organizations tic responsibilities and how to manage private and and building confidence. Security has also been public life, followed by cultural attitudes regarding raised as an issue, as politics can be seen as violent the role of women in society. For the men, the two and somewhat dangerous. main challenges identified included the lack of sup- • Step two: from aspirant to candidate. If you want port of the electorate and access to finance. Questions to run, how do you become a candidate and what of the family and how to balance private and public are the elements that affect a woman’s selection? life were not raised as issues by the men. The role of political parties is certainly key. The In conclusion, there is much to be optimistic about electoral system, whether it is a proportional or a but trends seem to highlight that, if new measures first-past-the-post system, the level of visibility are not taken to promote women in politics, we that a woman has in her own party and the ex- might face stagnation or even reversals of progress. ternal support that she has all influence whether There is a need to remain vigilant, and a need to a woman will be selected as a candidate, as well as monitor these challenges regularly and take initia- the selection process for candidates in political tives to move them forward. There is no single solu- parties – and how transparent it is. tion, but a mixture of elements will allow for change • Step three: how to go from becoming a candidate and progress. to being elected to parliament. Elements that impact on a woman’s election include the electoral system, the level of party campaign support she receives, the available funding, the cultural envi- Endnotes ronment and the level of political will. 1 Adapted from J. Ballington and R. Matland, “Political Par- ties and Special Measures: Enhancing Women’s Participation Finally, what are the perceived deterrents to in Electoral Processes,” Presented at UN Expert Meeting: women entering parliament? In 2008, the IPU carried Enhancing Women’s Participation in Electoral Processes in Post- out a survey of men and women parliamentarians conflict Countries, OSAGI & Department of Political Affairs entitled Equality in politics. It asked them what the Expert Group Meeting, January 2004, New York.

Challenges and Obstacles to Parliament: Current Trends 13 The Challenges Faced by Women Running for Election Linah J. Kilimo Member of Parliament and Assistant Minister for Cooperative Development and Marketing, Republic of Kenya

Kenya’s parliament has 224 members, only 22 of the public during the campaign to explain who would whom are women. Women stand for election at both take care of the country when she was expecting a the parliamentary and the local authority level. To baby or on maternity leave. In one constituency become a candidate in any election one must be where a woman was standing for one party, con- nominated by a political party. Nearly all the leaders stituents asked her husband to stand for another of the political parties are men. Women often strug- party because they did not want a woman to be gle to be nominated by their parties as candidates their representative in Parliament. This divided the for election, and this makes it difficult for women to family and eventually both lost the election. The win seats, and there is no provision for independent family remained divided after the election. candidates to contest elections. A lot of women who Many women suffer from violence and destruc- wish to run for election are blocked by their failure tion of property by supporters of their opponents. to secure a nomination from a political party. During the most recent elections, in 2007, a num- Women have less access to education than men, ber of women candidates were hospitalized with in- restricting women’s professional advancement and juries linked to campaign violence. Sometimes, their their opportunities to enter institutions involved in vehicles and houses were damaged during the elec- politics. In many pastoral communities, parents pre- tion. A number of women gave up their political fer to educate boys instead of girls. The education of ambitions for this reason. girls is often discontinued so they can be married at Women candidates are intimidated by their male an early age in order to earn wealth for their families. opponents. There is a lot of propaganda leading to The political advancement of many women is there- negative publicity. False information about the pri- fore hampered by a lack of education and of support vate lives of women candidates is published in the from their families. newspapers in order to intimidate them and force Women suffer from discrimination, abuse and them to give up their campaign. violence during elections. Some spouses do not allow Elections are very expensive. Inheritance laws their wives to engage in politics when their children favour men. Wealth in the family is controlled and are young. Campaigns are time-consuming and shared out by men. Women rarely inherit property women continue to bear the responsibility for home from their fathers. In marriage, women are at times and family duties. This lack of support from spouses denied a share of the family property. It is difficult for means that those who opt for political life often a woman to inherit her deceased husband’s property have to choose between politics and family. Some without a marriage certificate, but when a woman families have broken down because of a woman’s dies her husband retains all the family property with involvement in politics. Some women give up their or without a marriage certificate. Normally, all the political ambitions because of abuse and violence. property acquired by the family is registered in the Kenyan society is patriarchal. Most of the elec- husband’s name. This means that many women have torate believes that leadership is for men and that no property to sell in order to get the funds required women should deal with domestic chores. One woman to run for election, while men can easily dispose of candidate for president was asked by a member of family property. Many women exhaust their funds

14 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal along the way and have to drop out before the voting. is carried out according to the directives given by They also find it difficult to obtain loans from banks the elders. Many councils are reluctant to support because of a lack of collateral. women as candidates. This has been very discourag- In a society where female genital mutilation is ing for the women who seek elected office. still rampant, any woman who has not gone through However, there is hope. The current parliament the rite is considered to be still a child. The elector- is gender friendly. A Committee on Equal Oppor- ate is reluctant to support them because of this belief tunity has been formed to deal with marginalization that they are children. Those who run for election and discrimination, including women. The govern- are insulted even by children. This can be very dis- ment has formed a Gender Ministry, which is led couraging and force the women to withdraw their by a woman. All the Commissions formed by the candidature. current parliament have 30 percent women repre- Most of the pastoral communities are divided sentation. Kenya is in the process of reviewing its into clans. Other communities also have a clan sys- Constitution, and a requirement for 30 percent rep- tem. The Councils of Elders in those clans consist resentation of women in parliament is contained in only of men. These councils select the candidates to a draft constitution which will soon be voted on in stand for parliamentary and civic elections. Voting a referendum.

Challenges and Obstacles to Parliament: Current Trends 15 The Road to Parliament: A Memoir Kay Hull Member of Parliament, Australia

This paper focuses not on the difficulties I have en- at business but now I was redundant. I had to make countered in politics, but on my journey form wife some decisions. My boys had grown up – my young- and mother, to business owner operator, to Deputy est son was 15 years old. I had been working 16 hour Mayor on my municipal Council, to becoming the days. I could not just fade into the background or first woman in the National Party in New South Wales insignificance. to be pre-selected and then elected to the Australian Timing is everything: there was a local council Parliament. election taking place, I rallied my family together Graeme, my husband, and I started a car repair and we decided that I should run for a position. I business in 1978. We worked very hard to rapidly devised a campaign centred around being the voice expand the number of people we employed. I was of business owners. I campaigned by holding forums the bookkeeper and financial manager as well as a on planning issues of concern, escalating local taxes, mother to our three sons. In just two years we were parking problems, traffic control and the need for employing 35 panel beaters and spray painters. It was regional business development opportunities. in 1980 that Graeme broke his back. I was forced to My boys walked the streets putting my campaign take over the running of the entire business, seven flyers into mailboxes and my poster on every available days a week, which had me on call to our customers post. We were a formidable team. There were over 40 24 hours a day. I had to learn to drive a tow truck candidates for 15 positions and only one woman had and to know every part of a car so that I could write previously been elected – so we faced some challenges. quotations for repairs. However, I had built a reputation for hard work in At first I did not have the confidence. I had to our business. Three months after we started my cam- learn new skills such as mediation and conflict reso- paign I was elected to the Council with the second lution – no one is ever at fault in a motor vehicle highest vote – only 30 fewer votes than the popular accident, it was always the other drivers fault; mar- incumbent mayor. riage counselling – there is nothing like the stress of I threw myself into delivering my promises. I de- smashing your spouse’s car; and negotiation – there vised a tourism strategy to attract major events and has to be a resolution to all these issues because no turned our city into a sports event capital. We were one is happy. Strangely, it is these very same skills ‘the city of good sports’. We were hosting an event that I currently use every day in my role as a mem- every weekend as a result of me going to national ber of parliament – no one ever comes to my office sporting bodies with a new package that promoted happy about what the Government is doing, they our benefits. I was very successful at marketing – would like me to fix it now and it must be my fault another skill I had been forced to learn. that change is affecting their lives. I chaired planning committees and confronted My husband was off work for a very long time the issues that were inhibiting the growth of busi- and I managed to keep everyone employed and make nesses. I become active in all regional development a profit as well. When he was able to return to work, issues and became a solid voice for industry progres- however, I was no longer required to run the empire sion. I was elected Deputy Mayor and then the state I felt I had created. I had found that I was very good premier offered me a ministerial appointment to his

16 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Tourism Board and I became the Tourism Commis- the electorate then they could not exclude me simply sioner for Regional New South Wales. I travelled because I was female. In addition, I had researched from town to town conducting community economic and studied as much on current areas of concern as development strategic planning workshops for the I could. I knew I had to know more than the men, state government. which may not be fair but does you no harm. They It was here that I began to realize that country simply could not match me in the debate and question- people were being totally marginalized and forgot- ing from the floor. I became known as very feisty. ten. We were being denied adequate access to health, Five months after nominating myself I was pre- eduction infrastructure, transport networks and selected as the National Party candidate for Riverina. business development opportunities and, most disturb- The battle started. I was then on the real campaign ingly, our children were being denied the opportu- trail, competing with nine men who represented the nity to go to university and to work in the regions. major parties, minority parties and independents. I began to voice my concerns on these injustices and There had never been a woman standing for the became a vocal critic of the government that had seat, much less elected. I worked so hard and made appointed me to my position. so many mistakes, but the main problem was the Again, timing is everything. The Federal mem- media. They did not care how many things I did right ber of parliament decided to retire and my family or how good my policies were – they would only believed that I should try to win the seat. I had report the mistakes I made. already been approached by a small party that only I quickly determined that if I had to depend on stands in country seats. The principles of the National the media to win, I would never be elected. I had Party inspired me. In short, they say ‘if it is not financed all my campaign costs up to this point, but good for regional people we will not support it’. This now the party knew I had a strong chance of winning is my view entirely. However, there was a problem the seat, so they started to finance the campaign. – the National Party had never had a woman stand I followed my own campaign agenda, I door- for pre-selection. They were very conservative and it knocked all day every day. I set up my stand on was widely believed that I would not succeed. street corners and handed out my material. I rode on We decided I would give it a go. I spent five days the back of a truck with a loudspeaker. I held busi- a week on the road. There were no formal women’s ness forums on tax issues, red tape and bureaucracy; groups that I could go to for support, but even if women’s forums on access to childcare; and young there had been it was the men who were going to be people’s forums. I would generally get a lot of people. my biggest challenge. I had to get them to vote for me Sometimes I would only get three or four people but on merit. I visited citrus farms, rice paddies, corn- I would interact with them just as passionately as if fields, vineyards and vegetable farms. I called meet- there were 1000 in attendance. ings in the middle of harvests on the many issues Sometimes I would wonder ‘why am I doing this’, that farmers were facing, such as trade barriers, lack but my family were always there to get me back on of water and a lack of fast freight services. I visited track. In the months between pre-selection and the all the meat processing plants and convinced the election I drove 95,000 kilometres on my own. I union floor manager to let me speak with the workers had personally knocked on 10,000 doors and held about employment conditions. I did the same with the 40 forums. We did three mail outs to every house- automotive industries. I faced heckles and ridicule: holder – 95,000 voters in a catchment of 250,000 ‘what would I know I was a woman’. I would respond people over 75,000 square kilometres. ‘you ask me any question and see what I know’. Then came the finale in the campaign. Unbe- I was soon getting more support from the general known to me, my boys had produced a handwritten electorate. At the pre-selection, 250 party members letter outlining why I was the person to vote for. voted on the candidates: four men and myself. I had They detailed their personal views on my courage lobbied farmers, business men and women and gen- and attributes, how they believed no one could do erally anyone who would listen to contact as many of the job better than me, and how much they trusted the preselectors as possible. I felt that if the selectors me – so the voters should too. They had it printed could see that I was already working hard among and they pooled their money to have it delivered to

Challenges and Obstacles to Parliament: Current Trends 17 every mailbox in the week before the election. I be- to become resentful of the disparity, we are spending lieve this wonderful gesture by my sons sealed my good, positive energy in a negative and unproductive success in the election. way. Let us just get on with our task of increasing We had started with a commitment to each other the number of women in politics. as a family and we have been able to continue that We are women who have beaten the odds. We strength. My husband does the major part of keep- are from all walks of life and from many different ing our family intact, and they never allow me to get cultures. We have a diversity of life experiences and carried away with my own importance. They cer- we are of different ages and generational beliefs. tainly keep me grounded. I know my boys were older Some have and will continue to face more prejudice when I entered the political arena, but with effort and challenges than many of us could imagine. We from everyone you can have a close family and poli- have different levels of education. Some of us are tics as well – but it does take effort and interaction. academically smart, some of us are street smart, but You have to keep reassessing the relationship to ensure all of us are a valuable piece in the jigsaw of life – it is working for everyone. without us the picture is not complete but we are My message is that as a woman you have to work not the whole picture. The thing that we can do that harder to achieve, but that this hard work will also will benefit women the most is to be true to our- be the reason why you succeed. It is not fair that selves, have the courage to speak when we know we many men do not have to do this, but women have should and, by not allowing ourselves to be the lost made some great advances and we need to recognize piece of the puzzle that makes the picture forever that our hard work and success will make it easier incomplete, to have never walked away knowing we for other women to follow us. If we allow ourselves should have used our voice but did not.

18 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal OVERCOMING BARRIERS: ELECTORAL GENDER QUOTAS

Overcoming Barriers:2 Electoral Gender Quotas 19 Overview and Debate

Overview of the Session principle that national policies and legislation should The session examined the effect and impact of elec- be decided jointly by men and women, and must toral gender quotas – a specific policy measure that reflect equally their different perspectives. Although critical mass has been widely implemented in the past 15 years to there was no consensus on whether a increase women’s access to parliament. The session of at least 30 percent women in parliament could paid particular attention to the following questions: definitively change the outcome of national policies, there has been a growing awareness that the increased • What are electoral gender quotas and what form presence of women has had an impact on how poli- do they take? cies were made and which priorities are set. Gender • How effective have quotas been in accelerating quotas were often regarded as relatively simple mech- women’s access to parliament? anisms that were able to produce tangible and easily • What strategies and lessons can be shared about measured quantitative results. passing quota legislation? Ms. Dahlerup outlined the different types of quotas, such as legal candidate quotas (which ensure The chairperson for this session was Ms. Jayanthi that a certain proportion of candidates for election Natarajan, Member of the Rajya Sabha, India. The must be women), voluntary party quotas (where par- panelists were Professor Drude Dahlerup, Depart- ties voluntarily aim to have a certain proportion of ment of Political Science, Stockholm University, women candidates) and reserved seats (where seats Sweden and Ms. Daniela Payssé, Member of the are set aside in the legislature for women only). House of Representatives, Uruguay. Ms. Dahlerup Quotas worked best with rank order rules specify- presented the conclusions of her research on the vari- ing that women must be placed in winnable positions ous types of electoral quotas and their effectiveness, on a party list (such as the ‘zipper’ list where women and Ms. Payssé discussed Uruguay’s experience with and men must be alternated throughout a list). implementing quotas. Ms. Paysée presented the evolution of the adop- Ms. Dahlerup noted that achieving gender equal- tion of the recently passed quota law in Uruguay, ity is a slow process that requires dedicated political which took several years to pass. The closed party list will over many decades. The need to accelerate the electoral system presented an obstacle for the imple- rate at which women gain access to parliament has mentation of quotas for women, as the party leader- resulted in much attention being given to special mea- ship decided on the rank order of candidates on sures, such as electoral gender quotas, which were lists, and once decided is very difficult to change. If usually fast and effective remedies to the problem of women were not placed in winnable positions on the women’s historical under-representation in political closed lists they had very little chance of being elected. decision-making. It was therefore necessary to ensure that women were Using gender quotas implied setting a fixed goal placed in winnable positions on the list by specify- for the recruitment of women into positions of decision- ing which spots they should occupy. The measure making. Achieving a higher representation of women that was adopted made it mandatory that women in parliament has been a global objective for decades. hold one out of every three in the top 15 places on The 1995 Beijing Platform for Action included the the list. The law will apply to the elections in 2014.

20 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Plenary Debate the illiterate and poor. It was noted that the politi- Participants noted that quotas had usually proven cal and economic empowerment of women must go to be effective temporary measuresfor addressing hand in hand. disparities in the proportion of men and women in Another concern raised was how to choose the politics. Quotas must work with the electoral system quota system that best matched a specific political and adapt to the local context, as well as be adequately and electoral context. Many types of quotas existed supported by enforcement mechanisms. There was and there was sometimes confusion as to the most evidence that quotas did level the political field by effective method. Participants noted the importance reducing the impact of some of the structural barriers of sharing country experiences across different elec- which prevent many aspiring women from succeeding toral systems. For example, it was noted that majority/ in their candidature. plurality electoral systems presented specific chal- However, some opponents have raised concerns lenges for women candidates, and they were systems regarding the nature of quotas and their overall in which it was difficult to implement a quota. Good ability to effectively combat inequality. The preferen- practices do exist, however, and can be widely shared. tial treatment of women was seen to be discrimina- Proportional representation systems were recognized tory against men because it set limits to their level as the best electoral system in which to implement of participation in politics. However, it was noted candidate quotas. Parliamentarians were reminded that quotas could be devised to be ‘gender neutral’, that international institutions and independent experts i.e. applying equally to men and women; for exam- were available to assist with those decisions and the ple, one sex may not hold more than 70 percent or reform process. less than 30 percent of the seats in parliament. Some countries faced the problem of stagnation It was also noted that quotas redressed an exist- once quotas were adopted. As such, quotas are effec- ing and historical imbalance in access to political tive for reaching the required minimum figure for power, and were justified in order to give women women in parliament, but may set a ceiling for the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities in the women beyond which it was difficult to move. The practice of politics. An additional advantage of quotas major challenge for countries was thus how to push was that they could result in more transparent rules beyond the legal minimum and achieve parity. It was of candidate recruitment. This had the potential to clear, however, that quotas were not a remedy on their also benefit male candidates who might otherwise own. Quotas, which primarily address structural fac- have been discriminated against by elite groups of tors, must be supplemented by more nuanced mea- decision-makers. sures that took into consideration national contexts There was also debate about whether quotas were and cultural attitudes. In this regard, past experience appropriate for countries at all levels of economic had demonstrated that parliamentary initiatives for development, in particular countries that were grap- implementing policies were crucial, but those policies pling with problems such as high rates of illiteracy must have the support of women outside politics, or maternal/infant mortality. It was noted that a such as in business or civil society. Women were con- first step towards improving the situations in these stantly achieving in all sections of society and it was countries was to ensure that women were participat- important for members of parliament to learn from ing in parliament, thereby raising the concerns of their constituents.

Overcoming Barriers: Electoral Gender Quotas 21 Is Parliament Open to Women? Quotas in Global Perspective Drude Dahlerup Professor of Political Science, Stockholm University, Sweden

Introduction than 60 percent and no less than 40 percent of The good news is that women’s political representa- either sex. tion is increasing all over the world. The bad news is In a way, electoral gender quotas are a simple answer to a highly complex problem: that of women’s that women still constitute only a small minority of historical exclusion from public life. Furthermore, parliamentarians, and that the rate of increase is very the implementation of quotas as an affirmative pol- slow – from 13 percent in 1999 to 19 percent in 2009. icy is easy to evaluate, since it is a matter of counting In recent years, a new perspective on women’s un- the number or proportion of women on a candidate derrepresentation has developed. There has been a dis- list and among those elected. cursive change from blaming women to scrutinizing It is important to stress that electoral gender the institutions that in their norms and practices are quotas do not solve all the problems for women in not sufficiently inclusive of women or other under- politics. Nor do quotas overturn a male-dominated represented groups. The United Nations Beijing political system once and for all. Under certain con- Platform for Action of 1995 is illustrative of this change ditions, however, quotas might successfully and rap- of focus. idly alter a situation of women’s underrepresentation. The global trend of introducing electoral gender It is also important to realize that although gender quotas is one of the current answers to the problem of quotas are introduced by male dominated assemblies the underrepresentation of women. Although highly for many different reasons, national and sometimes controversial, electoral gender quotas have been adopt- international women’s organizations have been active ed with amazing speed in the past two decades. By everywhere. 2009, around 50 countries had adopted such quotas in their Constitution, electoral law or party law. These are so-called legislated gender quotas. Formal gender quotas have been introduced by countries as Women in the Parliaments of the World diverse as Argentina (1991), Belgium (1994), Costa Rica Table 1 shows the regional averages for women’s par- (1996), France (1999), Rwanda (2003), Iraq (2004), liamentary representation. The table reveals that the Uzbekistan (2004) and Spain (2007). In many other differences between the regions of the world are not countries one or more political party represented in as large as might be expected, and that an increase parliament has adopted voluntary party quotas for its in representation, albeit modest, has taken place in all electoral lists.1 regions. The Pacific region and the Arab countries Quotas imply setting a fixed goal for the recruit- are at the bottom of the table, although, statistically, ment of women or other underrepresented groups the highest increase in the past decade has taken on candidate lists or among those elected in order to place in the Arab world – from 3.7 percent to 9.7 rapidly change an unwanted inequality. Electoral percent. gender quotas are thus an affirmative action policy For a long time, the Scandinavian countries and for public elections. Quota rules may also be gender the Netherlands were alone at the top of the world neutral, in which case a minimum and maximum rankings in terms of women’s political representation. quota is set for both sexes, for instance, no more These countries are now being challenged by other

22 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Table 1: Women’s Representation in Parliament, 1997 and 2009 (Regional Averages, Single or Lower House)

1997 2009

Europe 14.3 21.0

Americas 13.5 20.5

Sub-Saharan Africa 10.8 18.3

Asia 9.7 18.0

Pacific 12.8 13.0

Arab world 3.7 9.7

Note: World Average: 1997 = 11.3%; 2009 = 18.5 % (single or lower houses). Source: . countries, many of which are situated in the global representation. The low levels of representation of South (see table 2). women in the parliaments of India, the United States Table 2 shows the 15 countries in the world with and the United Kingdom illustrate this point. The the highest representation of women in parliament, difficulties in combining a single member constitu- that is, around 35 percent and over. It shows that all ency system with any type of gender quota will prob- the new entrants at the top of the world ranking use ably further widen the gap between the two electoral some type of electoral gender quota, either legal, that systems in terms of women’s representation. It is much is, legislated quotas binding on all political parties more difficult, for example, for 40 percent of candi- in the country, or a voluntary party quota.2 How- dates to be required to be women when each party ever, a high level of women’s representation can also has only one candidate per electoral district. While emerge without quotas, as was the case in Denmark 80 percent of countries with proportional electoral and Finland. It is common knowledge that an elec- systems have some type of gender quota in use, only toral system based on proportional representation (PR) 25 percent of countries with single member districts is in general more favourable to increases in women’s have such quotas.3

Table 2: Women’s Representation in Parliament: The Top 15 Countries (Single or Lower House)

Country % Women in parlt Quotas Electoral system

1. Rwanda 56.3 (2008) Legal Quotas Proportional representation

2. Sweden 47.3 (2006) Party Quotas Proportional representation

3. South Africa 44.5 (2009) Party Quotas Proportional representation

4. Cuba 43.2 (2008) NA Plurality/majority vote

5. Iceland 42.9 (2009) No Quotas Proportional representation

6. Finland 42.0 (2007) No Quotas Proportional representation

7. Argentina 40.0 (2007) Legal Quotas Proportional representation

8. Costa Rica 38.6 (2006) Legal Quotas Proportional representation

9. Norway 37.9 (2005) Party Quotas Proportional representation

10. Denmark 37.4 (2007) No Quotas Proportional representation

11. Angola 37.3 (2008) Legal Quotas Proportional representation

12. Belgium 36.7 (2007) Legal Quotas Proportional representation

13. Netherlands 36.7 (2006) Party Quotas Proportional representation

14. Spain 36.3 (2008) Legal Quotas Proportional representation

15. Mozambique 34.8 (2004) Party Quotas Proportional representation

Overcoming Barriers: Electoral Gender Quotas 23 Types of Gender Quota In Europe, voluntary candidate quotas are the Comparative gender quota research has shown that preferred quota system – if any type of quota system quotas have been introduced in all types of political is introduced at all. Social Democratic, Left and system. When designing an electoral gender quota Green parties have led the introduction of voluntary system, the choice between legislated quotas and vol- gender quotas. A contagion effect may lead other untary quotas is the most important distinction, since parties to follow suit, but many bourgeois parties the former are binding on all political parties and have rejected quotas as illiberal. In Scandinavia, where allow for legal sanctions in cases of non-compliance, all political parties have a relatively high percentage while voluntary quotas often start with a decision by of women in their parliamentary groups, several just one single party. Nonetheless, questions must bourgeois parties have introduced “soft quotas” in also be asked about where in the electoral process the form of recommendations and targets in order 4 the quotas are applied: aspirant quotas, for shortlists to compete for votes. and primaries; candidate quotas, which may be legal Quotas in the form of reserved seats are the most or voluntary quotas; and reserved seat quotas. common quota type in the Arab world, Asia and East Figure 1 shows the preferred quota type in different Africa. In Rwanda, two women are elected by a spe- regions of the world by six categories, which, in turn, cial electorate from each electoral district – a total of are based on a combination of two dimensions: first, 24 women. In 2003, in the first election under this the mandate, that is legislated quotas versus volun- system, 15 women were also elected to non-reserved tary party quotas; and, second, where in the electoral district seats, and in the 2008 election 21 women process quotas are introduced: aspirant quotas, can- were elected in this way, contradicting the idea that didate quotas or quotas as reserved seats for those reserved seats will become a glass ceiling for women. elected. The regional patterns in figure 1 can be ex- In Afghanistan, at least two women candidates must plained by the similarities in electoral systems but be elected per district. In Morocco, the political par- are also the product of a regional learning process. ties have reserved 30 seats on a so-called national list, Aspirant quotas aim to secure a minimum num- elected nationwide, for women candidates. However, ber of women among the pool of candidates who are women’s organizations have complained that the quota up for selection by the voters in a primary election, is used as an argument against nominating women as in Panama, or by the nominating bodies of a politi- to the district seats. cal party. The best known in the latter category is Reserved seat systems are increasingly based on the all-women shortlists used by the British Labour elections. It is therefore incorrect to argue that in Party for half the vacant seats in the run-up to the such systems women parliamentarians gain their seat 1997 election, although this was challenged through without competition. What is new is that this is a com- an industrial tribunal. petition between women. At its best, it places women’s In Latin America, legislated candidate quotas issues at the forefront of electoral campaigns. It has are a widespread and preferred type of gender quota. been argued that even if reserved seats for women vio- Argentina led the way in 1991, and legislated candi- late men’s formal rights to compete for these seats, date quotas are now common in Latin America. de facto electoral competition between male candi-

Figure 1: Regional Variations in Preferred Quota Typea

Mandate by / level Aspirants quotas Candidate quotas Reserved seat quotas

Legal quotas (Constitution or law) 1. Primaries (Panama, Paraguay) 3. Latin America 5. Arab region, South Asia, sub-Saharan Africab

Voluntary party quotas 2. Women’s shortlists (UK) 4. Europe 6. Morocco: Southern Africa Charter signed by the political parties a. According to the predominant type of quota. A region placed in two categories indicates that two quota types are used equally or almost equally. No clear pattern in the Pacific Ocean Region. b. Reserved seats in one-party states are categorized as legislated quotas. Source: Drude Dahlerup (2006), p. 294 (updated)

24 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal dates remains far more prevalent across the world. in Sweden. In Belgium, the top two candidates on More generally, whether electoral gender quotas rep- any list cannot be of the same sex. By extension to resent equality of opportunity or equality of result the whole list, this would become a 50 percent quota. is open to a wider discussion.5 In Spain, the quota is 40:60 for every five posts on a Finally, it is important to choose a quota type that list. If there are fewer than five ‘eligible posts’, the matches the individual country in order to avoid ratio applied must be as close as possible to 40:60. gender quotas remaining purely symbolic. If a quota Sanctions for non-compliance are important to system is unclear or has no real effect, it is important the implementation of a quota system. In cases where to ask whether this was the intention. quotas are applied by law, a number of different types of sanction are available:

Examples of Good Practice 1. Rejection of the list (Costa Rica, Spain, Slovenia, France at the local level) Rwanda, Sweden and Costa Rica represent some of 2. Places shall remain empty (Belgium) the best cases of gender quotas. They have all 3. Financial penalty (France at the national level, achieved a very high level of representation of women. Portugal) They also represent three different types of electoral gender quota. Rwanda has reserved seats, increasingly based on elections. Two women must be elected Conclusion from each district. In Rwanda, 56.3 percent of parliamentarians are women, making it the number one Electoral gender quotas are just one strategy used to in the world. Sweden has voluntary quotas for party increase women’s representation in political assemblies. candidate lists. Parties on the left practice ‘every They cannot stand alone as an affirmative action second a woman’, that is, a 50 percent voluntary method, but must be followed up with other changes, party quota for candidate lists. Right leaning parties for instance, concerning campaign financing, safety do not have quota rules, but to a large extent also measures for candidates who run for election be- alternate male and female candidates on their lists. cause of the intimidation of female candidates, and In Sweden, 47.3 percent of parliamentarians are so on. Nonetheless, gender quotas have proved to be women, making it number 2 in the world. Costa Rica a method that can lead to historic leaps in women’s has a legislated candidate quota of 40 percent for all political representation and thus break historical pat- parties. There are strong sanctions for non-compliance, terns of the underrepresentation of women. including the possible rejection of a party’s list. In Costa Rica, 38.6 percent of parliamentarians are women, making it number eight in the world. Endnotes A quota system without rank order rules may 1 For a global overview, see Dahlerup, Drude (ed.), 2006. lead to no change in women’s representation. Quota Women, Quotas and Politics, London and New York: Rout regulations that require, for example, that 40 per- ledge; and the website on electoral gender quotas operated cent of all candidates on a list be women may not lead by International IDEA, Stockholm University and the Inter- to any women being elected if all the women candi- Parliamentary Union at . dates are nominated at the bottom of the list or 2 In table 2, a country is defined as having voluntary party compete in non-winnable seats. The political parties quotas if at least one of the political parties represented in usually know very well where the safe or winnable parliament makes use of gender quotas. 3 Dahlerup, Drude (2007). “Electoral Gender Quotas: Be- seats are. Seats won at the previous election are most tween Equality of Opportunity and Equality of Results”, worth striving for. Representation, 43(2) (July 2007), pp. 73–92. There are many types of rank order regulations 4 See Freidenvall, Lenita et al. (2006), “The Nordic Coun- in force in the world. For instance, a Zipper System, tries: An Incremental Model”, Women, Quotas and Politics that is, alternation throughout the list, is used by (note 1), pp. 55–82. most Green parties as well as most political parties 5 This is discussed in Dahlerup, pp. 73–92.

Overcoming Barriers: Electoral Gender Quotas 25 Women and Quotas in Uruguay1 Daniela Payssé Member of the House of Representatives, Uruguay

Introduction the Universidad de la República, Uruguay, observed The approval of the Law on Political Participation that in many debates in Uruguay the fundamental (presence of both sexes) in Uruguay in March 2009 question is the potential impact of electing more responded to the need, emphasized for more than 20 women to office. This has prompted analysis to de- years by women politicians, women’s organizations and termine whether women make a difference once international agencies, to implement mechanisms to elected to parliament. The central questions in this achieve greater equality between men and women in research were: Do women make a significant contri- access to elective political office in Uruguay. Despite bution to the legislative agenda and processes? Can the high levels of participation by women in political gender-based differences between the roles played parties, women have been systematically less preva- by men and women parliamentarians be identified? lent in elective offices than men despite the reinstate- Do women legislators better represent women in their ment of democratic institutions and procedures since legislative activity? the end of the dictatorship. This imbalance – prevalent In the past decade, several public opinion surveys in most of the world’s parliaments – was identified conducted in Uruguay have shown that both men and women are supportive of political participation during the 1990s as a failing of democratic systems. by women. These surveys also reveal a majority of An Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) seminar held opinion in favour of some form of affirmative action in Uruguay in March 2009 brought a reminder that or a mechanism such as gender-based quotas to in- the difficulties faced by women in gaining access to crease political representation by women. In addition, political decision-making positions are not exclusive Uruguayan men and women believe that men and to Uruguay. Argentine Senator María Cristina Per- women pursue different political issues and that sex ceval, for example, asked “Why is it important for is a relevant dividing line between opinions on pub- women to enter parliament? One answer is that the lic issues.2 more women enter parliament the clearer the signal Given the majority support among Uruguayan of social change, offering empirical evidence that citizens for increasing the number of women in par- when our countries democratize, more women partici- liament, research was carried out to gauge the level pate, and when democracy is restricted, fewer women of support for affirmative action measures to bring occupy decision-making positions.” Colombian about this result. A survey conducted in 2008 by the Senator Gina Parody offered this reflection: “Men Office of Political and Gender Affairs of the Political and women ask different questions. The Women’s Science Institute (APG-ICP), with support from the Caucus has changed the agenda and included other International Institute for Democracy and Electoral items. One woman in politics changes other women. Assistance (International IDEA) revealed that, while Many women in politics changes politics.” a significant proportion had no opinion on the quota concept (35.4%), among those who expressed an opinion, a large majority expressed support for the Impact of Women in Politics concept (76% in favour, 24% against). Dr. Niki Johnson, Coordinator for Political and In research on the values and issues pursued by Gender Affairs at the Political Science Institute of women in politics, two-thirds of those interviewed

26 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal said that women pursue issues that are somewhat or The current proportion of women full members entirely different from those pursued by men. This in the Chamber of Deputies (12.1 percent) places is not just a chance perception of the Uruguayan pub- Uruguay 90th in the IPU’s World Classification of lic. Studies of the parliament in Uruguay by Niki Women in Parliament. Uruguay ranks below not Johnson show that women legislators are more proac- only the world average for women in parliament tive and have a more diversified legislative agenda, (18.5 percent) but also most countries in the region. particularly in terms of sponsoring legislation on The stagnation observed at the national level and gender-related issues. the ups and downs recorded for most of the depart- Most citizens associate women politicians with a mental legislative bodies do not reflect any cumula- profile and agenda different from their male peers tive growth in women’s representation. This means and support the concept of a quota. The evidence that without some kind of affirmative action mech- presented above suggests that the continued reluc- anism, such as a quota, it is unlikely that the pres- tance of much of the Uruguayan male political hier- ence of women in decision-making positions will archy to give urgent priority to correcting the gender increase significantly. bias in political representation is far from being in tune with public opinion. The Quota Concept in Uruguay The Law on Public Participation was adopted in March Electoral Politics 2009. Women of all political parties promoted debate Voting in Uruguayan elections is based on the closed on the issue within their parties and in the broader list proportional representation system. Voters may public arena. With support from feminist and women’s only choose candidates from lists previously estab- organizations in heightening public awareness, and lished by the competing political parties. They may backed up by a growing body of knowledge about not single out individual candidates on a list or alter the multiple factors hindering access for women to the positions occupied by male and female candi- political positions in Uruguay, they sponsored legis- dates. The chances of a candidate being elected thus lation to adopt a quota mechanism. Women in grow- depend on his or her position on the list. One rele- ing numbers changed their positions from opposition vant indicator for measuring gender equity, in terms to support for the quota. Many men also recognized of the effective exercise of the political right to seek the sexist and anti-democratic bias of the country’s elective office, is therefore the distribution of men and political system. women candidates on the electoral lists. To date, four leftist and central-leftist political Uruguay was the first Latin American country to groups have adopted some form of quota mecha- enshrine unrestricted women’s suffrage. Women voted nism, permanent or temporary, to ensure access to for the first time in 1938. The first women legislators electoral lists and party leadership positions for both entered parliament in 1942. However, up to the time sexes. In terms of effectiveness, the quota had no of the dictatorship, the presence of women in par- impact on the two smallest of these groups, the lists liament never exceeded the level achieved in 1942 of which won only two or fewer seats in parliament. (3.1 percent). No women were elected as full mem- The remaining two groups, however, approved the bers in the first elections held after the dictatorship quota as a permanent criterion for the composition (1984). Subsequent legislatures were characterized of both their electoral lists and their internal leader- by a continuous but moderate growth in the number ship organs. of women representatives until the most recent na- The first to do so was the Partido Socialista (Social- tional elections, when 14 women were elected as full ist Party, PS). In 1992, following internal discussion members - one fewer than in the previous election. at all levels, it agreed to establish a quota mechanism In the parliament formed after the 2004 elections, based on “mirror-image” representation: the com- women represented 11.1 percent of all full members position of the party’s permanent leadership organs elected to the Chamber of Deputies (11 out of 99 and electoral lists would reflect that of party member- members) and 9.7 percent of those elected to the ship in the district concerned, with the percentage Senate (3 out of 31 members).3 of women at least equal to the percentage of women

Overcoming Barriers: Electoral Gender Quotas 27 party members. This decision had a positive practi- Discussion on the amended bill began in the full cal impact on the levels of women representatives. Senate on 14 May 2008. Since there was no agree- In 2006, the FA’s Artiguista faction approved a sim- ment, and since special majorities (two-thirds in ilar mechanism for its internal elections and electoral each chamber) are required in the case of amend- lists. In this case, the campaign to win adoption of ments to electoral law, the chamber voted to recess the quota mechanism was conducted by members until 21 May. During the debate, an alternative bill of the group Área Mujer. A quota of one-third was was introduced by PN Senators to apply the quota established for elections to the faction’s new leader- to constitutionally established primary elections ship organs. As a result, 35 percent of its 40-member starting in 2009 but to postpone application to the national council, and one-third of its 15-member national and municipal quota until the elections of executive board, are now women. 2014 and 2015, respectively, limiting its application The quota legislation approved by parliament was to those elections only. According to the PN Sena- not the first legislative initiative of its kind. A total tors this proposal was developed to achieve internal of five such bills have been introduced since 1988, party consensus. proposing the adoption of various versions of a quota The PN Senators made it clear that in their opin- mechanism for electoral lists.4 ion this was the best possible alternative under the circumstances. As Senator Heber put it ‘they are asking for the maximum, but not for all or nothing”. The Parliamentary Approval Process, Under the sharp gaze of women present in the chamber, PN Senators argued that their proposal was 2006–2009 intended as a “gradualist” approach, permitting a The law on equal participation for both sexes (quota “process” of incorporating women into the political legislation) was introduced simultaneously in both parties. According to these Senators, the application the Senate and Chamber of Deputies on 8 March of the quota to the primary elections in 2009 would 2006. The bill’s five articles provide that in the case address the “substance” and “fundamental objective” of lists for elections to parliament, departmental coun- to which the law aspired – by involving women in cils and local councils, no more than two out of their party conventions, where fundamental deci- every three positions can be occupied by persons of sions are taken. The PN Senators also justified their the same sex. This provision applies at least to the proposal by the fact that change in Uruguay is not first 15 positions for both full and alternate member- easy or certain, but gradual, and that establishing ship. For parties’ permanent leadership organs, it the quota for elections so imminent would not send also requires parties to ensure the presence of women the correct signal, because it would not allow partici- and men in proportions equal to those recorded for pants to know the rules of the game beforehand and party membership in the district concerned. could give the impression of a self-interested meas- Consideration of the bill in the Senate Commit- ure. The debate was marked by tense moments and tee on the Constitution and Legislation began on 22 comments laden with gender stereotypes, angering May 2007 and did not conclude until 8 April 2008. the women in attendance in the gallery. During that time, the bill underwent a series of With respect to the causes for the limited presence amendments to secure the consensus needed for adop- of women in political positions, PN Senator Heber tion. The most important was to confine the meas- said that equal participation by men and women was ures to the next two national and departmental observed among the younger generation but ulti- elections and to primary elections and elections for mately reached a point where women “disappeared”. the party leadership organs. It was also established According to the Senator, this was not a reflection that the measure would apply to the lists of candi- of aptitude but of the fact that women play a funda- dates for full and alternate membership and that, in mental role in the family that is at odds with party the case of lists with only two candidates for full politics, which often entails lengthy meetings late into membership, the candidates could not be of the same the night, precluding the participation of women. sex. An amended bill was finally approved in the Sen- FA Senator Mujica said that while he was pre- ate’s Committee on the Constitution on 22 April 2008. pared to consider the measure he had his doubts, since

28 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal it concerned a “cultural matter”. Senator Mónica of International Human Rights Day, denounced the Xavier, also of FA, stressed that the real issue was delay in considering the political participation bill and one of “power” and “rights”. She could therefore not issued a public statement urging its rapid approval. accept “the affirmation of the idea that we women During a Committee meeting on 11 March have to win our place in politics [. . .] the matter must 2009, Deputy Argimón reiterated calls for the bills be recognized as one of rights and that all of us, consideration. It was unanimously resolved to refer men and women alike, must have the opportunity the bill to the plenary of the Chamber of Deputies. to take our rightful places.” She concluded that “our The bill was finally passed by the Chamber of Dep- responsibility is to pave the way for women so that uties, without amendment, on 24 March 2009, something that should be noble, like politics, does securing 75 out of 78 votes and thus the two-thirds not create the obstacles we see today. For that rea- majority required for electoral legislation. The only son, the legislation before us is a good start in the article to receive unanimous support (76 out of 76 ) right direction.” was article 1, which declared it a matter of general The original bill was put to a vote during the interest to achieve equitable participation for both session of 28 May. The bill required 21 votes to be sexes in the composition of the legislative branch, of approved by a two-thirds majority, but received municipal, departmental, and local autonomous only 19 of the 30 votes cast. The bill introduced by councils (elective) and of party decision-making bodies. the PN, with a few amendments introduced in the chamber, was then put to a vote and approved by 28 The Electoral Court of the 30 votes cast. The bill established the applica- Two days after the bill was approved in parliament, tion of quotas for primary elections (national and the Electoral Court issued implementing regulations departmental conventions), as well as elections to for the primary elections of all political parties. The party leadership organs. This provision came into law on quotas (Law 18,476) provides for the inclu- effect in 2009 with no expiry date. It will take effect sion on electoral lists of “persons of both sexes with- for national and departmental elections in 2014 and in every group of three candidates, for full as well as 2015, respectively, but on a one-off basis with an under- alternate membership”. The Electoral Court regula- standing that the 2015–2020 legislature will evaluate tions were totally restrictive in their interpretation the measure’s effectiveness. of the three-candidate groups as including candidates On 3 June 2008 the bill was introduced in the for full as well as alternate membership. Parliamen- Chamber of Deputies and referred to the Committee tarians regarded the interpretation with surprise and on the Constitution, Codes, General Legislation and indignation, as a potential additional obstacle to Administration. Six months after the initiative’s ap- women’s participation in conventions as candidates proval in the Senate, the political participation bill for full membership. had still not been considered in the Chamber of The Electoral Court ruled that one-third of the Deputies. women on a list had to be candidates for full mem- On 3 December 2008, Deputy Beatriz Argimón bership, but without specifying the positions on the presented comments made by the Committee on list that they should occupy. Women could there- the Elimination of Discrimination against Women fore be included as candidates for full membership (CEDAW) on Uruguay’s fourth, fifth, sixth and as the lowest third of the names listed on the ballot. seventh reports, presented in 2008 in a single Coun- The Bicameral Women’s Caucus issued a state- try Report. One of CEDAW’s recommendations ment to express its “profound disagreement with the was that “special temporary measures’” be taken to conduct of the members of the Electoral Court, who accelerate the establishment of equality between had defined discriminatory criteria in their regula- men and women. It “urged the Uruguayan State to tions totally at odds with the spirit in which the accelerate the approval of legislation on quotas and legislators had drafted the provision.” Women legis- political parties.” lators asked that their points be considered and On 10 December 2008, to close a year of inten- warned that if these criteria were not modified they sive work, the Uruguayan Women’s Political Network, would file complaints with the international bodies an organization composed of women from all politi- responsible for monitoring compliance with the con- cal parties, meeting in the Legislative Palace as part ventions ratified by Uruguay.

Overcoming Barriers: Electoral Gender Quotas 29 An evaluation: the 2009 primary elections Conclusions The primary elections held on 28 June 2009 permit As is noted above, the law approved in March 2009 a preliminary evaluation of how the new provisions created an important distinction between primary are being applied. These elections were included in elections (constituent or party elections) and parlia- the Uruguayan electoral system as part of the con- mentary or departmental elections. In the case of the stitutional reform of December 1996. Apart from former, the quota is to become a permanent criterion determining each party’s presidential candidate for to be applied from 2009. For the latter, which in- the national elections, the primaries also elect the volves more powerful elective offices, the quota will members of each party’s National Deliberative Organ not apply until the 2014–2015 electoral cycle and is (NDO) and Departmental Deliberative Organs, a one-off event. The measures appear to be inconsistent commonly referred to as national and departmental with the concept of affirmative action that suppos- “Conventions”. This is the third electoral cycle to edly inspired them. CEDAW, which was ratified by include primaries, making it possible to evaluate the Uruguay in 1981, defines affirmative action as mea- impact of applying the quota compared with the sures that entail differential treatment with the inten- two previous elections (in the case of the FA, the PN tion of correcting existing inequality. Such measures and the PC) and with the 2004 elections (in the case are therefore temporary but without a defined expi- of the Partido Independiente, Independent Party, PI). ration date – they can be dispensed with once the Analysis has revealed that the top three three- inequality they are intended to correct has disap- candidate groups, that is, the first nine positions, peared. Nonetheless, despite the important limits on included fewer women candidates than the list as a the bill’s scope and potential impact on women’s whole. Overall, however, it is clear that application of representation, women could be expected to enjoy the quota has reduced the gap between the propor- growing influence over the composition of national tion of women on the list as a whole and the pro- and departmental electoral lists as they gain a great- portion of women in the top positions. Considering er presence in the internal decision-making spheres the fact that women have historically been excluded of their parties. or marginalized on the lists, and that this was what National elections are to be held on 25 October the law was intended to correct – and given that the 2009 to elect the President and Vice President, renew law establishes that each three-candidate group of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies and elect the positions must include candidates of both sexes – the members of the Electoral Councils. The deadline following can occur: (a) lists that include the mini- for presenting the party lists to the Electoral Court mum number of women candidates, one per three- was one month in advance of that date. A prelimi- candidate group; (b) lists that include only one woman nary examination of these lists suggests that there per three-candidate group and that always place her will be no substantial changes to the parliament in in the third position; and (c) lists that include more terms of a greater presence for women. The current than the minimum number of candidates allowed percentage may in fact decline. This begs the question: by law, that is, at least one of the first three three- did the explicit mandate for greater participation by candidate groups includes two women candidates. women as a means of democratizing politics not The vast majority of ballots included only the permeate the political parties? Or must we consider minimum number of women required to comply this a revanchist manoeuvre by the political parties, with the law, and placed only three women in the faced with the prospect of legally binding quotas top three three-candidate groups for full member- in 2014? ship. This was the case for more than 90 percent of the FA and PN ballots and more than 80 percent of the PC ballots. Even in the PI, more than half the Endnotes ballots followed this pattern. This suggests that politi- 1 This paper is based on a document prepared by the Bicam- cal parties applied the quota in a basically mechani- eral Women’s Caucus for the Meeting of Women delegates cal fashion in the primary elections of 2009, resulting from all political parties, held on 16 September 2009 in the in a greater presence of women Convention mem- Legislative Palace of Uruguay. bers, an average of nearly one-third across the four 2 Such attitudes are not new among the Uruguayan electorate. parties. A survey conducted in 1997 by the consulting firm Factum,

30 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal for example, revealed that some 53 percent of Uruguayan problem “not only for women, but for society as a whole”. men and women agree with the quota concept. A survey by Like the first bill, it proposed a maximum quota of 75 per- the consulting firm Cifra provided similar results: 57 percent for either sex, this time applicable to the first eight cent of those interviewed (men and women) said there positions. The bill was passed by the Chamber of Deputies should be more women in parliament; only 9 percent said but referred to committee in the Senate. The third bill there should be fewer. A survey conducted in late 2007 by (C.RR. 2280/2002; C.SS. 1181/2003) was signed by the five APG-ICP/International IDEA found that nearly 60 per- members of the Women’s Caucus. As originally drafted it cent of Uruguayan men and women consider the current proposed a maximum quota for electoral lists of two-thirds number of women in parliament to be too low. Only a small for either sex, applicable to every third position. For party percentage (20 percent) considered the current number leadership organs it established the “mirror-image” crite- appropriate or too high. rion adopted by the PS in 1992. This bill was the first to be 3 Only the Frente Amplio (Broad Front, FA) saw an upward debated and voted on in the Chamber of Deputies, and for trend in women’s participation throughout the period. Between the first time political leaders were required to take a position 1994 and 2004, however, it increased by less than a single on the issue in the plenary. Only one article was approved: percentage point. The level of women’s representation in article 4, which declared it a matter of general interest to the Partido Colorado (PC) and Partido Nacional (National promote “equitable participation by both sexes in the perma- Party, PN) remained below 12 percent during this same period nent leadership organs of political parties”. This truncated and in both cases declined in the most recent elections. version passed the Senate Committee on the Constitution 4 The first bill (C.RR. 3093/1988) proposed that the national and Legislation but was not taken further. A fourth bill law regulating the electoral system include a maximum (C.RR. 3343/2003) proposed the creation of a fund to finance quota of 75 percent for either sex, applicable to every fourth training and political leadership development for women, of the first 12 positions on the list. For lower positions, especially young women. Its article 4 provided that the men and women candidates were required to alternate. lists presented for parliamentary elections should include This bill was tabled without reaching committee considera- no more than three persons of the same sex among the first tion. In the next legislature, a second bill (C.RR. 2235/1992) four positions, and that public funding to political parties proposed “a regime based on the values of equality and that failed to comply should be reduced by 25 percent. The justice” to resolve the under-representation of women as a bill was not taken up.

Overcoming Barriers: Electoral Gender Quotas 31 32 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal OVERCOMING BARRIERS: OTHER SPECIAL MEASURES AND STRATEGIES

3 Overcoming Barriers: Other Special Measures and Strategies 33 Overview and Debate

Overview of the Session of the keys to expanding women’s presence in politics was to facilitate their access to financial resources In light of the existing difficulties in implementing at pivotal stages of the campaign process. The ques- electoral quotas, the session examined other measures tion of financing concerned both men and women that have been used or proposed to enhance women’s candidates. However, women faced some specific chal- access to parliaments. The session addressed the fol- lenges that merited consideration on their own. lowing questions: There were three phases of a political campaign: • What are other forms of special measures to pro- deciding to run, winning a party nomination and mote women in parliament? conducting an electoral campaign. Women faced complex challenges at each of these phases. Experience had • What role does money in politics play, and can shown that a number of these challenges could be campaign finance reforms help? overcome by implementing comprehensive financing • What other measures can political parties imple- strategies designed to empower women candidates. ment, such as training and campaign support? For example, women often did not have sufficient • What difference can the media make? agency over family resources. Therefore, when de- The chairperson of this session was Baroness ciding to run for election, they would frequently hesitate over investing family resources, asking for Lindsay Northover, Member of the House of Lords, credit, or assuming extra expenses for domestic help, United Kingdom. The panelists for this session were and women needed to be empowered in this area. Dr. Marcela Tovar, Director of the Latin American To win a nomination, women must build recog- Studies Program at Queens College – City University nition among constituencies, which required a signifi- of New York; Ms. Colleen Lowe Morna, Executive cant investment of time and money. That was a Director, Gender Links, South Africa, and Ms. Alyson particular barrier to women as many felt that, in Kozma, Program Manager, National Democratic comparison to men, they had less access or control Institute for International Affairs (NDI). Ms. Tovar over financial resources and powerful money net- discussed campaign finance reform as an instrument works. For similar reasons, women who succeeded for achieving gender equality in politics and outlined in winning a nomination had often felt at a disad- good practices. Ms. Lowe Morna outlined two stud- vantage when conducting their electoral campaign. ies carried out by Gender Links into local govern- In terms of a financing strategy, early“ money” ment, training and capacity-building and the media was crucial in all three phases. Political parties and to assess if any or all of these could be used to promote other funding networks could help women overcome women’s access to parliaments. Ms. Kozma discussed those perceived barriers by ensuring that female can- the results of an NDI study on best practices to pro- didates had sufficient access to financial resources vide support to women candidates and women in from the outset of the electoral process. It had been political parties. demonstrated that the amount of early financial Ms. Tovar explained that campaigns were very support that a woman received largely determined costly and the lack of economic resources was one of the amount of money she would continue to collect the biggest obstacles to winning an electoral race. One over the course of the campaign.

34 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Women often stated that they were best served implemented. However, it could be difficult to deter- by financing strategies that were aimed specifically mine the extent to which these training programmes at training and at the nomination phase of their accomplished their goal. Funding for training pro- campaigns. In Brazil, Costa Rica and Panama, for grammes often depended upon the availability of instance, political parties had specified that a certain donor funding, and, in the context of national poli- amount of financial resources should be designated tics, training and capacity-building programmes specifically for the political training of women candi- must be firmly rooted in political parties in order dates. Of the three most common funding types – for the results to be beneficial and sustainable. More public, private, and combined public/private – public research should be carried out on mentorship as a funding had been shown to be the most advantageous formal strategy for providing ongoing support for for women. However, this was only true if transpar- female parliamentarians. Women have stated that ency was enforced by accountability mechanisms what they required most was practical training (how within parties to ensure that women had equal access to draft reports or take advantage of new technolo- to the funds that their party received. Aside from gies, for instance) and on-the-job support. Mentoring public funding, other political measures that could could potentially be very effective in reaching those be taken to included the establishment of term limits objectives. (to combat the influence of male incumbents who Women’s representation in the media was an- were difficult to unseat) and limits on campaign other area of concern. A significant proportion of spending. Other incentives included state subsidies women politicians reported being unhappy with and free or additional broadcasting time, awarded to their treatment by the media and were not sure how those parties that reached and sustained a high level to improve relations. Women often felt that they of female participation in parliament. were ignored or else portrayed in a very bad light so Ms. Lowe Morna explained that quota systems as to reinforce negative stereotypes. The media was were the most rapid and direct measure to increase prone to cultivating a negative and stereotypical women’s representation in parliament. However, there portrayal of women politicians, tending to put them were other measures, although the results may not down rather than focus on their political achieve- be as dramatic or quick. Measures relating to local gov- ments. It was therefore necessary to learn to work ernment, training and capacity-building, and the with the media, and use it as effectively as possible, media could be implemented and could indeed result with a “don’t get angry, get smart” approach. in increased women’s representation. Ms. Kozma presented the conclusions of a survey Data regarding women’s participation in local on strategies to overcoming barriers to women’s politi- government was notoriously difficult to collect and cal participation. It revealed that political parties detailed statistics were scarce. However, preliminary remained the gateway to political power, yet there research indicated that local government may hold were still a number of obstacles preventing women’s some interesting opportunities for women to launch meaningful integration within their parties. An in- their parliamentary career, though it was an under- creased perception of women as active political utilized platform. The range of percentages for leaders could only come from their visibility and women’s representation in local government varied participation within their own parties, and that was greatly between countries in different regions and at inhibited by factors such as a lack of transparency different stages of economic development. It was con- during the nomination and campaign process. sequently difficult to draw any concrete conclusions, Internal party reform was crucial to advancing although there were some noticeable trends. When women’s participation in politics. A priority for parlia- the political will existed, there was usually more mentarians should be how to create transparency and willingness to implement special gender sensitive a more merit-based atmosphere which gave women measures at the local level. There had been cases an opportunity to participate. There were a number where quotas had been adopted at the local level, of best practices on how to change internal party later paving the way for implementation at the na- dynamics to make them more inclusive of women. tional level. Women had specified that communication, inter- Training and capacity-building to support nal party reform, cross-party cooperation and building women’s electoral candidacies had frequently been leadership skills through mentoring were all valuable

Overcoming Barriers: Other Special Measures and Strategies 35 strategies for empowering women within their political isolating women from their male counterparts and parties. In this regard, consistent communications undermining efforts to increase women’s participation. training across the span of a political career was an More work also needed to be done to create important confidence-building measure. It was im- stronger partnerships between political parties and portant for women to work in training groups among civil society organizations. More awareness needed themselves, as well as with men, so that they had to be raised at the grassroots level regarding the vot- the opportunity to develop certain skills and then ing process and the challenges that women faced. apply them in a collaborative context. Initiatives, such as the iKNOW Politics resource, It had also been noted that, in general, women were have proven to be very useful for outreach purposes more willing than men to reach across party lines and for building virtual and real networks. to form common solutions to common problems. Uniting women across parties was a key technique to maximize their power both within their own par- Plenary Debate ties and within parliament. Another good practice was to encourage women to train each other. This was Participants noted that maltreatment by the media a very effective way of passing down skills and ad- was an issue of serious concern. Members of parlia- vice on how to balance personal and political roles. ment noted that they often had felt as though their Women have asked for tools to help them handle contribution to politics was ignored or underreported. their conflicting responsibilities. Solidarity among There was recognition that the media was unlikely women should, therefore, be encouraged to help de- to change by itself, and parliamentarians should velop the capacity and preparedness for politics. therefore take the initiative to challenge the media More women could also be encouraged to stand about its treatment of politicians. It was important for election through the establishment of a mentoring for parliamentarians to remain proactive and vigilant system. Mentors or role models had proven to be an in order to demonstrate that a lack of respect would effective way of engaging the youth to help change not be tolerated. Participants noted that they would socio-political attitudes and educate the younger gen- seek to improve their communication skills and learn erations on the importance of political participation. how to use the internet to engage with new media Parliamentarians should think creatively about net- platforms in order build their profile and counteract working and advocacy strategies that could be used negative stereotyping. to cultivate new gender-sensitive leaders. With regards to cross-party collaboration, ex- Parliaments across the world were implementing perience had demonstrated that competing political good practices, yet more still needed to be done. One priorities often made it difficult for parliamentari- of the most pressing priorities was for parliamentar- ans to work together across political party lines. ians to spend more time integrating men into efforts However, participants noted that cross-party cau- to promote women’s political progress. Any meaning- cuses of women parliamentarians offered important ful progress must have the understanding of men fora to build support for common objectives and otherwise the push for gender sensitive policies risked generate support for new policies and priorities.

Overcoming Barriers: Implementing Special Measures

Financial Training and capacity building Internal party reform

• Provide ‘Early Money’ for nomination campaigns • Prioritize communication & leadership skills • Formalize candidate recruitment processes • Consider provision of public funding • Media Relations • Allocate funding for women candidates, or • Implement limits on campaign expenditure • Ensure outreach to civil society and NGOs women’s capacity building • Provide incentives for political parties to include • Provide training on fundraising and campaign • Consider implementing voluntary quotas more women, such as additional media time management • Ensure gender equality accountability • Consider using women to train each other mechanisms • Seek cross-party collaboration • Provide mentorship training

36 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Funding strategies were very important to help have few options for formal education or profes- women finance their campaigns and win election. sional training, outreach activities may be needed Participants noted the need for incentives for politi- to encourage a more active participation by women cal parties to include more women to be integrated and girls. Principles of gender equality should also into a multipronged strategy which also included be enforced from a young age: “gender equality starts measures on party reforms and electoral systems. None at home”. Ad hoc special measures were not suffi- of those strategies were definitive solutions; and in cient for achieving a genuine change towards parity some countries it may also be necessary to address a – such a goal required a change in mentality. School- perceived apathy of women to take part in political teachers should start teaching children about principles life despite the existence of funding schemes. Children of equality. Teachers, parents and parliamentarians should be encouraged to take interest in politics and should provide younger generations with role models to participate any way they can. As many women they could follow so as to strengthen ideas of equality.

Overcoming Barriers: Other Special Measures and Strategies 37 Campaign Finance for Women: Challenges, Incentives and Recommendations Marcela Tovar Restrepo Director of the Latin American Studies Program, Queens College, City University of New York1

Introduction The performance of women in the early stages of Campaign finance has been identified as a central campaigning will to a great extent define the number component for achieving gender equity in the po- of women who run and are elected. Building reputation and recognition among constituents and party litical realm. Despite the fact that women’s repre- members requires constant work, as well as signifi- sentation in national parliaments has significantly cant amounts of time money to be spent by potential increased, the lack of economic resources is one of candidates.3 Women have underlined the importance the main obstacles to achieving gender parity in of “early money” at the start of their campaigns. To parliaments. respond to these economic needs, women have imple- This paper outlines the funding challenges that mented mechanisms to provide women candidates women face in electoral processes and highlights the with early money, such as Political Action Committees successful finance strategies that increase women’s (PACs) in the United States, for example EMILY’s participation in parliaments. These strategies may not List or the WISH List. Providing early money to be universal in their application, but they provide women increases their chances of obtaining more valuable lessons for women candidates participating money during the election campaign. in parliamentary electoral processes. The importance of election campaign costs is context-specific. The relevance of economic resources varies for women at this stage depending on whether Funding Challenges for Women measures have been adopted that work in favour of Women confront traditional gender inequities, which women, such as public funding, quota systems, are reflected in their access to economic resources campaign limits on money and time, closed lists or when participating in political activities. Women and proportional representation. In contexts where women men face different financial challenges at key moments are not supported by these measures, economic invest- of their political careers: deciding to run, winning ment at the campaign stage becomes more important the nomination and running election campaigns.2 and relevant to the running of successful electoral When making their decision to run, women feel candidacies. hesitant in relation to various factors, such as invest- Moreover, other social factors can represent a ing family resources which they do not feel they higher need to invest money in electoral campaigns. individually own, asking for credit and risking their It is known that identity markers such as income own or their family’s capital, raising funds on their level, race and ethnic group, level of education, dom- own behalf, paying for domestic or care work they inant language skills, geographic location, sexual will not be able to do themselves, leaving their jobs orientation, age, consanguine/family relations and and being able to re-enter the labour market should phenotype count a great deal in women’s political they not be elected. participation throughout their careers, including The costs of nomination campaigns have proved whether a woman is well-positioned to acquire cam- crucial to women’s participation in electoral processes. paign funds during electoral campaigns.

38 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Funding to Increase Women’s Participation The Center for Legislative Development in the in Parliament: Lessons Learned Philippines and the UNDP-Asia Pacific Gender Equal- ity Network suggest that economic limits should be Providing women with financial resources to partici- applied to every national and local election campaign, pate in the electoral process is key to increasing their as well as to donations used for “party building”, voter access to parliament. Nonetheless, access to campaign registration, membership campaigns and payments finance is only one of many components in getting to party-related “think tanks”. For example, in Mexico women elected. A set of measures that would benefit the law limits the amount of contributions from non- women candidates include but are not limited to: governmental organizations and bars funding from (a) quota systems in the structures of political par- foreign citizens, religious officials and private busi- ties and their candidate lists; (b) quotas for those nesses. Sanctions include economic penalties and decision-making positions subject to either popular fines, suspension of public funding for political parties election or appointment; (c) adoption of legal mech- or the revocation of a party’s registration. Countries anisms, such as national electoral laws or decrees, with contribution limits in 1995 included India, Tai- that include specific measures on campaign finance wan, Japan, Israel, Russia, Mexico, Brazil, France, for women, and on gender equality; and (d) training Italy, Spain, Turkey and the United States.6 for women candidates to engage in fundraising and Accountability and transparency are required in to strategically manage their campaign resources. campaign finances to guarantee democratic electoral The nature of the electoral system also plays a processes and reduce gender imbalances. Electoral role in women’s access to financial resources within monitoring bodies require accountability mechanisms their parties, since they may or may not be favour- to ensure that gender equality measures are being able to women candidates. An important distinction implemented correctly, especially as they relate to should be noted in this regard between the Single allocating direct and indirect financial resources to Member Plurality systems and the Proportional women candidates. Representation systems. In the former, women are Denmark, New Zealand and the United States confronted by a candidate selection process in a have adopted “reporting of campaign fund” mecha- winner-takes-all situation in which they will have to nisms, where sources of funding are disclosed and compete individually to gather their own resources, there is public reporting of accounts by candidates, mainly private funding. In the latter, a woman can- political committees and political parties. In Den- didate might be regarded as one among many team mark, parties are required to submit a list of all donors’ members whose individual expectations to generate contributions. In New Zealand, every registered resources are lower and whose campaign expenses party is required by law to have the financial returns are usually taken care of by their party.4 Furthermore, of the party audited. At the federal level in the United closed lists rather than open lists tend to favour States, campaign committees, including parties and women since they guarantee that women will not PACs, must present the Federal Election Commission 7 have to compete against men or women within their with quarterly reports on funds raised and spent. own party.5 Women have also gained advantages from measures taken in relation to public funding and setting Good Practices limits on campaign resources and campaign time The following are examples of various strategies that periods. In general, women candidates agree that have been successful in increasing women’s political public funding helps their candidacies. Nonetheless, participation in parliaments: they note that public funding alone may not be sufficient to promote women candidates – since they often have less power within their political parties, The Caribbean which control the allocation of funds. Unless inter- • In Haiti, the electoral law permits a party’s can- nal mechanisms are set up within the political parties didates discounted registration fees if their lists to control equal access to public resources, powerful include a minimum percentage of women regis- groups, which are most frequently male-dominated tered. Candidates must pay a filing fee, the amount groups, could end up receiving most of the resources. of which depends on the position being contested.

Overcoming Barriers: Other Special Measures and Strategies 39 If the candidate is not from a political party, the receive a state subsidy or other forms of assistance, filing fee increases tenfold. Conversely, the filing such as free and equal broadcasting time on tele- fee is reduced by two-thirds for women candi- vision and radio for campaigns or party-related dates representing political parties. At least 30 per- activities such as research.9 cent of the candidates from the political party must • France has amended its Constitution to require be women in order to receive this discount.8 that 50 percent of all candidates must be women. • In Suriname and Guyana, where a system of pro- Political parties that do not comply face financial portional representation is in place, small parties sanctions. This mechanism has been effective with are able to obtain more funding than is available small parties that have limited resources. Larger in countries operating without such a system. This parties with more abundant resources are inclined is important because in smaller parties women to pay the fines and break this constitutional rule. have to be ranked near the top in order to have a • In Italy, political parties receive an allotted sub- good chance of winning a seat. sidy for initiatives to promote women’s participation. The amount is equal to at least 5 percent of the electoral funding received. Africa • Indirect resources for women’s campaigns can be • Cowan is an association founded in Nigeria in provided by parties or by national, federal or local 1982 as a response to the perceived marginalization governments allocating financial resources for of women and widespread conditions of abject promoting gender equity or covering the operating poverty, especially in the rural communities. Cowan costs of gender equity mechanisms in a political is active in 32 states in the country and has at party. In Spain, the Partido Socialista Obrero least 260,000 registered members. It promotes Español (PSOE, Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) traditional saving schemes and has developed has a Gender Equality Office which coordinates African Traditional Responsive Banking. This different activities with women candidates and has allowed women in politics to have access to supports them in their governmental activities. loans from Cowan during the campaign in order to meet with their male counterparts to enable equal participation in decision making. This strategy Latin America has had positive and sustained results mainly at the • Some political parties in Costa Rica have internal local level where rural women have been elected. regulations that designate financial resources for • South Africa introduced a women’s budget which women’s activities within parties and electoral provides financial incentives to women’s political processes. The national law that promotes social projects. These incentives may be targeted directly equity, Ley de Promoción de la Igualdad Social, at women’s representation by tying the public fund- sanctioned in 1990, triggered innovative mea- ing of political parties to the number of elected sures within a number of parties. The statutes of women legislators. Liberación Nacional (article 171), Movimiento • In the 2008 elections in Zimbabwe, women activ- Libertario (article 72), Partido Acción Ciudadana ists from The Women in Politics Support Unit (article 37) and Partido Unidad Social Cristiana together with The Feminist Political Education (article 52) designate financial resources for train- Project bundled financial support to selected can- ing activities for women candidates. didates from the four major political parties con- • Panama’s electoral law was reformed in 2002 to testing the election. Despite the chaotic political establish subsidies for political parties, 25 percent situation in the country and the lack of funding of which is earmarked for training activities and that women accessed, an international donor sup- 10 per cent of which is for women’s training 10 ported their initiative. workshops and activities. El Partido Arnulfista went further, designating in its internal statutes that 30 percent of the state subsidies should be Europe for women’s political training. In order to achieve • In the Nordic countries, which have high numbers the goal stated in the electoral law, women may of women in their parliaments, political parties use these resources in forums and seminars, and

40 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal at congresses and other training activities that pro- Many PACs are affiliated with businesses, trade mote gender equity.11 unions or other organizations, but some – known • In Nicaragua, the women’s commission of the as non-affiliated PACs – are independent of any Partido Liberal Constitucionalista has created a association with another organization. One dis- leadership school for women, and the Partido tinct subcategory of PAC is women’s PACs, which Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional has contribute money only to women candidates. This created mechanisms to work with women’s orga- modality has become one of the most successful nizations to train women and organize electoral methods for financing women with early money, activities. especially within the Democratic Party. Each elec- • In Brazil, a legislative initiative states that women tion year they are able to finance more women must account for at least 30 percent of the candi- candidates and get more women elected to the dates that a party fields. Under the current law a US Congress. party must offer women 30 percent of the candidacies, but is not obliged to actually field them in winnable positions. Ten percent of parties’ Recommendations advertising and five percent of the public cam- What women in parliaments can do paign funds they receive must be used to promote women and their professional training. • National legislation on political campaign finance and party expenditure should coincide with international conventions and agreements that promote North America gender equity in political participation, such as • Canada’s experience is of measures adopted in the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms electoral legislation. These advances have been of Discrimination against Women, the Beijing traced to the Canada Elections Act of 1974,12 Platform of Action, and the Millennium Develop- which provides for childcare expenses to be in- ment Goals. In the Americas, legislation should cluded in the personal expenses of a candidate for coincide with the principles of the Summits of the election. The Royal Commission on Electoral Americas 2001 Declaration of Quebec, 2004 Decla- Reform and Party Financing in Canada noted ration of Nuevo León and 2007 Quito Consensus. that the cost of childcare imposes an unequal • As parliaments are responsible for preventing all burden on many women seeking elected office and forms of gender discrimination, any policy or proposed that childcare is a necessary expense in national plan formulation process concerning seeking nomination as a candidate which should political participation should include a gender- be considered a legitimate tax deduction.13 In sensitive finance component that secures the addition, the New Democratic Party has imple- presence of women candidates and decision-makers, mented a financial assistance programme in which as well as their training and a system of monitoring. women and candidates from minority ethnic com- • Effective measures to support women’s election, munities are eligible for reimbursement for child- such as legislation in favour of public funding, care expenses incurred in seeking a nomination, limits to contributions and expenditure in nom- travel costs in geographically large constituencies ination and election campaigns, and quotas in po- and the costs incurred in seeking a nomination litical parties or cabinets, should be considered and in areas where a New Democratic Party incum- secured in constitutional or legislative reform. bent is retiring. The party also funds three times • Wherever public funding of political parties ex- a much election expenses for women and minor- ists, including government subsidies, legislation ity ethnic candidates so as to take advantage of should establish incentives to support women can- generous tax credit afforded to parties.14 didates. For example, the amount of public funding • Women’s organizations in the United States have or reimbursement of election campaign expenses established PACs to directly finance women. PACs should be linked to the percentage of women can- are organizations that solicit contributions from didates put forward by each party and/or elected individuals and make contributions to candidates. to parliament.15

Overcoming Barriers: Other Special Measures and Strategies 41 • States should maintain their commitment to wom- (eds.) Funding of Political Parties and Election Campaigns en’s political participation at a minimum percentage in the Americas. San José, Costa Rica: Internacional IDEA. of 30%, as outlined in the Beijing Platform of pp. 211–227; Baker, Ashley. 2006. “Reexamining the Gender Action. Implications of Campaign Finance Reform: How Higher Ceilings on Individual Donations Disproportionately Impact Female Candidates” in The Modern Americas (fall 2006). What women in political parties can do pp. 18–23. 3 Ballington, Julie. 2003. Gender Equality in Political Party • A gender equity policy should be included in the Funding in Funding of Political Parties and Election Cam- statutes of political parties, ensuring that women paigns. Stockholm: IDEA Handbook Series. pp. 158–159, 161. candidates can benefit from an equitable internal 4 Ballington (note 3); Author interview, Lesley Abdela, distribution of resources. Party resources would Sheevolution, United kingdom, 29 August 2007. thus more equitably support the promotion of 5 Author interview, Kristin Sample, International IDEA, women running as party candidates, contribute Perú, 1 August 2007. towards women’s nomination processes, during 6 See the Women in Government Source Kit, available at URL which women often require resources to establish . a political reputation both inside and outside their 7 See note 6. parties, and contribute towards electoral processes. 8 Selwyn, Ryan. 2005. “Disclosure and Enforcement of Politi- cal Party and Campaign Financing in the CARICOM States” • Parties committed to gender equality should: en- in Griner and Zovatto (eds.) p. 174. sure equal access to income resources for women 9 See note 6. and men, designate a specific amount of resources 10 The electoral law from 1997 was modified through Ley for women candidates as an affirmative action 60/2002 , ordinal c., numeral 4, article169. and incorporate gender equality criteria into 11 García, Ana Isabel. 2004. “Financiación Política y Perspectiva parties’ internal transparency and accountability de Género” in Griner and Zobato (eds.). pp. 158–171. mechanisms. 12 Ballington (note 3). p. 162. • Establishing an effective and functional women’s 13 Op. Cit. caucus would empower women candidates and 14 Young, Lisa. 2005. “Campaign Finance and Women’s help to ensure equal access to the party’s resources, Representation in Canada and US” in Griner and Zovatto guaranteeing that financial management has a gen- (eds.). p. 137 15 Pintat, Christine. 1998. “A global analysis: What has worked der perspective. for women in politics and what has not, 1975–1998”. Paper • Strategizing with women from other parties presented at the Second Congress of the Global Network of would be beneficial to all women candidates and Women in Politics held in Manila, 28–30 August 1998. p. 6. has proved an effective method for institutional- izing means for securing financial resources across parties. Additional Reading Ace Electoral Knowledge Network, Endnotes International IDEA, . 1 This document is based on research by the author financed International IDEA, IPU and Stockholm University, Global by the Women’s Parliament Forum, the Network of NGOs Database of Quotas for Women, . of Trinidad and Tobago for the Advancement of Women, the IFES Program on Political Finance and Public Ethics, . ronment and Development Organization. International Knowledge Network of Women in Politics, . Gobernabilidad Democrática” Ponencia en Seminario Inter- Inter-Parliamentary Union, Women in National Parliaments, nacional sobre Gobernabilidad Democrática e Igualdad de . Género. Santiago de Chile: CEPAL; Barrow-Giles, Cynthia. National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI), 2005. “Political Party Financing and Women’s Political Global Programs for Women’s Participation .

42 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Is Parliament Open to Women? Supporting Women’s Political Participation Colleen Lowe Morna Executive Director, Gender Links1

Introduction women’s representation in parliament and local government in the 15 countries of Southern Africa, where In the 14 years since the Fourth World Conference Gender Links works. on Women, held in Beijing in September 1995, the The graph shows that there are four instances in proportion of women in parliament has increased the case of parliament and three in the case of local by a mere 3.6 percentage points: from 15 to 18.6 per- government in which women’s presence exceeds 30 cent. If democracy is understood as government for percent. the people by the people – women and men – it The table shows that in every case in which a 30 could be concluded that only one country, Rwanda, percent representation of women has been either has achieved democracy. This east African country achieved or exceeded in parliament or local govern- is the only one in which the number of women in ment, a quota of some kind has been employed. It parliament slightly exceeds that of men, consistent also shows that in the majority of cases, the quota is with women being slightly more numerous than men applied in conjunction with a system of proportional in the general population. representation (PR). The two cases (Tanzania and This paper focuses on the strategies other than Lesotho) of quotas in a constituency-based system show electoral systems and quotas that can be used to that quotas can be successfully employed in any elec- promote women’s participation in political decision toral system. The key factor therefore is political will. making, in particular training and capacity-building, whether local government can be a stepping stone to national politics and the role of the media. I do not believe that any strategy short of special Capacity-building measures that involve electoral systems and quotas I am sceptical about capacity-building as a strategy can deliver significant change in a short space of time for increasing women’s political participation, espe- to women’s representation in political decision mak- cially if presented as a panacea for women’s under- ing. The point is illustrated by the graph below on representation. The simple logic that there are too

Graph 1: Women in Decision Making in SADC in 2009 70% 60% • Women in Parliament 50% • Women in Local Government 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% DRC Angola Malawi Zambia Lesotho Namibia Tanzania Mauritius Botswana Swaziland Seychelles Zimbabwe Madagascar South Africa Mozambique Regional Average Regional

Overcoming Barriers: Other Special Measures and Strategies 43 Table 1: Electoral Systems and Quotas

Country Percentage of women in Percentage of women in Type of quota Electoral system parliament (30% or more) local government (30% or more)

South Africa 44% 40% Voluntary ruling party quota PR at national; PR and FPTP of 50% at both levels at local

Angola 36% n/a Voluntary ruling party quota PR of 30%

Mozambique 38% n/a Voluntary ruling party quota PR of 30%

Namibia 27% 40% Legislated quota of 30% and PR voluntary ruling party quota of 50% at local level

Tanzania 33% n/a Constitutional quota of 30% FPTP

Lesotho 25% 58% Legislated quota of 30% at FPTP local level

Note: FPTP = First past the post; PR = Proportional representation few women in decision making, so they need train- learning, such as expert on-the-job support, coaching ing to run for office has been applied many times and mentoring, or study and experiential visits have over, at great cost but with few tangible benefits. not been used as effectively as they might. Capacity- The failing of this strategy is that it targets women, building has almost exclusively focused on empower- rather than patriarchy, as the root cause of women’s ing women in decision making rather than on what underrepresentation in political decision-making. men need to do to share these spaces and to become There is no school that men attend to prepare them agents of change.2 for careers in political decision making. Why should women be any different? Of course it is true that one of the consequences of patriarchy is that women Local Government as a Stepping Stone are socialized to occupy private spaces, to be shy of the public arena and to be self-effacing and non-assertive. There is anecdotal evidence to suggest that local gov- There are some skills that might assist women in ernment is an excellent training ground for national taking the plunge into politics, but they cannot be politics. This therefore begs the question: why has taught in isolation from strategies that challenge men’s local government been so absent from gender and dominance of power and decision making struc- governance discourse? It is important, however, not tures. Quotas are a very direct way of challenging to oversimplify the link. Graph 1 shows not only that men’s hegemony over decision making positions. there are wide variations between countries when it It is also necessary to examine how non-govern- comes to women in decision making but also that these mental organizations (NGOs) and international are even more marked in local than in national pol- organizations have gone about providing support to itics. At the local level, women’s representation ranges women leaders, and with what effect. More research from 2 percent in Angola to 58 percent in Lesotho. is needed into the effect of programmes of support The 2006 study by Gender Links,At the Coalface: to women in politics, but initiatives have tended to Gender and Local Government, shows that where gov- have a short-term focus on women as candidates ernments have been willing to take special measures, rather than on the ongoing support they need in they are more likely to do so at the local rather than office, or on retention and even exit strategies. There the national level. Cases in point are Lesotho and also tends to be a focus on how to run campaigns Namibia, which legislated quotas at the local but rather than on how to be effective agents of change. not the national level. The study concludes that, un- The methods used have tended towards traditional, fortunately, this is not a result of a recognition of top-down training, rather than a support approach. the importance of women’s effective participation at Some of the more innovative approaches to adult the local level. Instead, it is an indication that local

44 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Box 1: The City of Johannesburg Strives to get the Balance Right The collaboration over several years between the City of Johannesburg, the largest metropolitan council in Southern Africa, and Gender Links is an example of an attempt to overcome some of the shortcomings of traditional approaches to capacity-building for women in decision making roles. The collaboration began in 2006 with a 12-month long on-the-job training programme for men and women councillors led by the then speaker, Nandi Mayathula-Khoza. Built around the core activities of the council, the training, undertaken in partnership with the University of the Witwatersrand, involved gender analysis and communication and leadership skills. Key outputs included a book of reflections by councillors on gender in their life and work, and a draft gender policy that is now being taken forward by political leaders and the administration. In the 2008 local government elections, Johannesburg achieved gender balance in both the Council and the mayoral committee, becoming one of the few metropolitan councils that can truly claim to be getting the gender balance right. The city has appointed a gender manager and adopted some flagship projects, including the 365-day campaign to end gender violence and the mainstreaming of gender in a major economic project – the upcoming soccer world cup. While this began as a donor-funded project, the City has shown its commitment to gender mainstreaming by retaining the services of Gender Links as strategic advisers in its gender mainstreaming project. The key lessons learned include the need for a long-term perspective that is linked to capacity-building and relevant to the work of political decision making, and that involves men and builds gender into institutional practice, rather than an ad hoc, elections-driven approach.

politics is not seen as equally important as national In the case of women in politics this is even more politics. In instances in which women’s participation acute. An Inter-Parliamentary Union study on bar- in local politics is still very low, this reflects the even riers to women’s political participation showed that greater obstacles that women face at the local level 14 percent of women parliamentarians described their where forces of custom, culture and tradition are often relationship with the media as good and 53 percent more intensely concentrated. As Jo Beall puts it: as average while 33 percent were unhappy about their relationship with the media.4 The Global Media Moni- Decentralisation is frequently presented as an toring Project (GMMP) showed in 2005 that although important vehicle for increasing women’s repre- women globally constituted 16 percent of all parlia- sentation and political participation. However mentarians, they made up only 12 percent of all poli- benefits for women are not always obvious. Local ticians quoted in the media. This suggests that even government is in an ambiguous position. It is when women are present in a particular occupational the part of the state that is located closest to the category they are not heard in proportion to their people and to organised civil society. As such it strength within that category. Women in politics pro- has the potential to engage more effectively with vide the media with a problem. They challenge mas- women who are often confined through their culine authority and they defy easy categorization. domestic responsibilities to public engagement Women politicians are regularly demonized and close to home, but because of its closeness to society branded as ‘unfeminine’ or ‘iron women’ – ruthless, the local state can also become too close to social belligerent and doggedly determined.5 institutions. In Africa, the latter can be deeply Much has been written about Hillary Clinton’s patriarchal, illustrated for example by the role relationship with the media, notably in her bid to of traditional authorities both in every day life win the nomination as presidential candidate for the at the community level and in local government. Democratic Party in the U.S.A. in 2008. There is When local government is impervious to progres- considerable evidence to suggest that she got a raw sive social change it may be an unreliable site deal. Charles Gibson, the ABC News anchor who for the pursuit of gender equity, particularly in reportedly refused to share the anchor desk with a contexts where women are making gains with- woman, asked Clinton sceptically, ‘would you be in out the formal institutions of state. As such it this position were it not for your husband?’. An tends to be a litmus test not only for democratic opinion article in The Oklahoman referenced her decentralisation but for engendered democracy ‘frequent wearing of dark pants suits to conceal her more generally.3 bottom-heavy figure.’ The New York Times charged that as First Lady, Clinton showed off ‘a long parade of unflattering outfits and unnervingly changing The Role of the Media hairdos.’ A Washington Post editorial opined: ‘Obama, Every politician has a love/hate relationship with the here comes Mama. And she doesn’t play’. MSNBC’s media. The media can make you or break a politician. Tim Russert and Vanity Fair columnist Christopher

Overcoming Barriers: Other Special Measures and Strategies 45 Hitchens referred to Clinton as soppy and bitchy, until women are equally represented in all areas of respectively. An entire website was set up to publi- decision making, democracy has not been achieved. cize unflattering images of Clinton, an examination of which showed that the images were of Clinton either tired or exuding power and strength. It is Endnotes noteworthy that the media found the latter equally 1 Colleen Lowe Morna is Executive Director of Gender Links threatening. and editor of the Gender Links publications Ringing up the Changes: Gender in Southern African Politics (2004) as well as At the Coalface: Gender and Local Government in South- Conclusions and Recommendations ern Africa (2007). 2 For example, these findings resulted from a workshop held The barriers to women’s participation in political towards the end of 2009 in Johannesburg, convened by decision making are rooted in patriarchy. Empower- Gender Links with Hivos and Akina Mama wa Afrika, ing women, preparing them for higher office through which brought together more than 20 organizations involved local government and challenging sexist stereotypes in this area of work to reflect on efforts to support women in in the media are all strategies that can help to gnaw decision making positions. away at male hegemony. Nonetheless, rapid change 3 Jo Beall. 2005. Decentralising Government and Centralising can only come about as a result of special measures Gender in Southern Africa: Lessons from the South African Experience; United Nations Institute for Social Develop- to challenge the status quo. Quotas are an effective ment, Occasional Paper 8. way to bring about rapid change to women’s exclusion 4 IPU, 2000. Women’s Insight, Inter-Parliamentary Union, from political decision-making. In the longer term, Geneva. however, it is important to adopt a multiplicity of strat- 5 See Global Media Monitoring Project (GMMP) research, egies for ensuring acceptance of the simple fact that 2005 and 1999.

46 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Assessing Women’s Political Party Programmes: Best Practices and Recommendations Alyson Kozma National Democratic Institute for International Affairs

Introduction cess. Finally, democratic advancement has coincided The National Democratic Institute for International with and contributed to a much needed cultural shift Affairs (NDI) embarked on an assessment of its in attitudes regarding gender. women’s political party programme efforts in order to better understand effective approaches and measure the impact of such initiatives across a number Best Practices of regions. The assessment was designed to identify Consistent communications training the specific elements and approaches that were most Consistent training in and ongoing practice of public effective in encouraging women’s participation and speaking can help women gain the confidence they leadership in political parties. need to participate more in political party and other 1 Over the course of three months, 81 interviews meetings, where they report often having to fight to were conducted in Morocco, Indonesia, Serbia and be heard. Communications training includes helping Nepal in order to learn from experiences with women’s women to speak in public and to talk persuasively political party programming and to identify: (a) the in their own families. Based on respondents’ com- approaches that have worked well; (b) the approaches ments, women’s opportunities to be independent, that have not worked or have worked less well; and persuasive communicators are often the greatest pre- (c) which strategies could be adopted by or enhance dictor of her level of self-confidence and, eventually, women’s political party programmes in other coun- her degree of political engagement. Respondents are 2 tries. Interviews and research revealed how women also interested in building message-development skills, across the regions share challenges in achieving posi- as many feel underprepared in this area. Women want tions of political leadership and strategies for over- assistance in developing messages around their par- 3 coming these barriers. ticular strengths as women leaders and with how to The women’s stories intersect in a number of areas. use these perceived positive qualities to make them- First, women in these countries are more politically selves more politically appealing to voters, constituents engaged today than they have been in the past, but and other political actors. this has not been accompanied by an increase in the number of women political leaders. Second, an increased perception of women as political leaders can Focus on building leadership skills only come about with women’s true integration into Respondents wanted to see an enhanced focus on political parties. Third, internal party reform is crit- women’s leadership potential and opportunities, start- ical to women’s advancement, but obstacles such as ing with training. Women’s leadership development the lack of transparency, internal democracy, merit- seeks to build women’s skills and self-confidence to based advancement and decentralization limit women’s empower them to take on leadership roles in their rise within political parties. Fourth, increased com- families, their communities and in public life. Lead- munication and cooperation among women across ership training is most useful when it encompasses political party lines has been viewed as a notable suc- key areas of successful leadership, including commu-

Overcoming Barriers: Other Special Measures and Strategies 47 nication, mobilization, coalition-building, strategic Training women to train other women planning, advocacy and fund-raising. In addition, Real political advancement requires both political leadership training is most valuable when it focuses education and self-confidence, and many respondents on raising awareness of the existing and valuable say women still need to bolster themselves in both leadership roles that participants hold in their fami- these areas. Working with politically experienced lies and communities; women’s unique perspectives women is critical to training new generations of and attributes as leaders; the existence of multiple women political leaders and to helping women men- leadership styles and identifying participants’ per- tor each other. Creating and strengthening a cadre sonal leadership styles; and opportunities and chal- of women master trainers boosts the trainers’ self- lenges for women leaders. For respondents, the most confidence and sense of investment in efforts to in- effective leadership training includes developing crease women’s political participation. Trainees, in skills around public speaking, advocacy and cam- turn, are inspired by seeing women from their own paigning. The sharp increase in self-confidence that parties and communities possessing and actively shar- arises as a result of training is consistently noted as ing advanced skills and knowledge. its single greatest impact.

Uniting women across political parties Developing the capacity and preparedness of elected women Respondents expressed a strong demand for efforts that help to unite women across political parties. As more women are being elected or appointed to Such multiparty work contributes to distinguishing political leadership positions, respondents highlight women political actors, who have often demonstrated the importance of capacity-development. Respondents increased capacity to interact with each other as peers, describe the need for extended training, particularly rather than view each other solely as competitors. This as women often have had little or no opportunity to interaction contributes to the positive perception of develop the type of specialized skills necessary to women in politics by party leaders and citizens alike. succeed in public office. Such skills may be office- The successes of women coming together across politi- specific, such as rules of procedure or drafting and cal party lines have been significant, and many re- passing legislation and budgets, or more generalized, spondents noted the unique capacity of women to such as public speaking and staff management. This undertake such cross-party work. Given the minimal is linked to the generally expressed need for more attention that political parties often pay to issues of frequent training, particularly at the grass-roots level, particular interest to women, it is important to encour- with an increased focus on advocacy training. age women to work on these issues across ideologi- cal lines. Exchanging information internationally Sharing experiences and knowledge is tremendously Working with parties on internal reform important to respondents, who often emphasize train- Resistance by political parties is considered a primary ing by international organizations as being highly hurdle for women who hope to enter political life. valuable for their political learning. Respondents stated Respondents across the countries highlight that male that the solidarity and sense of empowerment gained dominance within political parties, patriarchal atti- through learning from and interacting with female tudes and political party elitism make women’s entry colleagues around the world is both personally inspir- into politics and rise to leadership positions difficult. ing and professionally useful. The value of this shared Continued resistance to women’s leadership within experience allows women political leaders to learn political parties creates a sense of urgency among from the challenges, successes and models of their respondents, who stress the importance of spending counterparts, and helps to build an international net- more time working with political parties on women’s work of women leaders. leadership and internal reform initiatives instead of spending time solely with individual women or groups of women leaders.

48 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Engaging youth to help change socio- efforts. This is of considerable concern for respon- political attitudes and behaviour dents, who argue that provincial areas pose a core challenge to women’s political progress. Enhancing While respondents acknowledge that resistance to outreach efforts to focus on citizens who live out- women’s political leadership among longstanding side urban areas, particularly through partnerships, political leaders will take time to change, younger would increase women’s political participation and leaders represent a generation that may be more pro- engagement where the need is greatest. gressively minded and therefore more likely to favour women’s political and social equality. Youth programmes serve as a highly effective avenue for increas- Engage women before and between elections ing women’s political participation and leadership. Respondents stress that it is critical to engage in on- They not only create an effective venue for young going, sustainable work with political parties to build women to see themselves as capable political leaders, women’s leadership before and between elections so but also help to sow the seeds of gender equality that the stage is set for the full participation of among future political leaders from the earliest stages women in all aspects of political decision making. of their political careers. Although immediate engagement during and around elections is vital, respondents urge starting as early as possible on training on campaigning, elections Recommendations and lobbying as well as on addressing issues that Integrate men into efforts to promote could potentially inhibit electoral participation by women’s political progress women. Findings suggest that early and sustainable engagement is more likely to help shape long-term While respondents greatly value women-only train- attitudinal changes around women’s political strengths ing opportunities, they would also like to see more and viabilities than the short-term, election-related political training opportunities for women that reach strategies of political parties, which tend to focus on out to and involve men as a way to increase gender obtaining votes. sensitivity and support for women’s political leadership among male counterparts. Both gender-integrated and gender-specific training approaches are considered Create opportunities for income-generation highly constructive in developing women’s capacities and political financing for women and changing men’s views of women’s leadership abilities. Both are considered critical to long-term success. Limited access to funding and the lack of opportunities for income-generation hinder women’s entry into and advancement in politics, particularly in parties. Strengthen partnerships between civil These are cited as key barriers to political advance- society organizations and political parties ment for women. A lack of financial resources not Women are also making great strides outside politi- only dissuades women from running for office, but cal parties. Civil society organizations (CSOs) are also affects their ability to build a political profile viewed as vehicles for women’s leadership and have and knowledge-base. Fund-raising training has helped emerged as places for women to cultivate their politi- to mitigate the significant barriers to women’s political cal, social and personal power. Respondents suggest engagement and to expand their potential participation that stronger links between parties and CSOs may and influence. Women also lack the consistent fund- be important in advancing women’s issues and cre- ing mechanisms that facilitate women’s empowerment ating a common women’s agenda, because women and political inclusion. To this end, consideration tend to have stronger leadership roles in CSOs than should be given to the establishment of specific initia- they do in political parties. tives geared towards financially empowering women and helping them to identify funding streams that Increase rural and grass-roots outreach will help women acquire financial autonomy. Respondents report that women at the grass roots and in rural areas are not adequately engaged by outreach

Overcoming Barriers: Other Special Measures and Strategies 49 Provide tools to manage personal and Conclusions political roles and responsibilities The consistency of the best practices and recommen- In addition to political parties, respondents say that dations found across the four, very different, countries society at large fails to support women’s political in- makes it possible to apply them across countries and terests. Moving to a life that adds the duties of public continents worldwide. The best practices in women’s office to family responsibilities can be burdensome political participation programmes compiled above for women. The disproportionate household and fa- include strategic approaches that are both widely milial responsibilities of women pose one of the most effective and necessary elements of successful women’s significant barriers to their political participation. political party programming efforts. The combina- Women need practical tools, such as conflict resolution of these best practices and recommendations tion and time management, to assist them in this provides a roadmap for developing effective women’s area, and to change the repressive social messages political participation programmes that have the po- regarding women’s roles in the home and in public. tential to empower both individual women leaders and communities and to transform the social and Facilitate opportunities for networking and political landscape into one that is more inclusive, advocacy practice more democratic and ultimately more sustainable. Women often do not have access to the entrenched social, political and economic networks that advance the political careers of their male counterparts and Endnotes therefore need opportunities to create both alterna- 1 Interviews were conducted by NDI staff and consultants tive networks and the skills to navigate existing between December 2007 and March 2008. For the full male-dominated networks. Formal and informal report, Kozma, A., McCollom, S. and Haffert, K. (2009), networking and lobbying gatherings help to provide Assessing Women’s Political Party Programs, as well as country the support and information intrinsic to networking, narratives and quotes from respondents, see URL . their lack of financial resources. Networking not only 2 The criteria for country selection were: (a) regional repre- builds name recognition among peers and potential sentation of NDI’s geographic presence around the world; voters, but can also lead to relationship-building (b) length of time that NDI has been operating in the and the creation of formal or informal organizational country; and (c) continuity of women’s political party programmes in that country. Based on these criteria, Morocco, structures, such as caucuses or clubs, to which male Indonesia, Serbia and Kenya were originally selected. Due politicians often already have access. to the political volatility following the December 2007 election, a scheduled visit to Kenya was not possible during Cultivate Women Role Models the timeframe of this project. Nepal therefore replaced Some attribute the absence of women role models to Kenya as an interview site. continued gender inequality, a lack of social and fa- 3 Three categories of individuals – referred to as respondents milial support, and a patriarchal society that makes throughout the report – were selected and interviewed: (a) it personally and logistically difficult for women to NDI Staff – NDI staff members, both women and men, the majority of whom had specifically worked on or managed commit to a life in politics. Women’s absence from women’s political party programmes; (b) NDI Programme key political positions not only denies them political Participants – women with past and/or present involvement credibility, but also, respondents fear, makes women in women’s political party programmes. Most participants less visible as leaders and therefore unable to act as had a significant level of educational achievement. Most had the positive role models that communities, particu- held high- or mid-level positions within a political party larly women, need. Respondents affirm that women and/or were parliamentarians; and (c) External Experts – look to each other as role models. Women want to women and men actively involved in each country’s social, be mentored and they seek the support critical to political and community affairs who had not been directly their struggles with social and political change. There involved with NDI programmes. Respondents in this cat- is hope that more women in politics will raise social egory include party leaders, journalists, leaders of non- consciousness and elevate the status of women as governmental organizations and academics. They may or politicians and role models. may not have been familiar with NDI.

50 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal WOMEN IN PARLIAMENT: CHALLENGES INSIDE THE HOUSE

Women in Parliament: Challenges4 Inside the House 51 Overview and Debate

Overview of the Session political parties as well as between individuals. Women When women entered parliament, they typically en- reported that, in handling these power relations, their tered a domain where the vast majority functioned participation was often constrained by a number of according to rules established by men. The session factors. These could be grouped into the following examined the challenges that women confronted once main categories: rules and practices, behavior and they took up their seats in parliament. It addressed attitudes, practical obstacles, and personal challenges. the following questions: In order to succeed in parliament, it was important to understand and learn how to work within the • Are parliaments still male bastions, 15 years after rules and procedures that guided the functioning Beijing? of parliament. Since parliaments were traditionally • How do the traditional rules and practices of male-dominated structures, women entering the arena parliament affect women’s participation? faced the additional challenge of acquainting them- • Does a critical mass of women members (30%) selves with these regulations. Several women parliamen- matter? tarians noted that parliaments still had influential ‘old boys’ clubs’, whereby important decisions were The panelists for this session were Ms. Kareen often made in fora which did not include women. A Jabre, Manager, Gender Partnership Programme, primary concern for women parliamentarians was IPU; Ms. Massuma Al Mubarak, Member of the thus how to overcome that exclusion and to build National Assembly, Kuwait, and Ms. Irène Yameogo, confidence and ensure that their perspectives were Member of the National Assembly, Burkina Faso. taken into consideration in the work of parliament. Ms. Jabre drew on two studies carried out by the Although that was slowly starting to change, perse- IPU on perceptions of equality in politics to outline vering in a political environment insensitive to gender some of the principle challenges that women faced concerns was still a major challenge that women faced. once they entered parliament. Ms. Al Mubarak de- Parliaments were, moreover, often described as con- scribed some of the challenges that women had frontational workplaces characterized by political faced in the recent elections in Kuwait. Ms. Yameogo maneuvering, aggressive debates, and a general lack provided some lessons learned from Burkina Faso. of gender sensitivity. The behavior and attitudes of Ms. Jabre presented the results from IPU surveys both male and female parliamentarians tended to published in 2000 and 2008 which indicated that have sexist undertones. when women entered parliament, they faced new Participation in parliament did not necessarily challenges that were different from those they had translate into an ability to advocate for women and faced while running for election. Parliament had a push for gender sensitive legislation. Legislating very particular cultural environment and modus gender issues required the strong support of the operandi that had historically been determined by ruling party, women parliamentarians and their male men. The essential function of parliament was to counterparts. The governing political party remained channel divergent views into politically negotiated the key factor in determining which laws were solutions; it therefore worked inextricably within a passed. Since women often did not occupy promi- context of power, which pervaded relationships between nent places in the decision-marking structures of their

52 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal parties, it was difficult for them to push for change of amendments to existing laws in an effort to re- and prioritize gender sensitive concerns on the party move discrimination. agenda. Furthermore, parliamentarians had found Umbrella laws on the status of women had the that a critical mass of women within parliament potential to address many issues at once and pro- was important when it came to pushing for legisla- vide a strong foundation for mainstreaming gender tion on gender equality. Women’s capacity to advocate and combating discrimination in the future. How- for change was linked to the proportion of women ever, it was often very difficult to push through such in decision-making positions. Women often reported holistic laws without making compromises on key difficulties in pushing for gender sensitive legislation provisions. Such laws risked becoming weakened by when there were just a handful of them in parlia- political opposition and therefore could result in in- ment. Women parliamentarians could also harness effective tools for countering discrimination against their influence by reaching across party lines on key women. gender concerns so as to ensure the greatest amount Amendments to existing laws had the ability to of support possible. be much more detailed in their formulation and ap- Ms. Al Mubarak presented ways in which tradi- plication, ensuring that loopholes were closed and tional attitudes can affect a woman’s status and partici- protection for women strengthened. However, in pation in politics, and demonstrated the importance societies heavily influenced by traditional values un- of equal participation of women in parliament by draw- sympathetic to women’s right to political participation, ing on her experience in Kuwait. Women parliamen- there were frequently many different laws contain- tarians in several societies faced a plethora of challenges ing discriminatory components and those would all including limited facilities for technical or vocational have to be amended in order to remove all barriers training, limited employment opportunities, discrimi- to women’s participation. Progress was usually slow, natory laws, and, in particular, conservative social with piecemeal and incremental gains. Those constant customs and traditions. Those challenges influenced negotiations also risked exposing divisions between the extent and effectiveness of women’s participation female parliamentarians, thereby undermining efforts in politics. Women parliamentarians often suffered to build and promote solidarity. There was no best as a result of conservative attitudes that did not recog- practice that applied to all countries and contexts. nize their equal standing in society and their ability Parliamentarians needed to weigh the benefits and to affect politics for the benefit of the society at large. drawbacks of both of options. It was, however, cru- Traditional values and mores in Kuwait main- cial for parliamentarians to take an active stand in tained the parliament as a male bastion, and that was the drafting process of new laws to ensure that they only just beginning to change. An important lesson all contained a gendered aspect. That would prevent that women had learned while struggling for politi- the need for future amendments. cal representation in Kuwait was the necessity to Ms. Yameogo presented the experience of women recognize the reasons for their exclusion and know in parliament in Burkina Faso, and highlighted a how to take advantage of potential opportunities. number of key points to be considered when dis- In times of political instability, when a state was cussing how to overcome the cultural and traditional typically in crisis, there was a need for restructuring. barriers limiting women’s participation in politics. Those moments had provided an opportunity to Thechallenges that women parliamentarians in change the status quo, and women had taken advan- Burkina Faso faced included physical violence and tage of the series of parliamentary renewals, gaining intimidation as scare tactics to dissuade women from enough experience and exposure to win four seats in legislating on certain issues; lack of access to key lead- the May 2009 elections. ership posts; and a lack of support from colleagues Now in parliament, the women parliamentarians and other women. In order to effectively increase were strategizing as to how to use their positions of the participation of women in parliament and en- power to advocate for more change. Consideration sure that they have access to key positions of power, was being given to best way to begin addressing dis- parliamentarians needed to consider pushing for crimination against women, such as holistically through the implementation of quotas, the success of which the implementation of a general law on women’s had already been demonstrated in many contexts, or economic and social empowerment, or the adoption at least for the implementation of other special mea-

Women in Parliament: Challenges Inside the House 53 sures that addressed different sources of discrimina- that attaining a certain proportion of women mem- tion. For example, it might be necessary to imple- bers of parliament would result in laws and practices ment stronger laws or enforcement mechanisms to that were more gender-equal. Moreover, in order for ensure that girls and women have increased access women to bring about genuine change, it was not to education and professional training. Systems should only their number or skills that mattered, but also be put in place to support women in understanding the positions they held in parliament and the com- the codes of behavior in politics. A budget should mittees on which they served. Frequently, women also be assigned to offer financial incentives to political were strongly represented in committees dealing parties to ensure that quota systems are respected. with social issues, such as family and education, but significantly under-represented in other committees, such as economy and foreign affairs. More women Plenary Debate were needed in all committee assignments. Other participants noted that to avoid the “ghetto Participants reiterated that unwritten rules, mores ization” of women’s issues in the legislative process, and procedures were some of the biggest challenges implementing gender mainstreaming was absolutely women faced once they entered parliament. They essential. A critical mass of women in parliament could agreed it was important for women to learn from fight against that apparent reflex to group and side- each other about how to work within the established line gender issues. More women acting together could rules while carving out new methods and gender push for reforms to ensure that a gender perspective sensitive practices. Capacity-building programmes was integrated into every law, and that laws relating should emphasize solidarity and encourage women to gender equality were properly enforced. to reach across party lines to build agreement on Lastly, it was noted that in many countries there what gender sensitive changes could be implemented. remained a gap between women’s de jure and de For example, parliamentary recesses could be aligned facto rights. Parliamentarians should therefore put to coincide with the school holiday calendar, creat- more emphasis on the implementation and enforce- ing an enabling environment for parliamentarians ment of key laws. Some countries had appointed with families. ombudsmen who had an oversight role: investigat- Some participants noted that achieving a critical ing acts of discrimination against women, raising mass of women in parliament did indeed matter, awareness about any norms or customs that may exist, but the skill sets and experience of elected represen- and drawing particular attention to laws in need of tatives was also important. There was no guarantee enforcement.

54 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Challenges Faced by Women in Parliament: An Overview Kareen Jabre Manager, Gender Partnership Programme, IPU

This presentation is a brief introduction to some of effective contribution to the work of parliament. In the challenges faced by women in parliament, as IPU’s survey carried out in 2000, the first set of ob- identified by women and men parliamentarians. stacles identified principally concerned rules and prac- When women enter parliament, they face a new world tices. The first challenge identified by women was with its own set of rules and procedures, one that the importance of getting to know the rules and mas- has historically been dominated by men. Once elected tering the parliamentary procedures. When women to parliament women have to address a new set of come into parliament they are often unaware of how challenges. the institution functions and how to use the rules of The presentation is based on the results of two parliament to their best advantage. These are the offi- surveys carried out by the Inter-Parliamentary Union cial rules. There are also unwritten rules and prac- (IPU). The first was carried out in 2000 for the pub- tices or areas or spheres that are not necessarily lication Politics: Women’s Insight. Close to 200 women accessible to women, where decisions are taken in an politicians were surveyed from 65 countries from all informal way. These constitute another challenge to regions of the world. Another survey was carried out women’s effective input. for Equality in Politics, 2008. This time, close to 300 Another element highlighted by women was the men and women parliamentarians were surveyed from notion of political party manoeuvres, which women around 100 countries. Forty percent of those surveyed once again are unfamiliar with and need to become were men. acquainted with. The nature of the debates was also The first point that comes across very strongly highlighted as it tended to be confrontational and when women are asked about their first perceptions sometimes negatively targeting women’s capacities. of parliament concerns the very particular nature of These are experiences that were shared with the IPU parliamentary work and the environment that they in the survey in 2000. It is possible that things may face. Parliaments are in essence a platform where have altered somewhat since then. conflicts are channelled into politically negotiated The second set of obstacles relates to behaviour solutions, and where diverging or conflicting inter- and attitudes. Many women spoke of sexist attitudes ests are transformed into policies and legislation that and highlighted the conservative attitudes of men is applicable to all. Work in parliament will there- parliamentarians and constituents, many of whom fore be linked to power relations which tend to pre- saw only limited public roles for women. The cultural dominate. These include power relations not only perceptions of both the men parliamentarians and between political parties but also between different the population as a whole limit the breadth of oppor- political sensitivities and between individual parlia- tunities for women parliamentarians. Another obstacle mentarians. The gender imbalance in terms of power that limits women’s work is the lack of awareness relations comes into play when women enter parlia- of women’s and gender issues on the part of both ment. Thus, women’s first reaction is that the environ- parliamentarians and the general public. This lack of ment they face – the culture of parliament – is a male awareness also limits women parliamentarians’ capac- dominated culture. ity to push for policies related to women’s rights. Women respondents identified several sets of what A third set of obstacles identified is relates to prac- may be called objective or subjective obstacles to their tical problems: how to juggle political and family

Women in Parliament: Challenges Inside the House 55 responsibilities. These remain valid once in parlia- parliamentarians often spread themselves too thin ment – the fact that there are no childcare support by taking on too many committee assignments facilities, the financial limitations that women might and thus end up burdened with heavier work- face, which again do not facilitate their participation loads than their male counterparts.” in parliament, and the strains on personal life that —IPU, Gender Equality in Politics, 2008. entry into politics can provoke. The last obstacle is linked to women’s self- The number of women in parliament was also confidence. Some women, on entering this mainly identified as a key factor in terms of pushing policies male domain, have felt challenged, that they did through. Women felt that if there were not enough not have enough stamina to continue or that they of them in parliament, it made it even harder for needed to seek support in order to make their voice them to push for policies linked to gender issues. If heard. there are only two or three women in parliament, it Pushing for policies linked to gender issues can is difficult for them to be on all the committees. also be challenging. For success to be achieved, men They are spread very thin and cannot be everywhere and women highlighted the need to have the ruling in terms of their capacity to lobby, strategize and party’s support as well as the support of women parliamentarians, of male parliamentarians and of civil push within their different political parties. Thus, society groups. once again the notion of a critical mass of 30 percent, which is seen as the mass at which women can When there are few women in parliament, their have a significant impact, was highlighted as one of lobbying strength and their availability to partici- the main constraints in terms of women acting in pate in committee work is limited. . . . Women parliament.

56 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal The Role of Women: Expectations and Challenges Masouma AI-Mubarak Member of the National Assembly, Kuwait

Introduction sion and voluntary work, and they can play a decisive role as voters. Women are powerful as role models. The status of women in developing societies is affected Many people have been inspired by strong and de- by social customs, traditions, the limited facilities termined women in their lives. One of the United for technical and vocational training, limited em- Nations Millennium Development Goals directly ployment opportunities and discriminatory laws. addresses the issue: ‘Women need to be politically Historically, these factors have hindered efforts to empowered by far greater participation and greater integrate women into the mainstream development equality has to be achieved’. process of the country. Women are forced to pay a high price for social customs and traditions, which have stronger effects than written laws. For most of the post-independence Kuwait era, the role of women in society has been affected Kuwait has been the centre of a vigorous women’s most by the lack of political commitment to improve rights movement since 1954, when a small group of their status. This is true in developing countries courageous young women rebelled against the veil where social customs and traditions have played a and the Abaiya (a traditional long black garb). On major role in hampering the advancement of women. 16 May 2005 women in Kuwait were finally granted Through their roles in business, government, educa- their political rights, after a battle of almost 35 years. tion, science and the arts, women are advancing their The enfranchisement of women marks a major politi- own progress and that of societies throughout the cal milestone in the history of Kuwait. It is of huge world. Educated and empowered women are vital to importance in advancing women’s political rights in achieving sustainable development and democracy the conservative heartland of the Arab world. In 1971, in all countries. Kuwait was the first Gulf State to propose the right It is a fact that no society can prosper when to vote for women, but the proposal was repeatedly women do not contribute to its progress. It is also rejected by parliament. The Constitution of Kuwait true that women hold only a very small percentage does not discriminate between women and men with of public offices, very few women are involved in respect to their citizenship rights, but social customs politics and even fewer run for elected office. There do. The courageous women who fought for their politi- are variations from one country to another, and cal rights were regarded as not true Muslims. many factors contribute to this, but there is com- Kuwaiti women played a major role in liberating mon ground that this trend must be revised and that their country after Iraq’s invasion in 1990 and during women have to help each other by sharing experiences the ensuing war in 1991. They put up a strong resis- and exchanging ideas in order to achieve this goal. tance against occupation and struggled on every front The participation of women in government and for the safety of their country. politics strengthens democracy, fuels prosperity and encourages greater tolerance. However, holding a political position is not the only form of leadership The achievements of women in Kuwait for women. Women can and should contribute their After the discovery of oil, Kuwait’s transformation time, talents and experience in all types of profes- from a small seafaring community into a booming

Women in Parliament: Challenges Inside the House 57 economy increased the demand for an educated work- hejab (head scarf). This negative reaction faded, at force. Education for women, which began reluctantly least in public, but it takes time to overcome the in 1936, has changed women’s perceptions of them- deep-rooted prejudices. selves and their role in society. Kuwaiti women have One of the first obstacles faced by the first women formed a wide array of professional, educational parliamentarians was running in in-house elections. and welfare associations through which they have My decision to stand as Deputy Speaker was a shock had a direct impact on the shape of Kuwaiti society, even for those who support women, and it was clear and these have encouraged habits of active and equal that no one was ready for such a move. I was fully participation in society. aware of this, but wanted to put it on record that Women make up more than 50 percent of Kuwait’s women are looking for leadership roles because they population. They are active in the Kuwaiti workforce, have the ability and are fully qualified. Another ex- and about 70 percent of students at university level perience was the elections to the Parliamentary Com- are women. More than 85 percent of honors graduates mittee for Women’s Affairs. All four of the woman are women. Women are no longer restricted to those members of the assembly were elected, in addition jobs traditionally reserved for them, such as teach- to three men. I was elected the committee’s Chair- ing and nursing, but hold all types of positions and person despite strong objections from two of the male profession in the public and private sectors, in the committee members, who said that they would not oil industry and running independent businesses. accept a woman leading the committee. This was Women are represented in virtually every professional ironic as the committee was established to protect and category, and they hold prominent positions. The further women’s rights. As is noted above, change appointment of two woman members of the Munici- takes time. pal Council, and shortly afterwards of the first woman Cabinet Minister, in 2005, were real break- throughs in the struggle for gender integration in The role of the Committee for Women’s Affairs politics. These appointments marked the beginning Historically, this Committee was not even on the of more active political participation by women through radar screen of the National Assembly. It only suc- voting and running for parliament in the July 2007 ceeded in becoming so after the granting of political elections. rights to women in May 2005. This made women Unexpected political developments led to early voters an attractive asset to those running in elec- elections in June 2006. A decision to automatically tions. The first committee was established in June 2006, register all Kuwaiti women who were eligible to vote but the committee remains temporary. On being enabled 29 women to stand for election. None of elected to the committee, an early suggestion was made these, or of the 28 women who ran in the June 2008 to amend the bylaws of the parliament to include the elections, was elected, but the experience was a valu- committee among the roster of permanent parliamen- able one. tary committees, thereby cementing its importance In March 2009 the national parliament was again to the nation. dissolved and early elections took place on 16 May The main tasks of the Committee for Women’s 2009. This time only 19 women stood for election, Affairs are to discuss issues related to discrimination but four were elected, making a historic break- against women, suggest amendments to discrimina- through as the first women members of the Kuwait tory laws and improve the status of women in practice National Assembly. This made news domestically, through the implementation of the principle of equal regionally and internationally. It was a joyful moment opportunity. The committee is currently studying for those men and women who believe in democracy two proposals for social and civil women’s rights, as and equality, but not for those who were against the well as several proposals to amend discriminatory principle of political rights for women. A number of articles in several laws, such as the Public Housing Law, parliamentarians from this school of thought walked the Civil Service Law, the Passport Law, the Labour out as the first woman MP was sworn into office. Law, the Social Security Law and the Immigration This was as a sign of their disagreement with women’s Law, which affect the stability of families comprised membership of the parliament and also because two of Kuwaiti wives married to non-Kuwaiti husbands. of the women parliamentarians were not wearing a A decision was made unanimously to invite all women’s

58 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal associations and concerned non-governmental orga- Until women are fully represented in local, na- nizations to share with the committee their thoughts tional and international decision-making bodies, their and points of view on the proposals submitted to issues will not be priorities and the necessary re- the Committee. Fourteen bodies were invited and sources will not be allocated. Research shows that given copies of the proposals, and asked to submit worldwide women in legislatures give more atten- written comments. This procedure will facilitate the tion than men to social issues that affect the quality tasks of the committee and better serve our con- of life, education, health, job opportunities, the en- stituents. The committee also succeeded in putting vironment and the crime rate. When women lead, women’s issues on the priority list of the assembly, their sisters, families and communities are more likely which is comprised of 23 priorities for the session to benefit. starting in October 2009. What will it take for the women in Kuwait not just to go to the polls, but to run for office and lead their nation? Increasing women’s leadership takes The Future Role of Women more than voting rights. It is important to mobilize Women are a major part of their nation, communi- community support for women in governance roles. ties and families. The next generation of women will Women must seek leadership at the highest institu- be a key factor in the effective development of the tional levels, and appointment to both national and country. They have an important role to play in re- international bodies. solving national and grass-roots level issues and will The empowerment of women means that they emerge as equal partners in national development. have an important role in preparing themselves for Women should be treated as equal partners in nation- the responsible task of participation in political affairs. building and sustainable development, and they will There is a need to identify their true role in the po- accept no less. litical arena. Women’s participation in politics is much Kuwait’s Five Year Development Plan has allo- more than simply winning elections or nominating cated an entire programme to support and develop women candidates. The challenge that lies ahead is the role of women in society, and to incorporate them to supplement existing training on methods of cam- into the workforce by training 19,416 women dur- paigning and political strategy, awareness, the media ing the timeframe of the current plan. In 2005 the and fund-raising, as significant segments of political Ministry of Planning stated that Millennium Devel- training, with creating a wider social awareness in the opment Goal number 3 (Promoting Gender Equality overall population of the importance of their politi- and Empowering Women) is one of the main targets cal duties in order to select and choose their best to be achieved by development indicators. representatives.

Women in Parliament: Challenges Inside the House 59 Is Parliament Open to Women? The Experience of Burkina Faso Irène Yameogo Member of Parliament, National Assembly, Burkina Faso

The year 1991 marked a return to normal constitu- • Lack of confidence of women in themselves tional order in Burkina Faso after seven years of an • Women’s perception of the political arena exceptional regime. In 1992, the parliament was estab- • Insufficient numbers of experienced women lished. Since then, the democratic process in our coun- • Inadequate financial means available to women. try has been following its course uninterruptedly with parliamentary elections held every five years. Main structural barriers Thus, our country is in its fourth legislature of its By ratifying international conventions, Burkina Faso fourth republic. has undertaken to enshrine the principle of gender This presentation highlights the experience of the equality in domestic law, abolishing all discrimina- past 18 years of women’s participation in parliament. tory laws, adopting appropriate legislative measures to prohibit discrimination against women, taking appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against Challenges: Current Trends women perpetrated by a person, organization or enter- prise of any kind. During the first legislature (1992–1997), the percentage However, on the structural level, between 1995 of women parliamentarians in the National Assembly and 2008, no law intended to redress the situation had stood at about 3 percent. That proportion rose to 8 yet been passed. For a long time, the Constitution percent in the second legislature (1997–2002). During remained the principal structural barrier to the imple- the third legislature (2002–2007), the proportion of mentation of these conventions. Through the adoption women in the National Assembly climbed to 13 per- on 16 April 2009 of the bill on introducing quotas cent. Women account for 15 percent of members of the current legislature (2007–2012). After the World in parliamentary and local elections in Burkina Faso, Conference on Women held in Beijing in 1995, women’s this barrier seems to have been overcome. The most representation in parliament has progressed steadily. significant structural barriers remain inadequate finan- Nevertheless, this increase was unable to reach the cial resources at the disposal of women candidates in critical mass of 30 percent in parliament. parliamentary elections and the insufficient support provided to women candidates during election campaigns. Main socio-cultural barriers The role of political parties in accessing Women face several socio-cultural barriers in partici- political life pating in political life. They come in several categories. Relevant studies and assessments make mention of In accordance with the Electoral Code, only political the following: parties can present candidates for municipal elections. They are therefore the ones entrusted with draw- • Distribution of work based on traditional gender ing up election lists. In this respect, they play an roles important role in the current situation of women in • Onerous burden of household chores makes it dif- parliament. Among the causes of weak women’s rep- ficult to reconcile them with political and profes- resentation in parliament, studies have always pointed sional activities to the weak representation of women on election lists.

60 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Electoral Gender Quotas 2. Pressure was exerted on political parties. The The national assembly adopted on 16 April 2009 a institution of parliament was either seized of the bill on the introduction of quotas for parliamentary subject or seized itself of the dossier. and local elections in Burkina Faso. This quota will 3. Two ad hoc parliamentary committees were set be applied to the parliamentary elections in 2012. up successively to make quota proposals: • The first in 2005 under the third legislature; Electoral gender quotas and the form taken • The second in 2008 under the current legisla- according to the Act of 16 April 2009 ture (fourth legislature). • On the philosophical and ethical level, “. . . the The working methods of these committees con- quota is considered by law as an affirmative action sisted of: measure intended to enable one gender, without any distinction whatsoever, to take part in the • Making use of existing documents dealing management of public affairs via elected represen- with quotas; tatives.” (Article 2, unofficial translation). • Conducting interviews with political parties, • On the level of principles and standards to be development partners and civil society to respected, “all candidates’ lists presented by a gather their views; political party or grouping of political parties, for • Examining the various concerns; parliamentary or local elections, must include at • Drafting the bill and submitting it to the least 30 percent of candidates of one gender.” Bureau of the National Assembly. (Article 3). “The practical modalities for applying 4. The government’s opinion was sought on the bill quotas are provided for by the Electoral Code.” pursuant to the provisions of the Constitution. (Article 4, unofficial translation). 5. The Act was passed. • On the level of sanctions, the Act provides: “Any party or grouping of political parties whose lists With respect to lessons learned, the third stage was do not respect the provisions of the present Act the most important, notably the part that included shall lose 50 percent of public financing for po- meetings with political parties. This stage was the litical party activities and election campaigns” most difficult and the most determining insofar as (Article 5). The Act also provides that: “Each po- reconciling the views of the opposition and the rul- litical party or grouping of political parties that ing party was concerned in order to reach a consen- has surpassed the 30 percent quota under Article sus on the quota ceiling and the modalities for its 3 of the present Act shall benefit from additional implementation. financing”. (Article 6, unofficial translation).

Can these quotas speed up women’s access to parliament? Other Special Measures The new law requires women constitute 30 percent The ad hoc committee that enabled the Act to come quota of candidates on the lists, but does not guar- into being did not confine itself to drafting the bill. antee 30 percent of seats as a result. Incentives by It also proposed accompanying measures to bolster political parties and sanctions should speed up access implementation of the quotas. These include: for a higher number of women to parliament. How- ever, one cannot predict the results. En masse schooling for girls; • Strengthening the policy of positive discrimina- Strategies and lessons learned regarding the tion that favours girls; adoption of the Act on quotas • En masse literacy for women; The strategy that led to the adoption of the Act of 16 • Socio-professional training of women; April 2009 on quotas can be presented in five stages • Adoption of a political code of conduct that pro- as follows: motes women in executive positions within political parties; 1. Agreement among the associations that called for • Increasing budget allocations to the ministry with quotas following the Beijing Conference in 1995 responsibility for promoting women and the min-

Women in Parliament: Challenges Inside the House 61 istry for human rights to enhance support to • Article 5 provides for financial sanctions against women in the political arena; parties that do not respect the provisions of the • Removal of financial advantages from political present bill; parties that do not respect the quota; • Article 6 provides for a financial incentive for • Financial support to women in the top and second those parties that surpass the 30 per-cent quota positions on lists; and modalities for this financing. • Sanctions on all parties that do not respect the provisions of the Act by not admitting their lists; Other measures that political parties can take • Financing of profit-making activities for women; The 30 percent quota on election lists is not the only • Financing of women’s entrepreneurship. measure that can be taken. Political parties can introduce internal quotas exceeding those set by the The role of money in politics and reform of Act. This idea was already promoted by women’s the mode of financing election campaigns associations and organizations at the 2000 commu- Inadequate financial resources have been recognized nal elections and the 2002 parliamentary elections as a barrier to the full participation of women in par- through their lobbying and advocacy activities with liament. In other words, money plays a pivotal role political parties and the National Assembly. This in politics. This role was recognized by the ad hoc sensitization has led certain political parties to pro- committee during its work of drawing up the bill. mote, even before the Act on quotas was passed, The question is taken into consideration in the pro- internal quotas of up to 50 percent. The idea was posed accompanying measures, namely: tried and tested at the 2000 communal elections, which resulted in a very significant increase in the • Increase of budget allocations to the ministry with number of women councillors. responsibility for promoting women and the ministry for human rights in order to enhance sup- The impact of the media port to women in politics; The media broadcast the activities of the Parliament, • Withdrawal of financial benefits to political par- which led to the passage of the Act on quotas. Indeed, ties that do not respect the principle of providing it was the National Assembly that engaged the media financial support to women in the top and second in this initiative. However, a communications plan places on lists; should be developed to promote the election of women • Imposition of sanctions on all political parties during election campaigns. that do not respect the provisions of the Act by not admitting their lists for election; • Financing profit-making activities that benefit Difficulties to Overcome at the women; National Assembly • Financing women’s entrepreneurship. The decline in the number of men representatives to The question is also taken into consideration in the benefit of women owing to the voluntary poli- Articles 5 and 6 of the Act: cies applied by political parties to place women on

Graph 1: Comparison of the Proportion of Women and Men in Parliament 100%

80% • Men in Parliament • Women in Parliament 60%

40%

20%

0% 1992–1997 1997–2002 2002–2007 2007–2012

62 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal election lists has been evident since 1992 albeit at a • Sustained political and civic training of women; slow pace. Nevertheless, parliament remains largely • Adoption of a code of political conduct that fosters male-dominated (85%). the presence of women in executive positions in political parties. Traditional rules and practices of parliament that affect women’s participation The Standing Orders of the National Assembly isthe Legislative Work: Facilitating the instrument that organizes parliamentary life. It does not contain any gender-based discriminatory provisions. Consideration of Gender Issues Parliament seeks to integrate women in its legislative The importance of a critical mass work and implement mechanisms to better main- of women (30%) stream gender issues. To the extent that the Act has not entered its imple- Women are regularly represented in the Bureau of mentation phase, it is difficult to make a value the National Assembly and the bureaux of general judgement of the critical mass of 30 percent. How- committees. Measures have also been taken to include ever, beyond this percentage, it is the contribution women in the delegations to regional, continental in terms of ability to positively influence the coun- and international parliamentary events. try’s future that should be the goal. That is why care is taken to promote not only quantity but also qual- The role of committees and groups ity. Efforts should be made in the area of capacity- An Act has just been passed which allows committees building. The question was examined by the ad hoc and groups henceforth to undertake the following committee, which suggested the following accom- activities: panying measures: • Draw up indicators to assess implementation of each • En masse schooling of girls; provision of the Act and accompanying measures; • Strengthening the policy of positive discrimina- • Carry out information activities on implementation in favour of women; tion of the Act and its accompanying measures; • En masse literacy of women; • Question the government about implementation • Socio-professional training of women; of the quotas.

Women in Parliament: Challenges Inside the House 63 64 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal LEGISLATIVE AND POLICY OUTPUTS: FACILITATING A GENDER PERSPECTIVE

5 Legislative and Policy Outputs: Facilitating a Gender Perspective 65 Overview and Debate

Overview of the Session implementation of gender sensitive legislation and The session examined some of the initiatives that had uphold the principles of the Beijing Platform for been taken to improve the gender sensitivity of the Action. The establishment of that strategy attested legislative process. It reviewed gender-mainstreaming to the progress that had been made in the Shura strategies, highlighted institutional structures that had Council to recognize equality between men and been put in place to facilitate gender mainstreaming women. Many challenges still faced the country, and – such as specialized committees and women’s cau- the parliament was grappling with how best to leg- cuses – and provided an overview of monitoring islate on gender while retaining the support of all of impacts from a gender perspective. society and with how to guarantee the rights and full participation of women outside the Shura Coun- • How are parliaments faring in terms of main- cil in contexts more strongly influenced by religious streaming gender into their policy work and what and traditional values. mechanisms can be implemented to enhance gender Nonetheless, there had been growing acceptance mainstreaming? for the principles of gender equality and the impor- • What role can committees and caucuses play, tant role that women played in politics. The presence such as gender-based analysis and monitoring of of women in parliament had increased respect for impacts? women in all spheres, and had raised expectations of • What lessons learned can be drawn? what they could accomplish as political leaders. The presence of women in parliament had also had a di- The chairperson for the session was Mr. Moham- rect effect on thelegislation that had been adopted med Affey, Member of the National Assembly and and the committees that had been established, includ- Chairperson of the Committee on Equal Opportunity, ing a permanent committee on women and children Kenya. The panelists for were Dr. Bahiya Al Jishi, established to review national laws and ensure com- Member of the Shura Council, Bahrain, and Ms. pliance with international standards regarding the Dina Akkelidou, Member of the House of Represen- status of women and children. tatives, Cyprus. Dr. Al Jishi discussed the progress One of the key lessons learned while pushing for made by the parliament in Bahrain and outlined progress was the importance of ensuring that gender some lessons on mainstreaming gender that had been issues were not amalgamated into ‘women’s blocks’ learned in the process. Ms. Akkelidou presented the separate from mainstream discussions on social issues, situation in Cyprus and discussed what lessons had but that they were presented as matters of concern been learned from the implementation of the National for the whole of society. It was important for parlia- Plan of Action for the Equality of Men and Women. mentarians to build alliances with male colleagues Dr. Al Jishi explained that to assist in the main- and demonstrate the links that existed between legisla- streaming of gender equality and promotion of the tion on gender equality and matters of the economy, status of women, the Bahraini parliament had adopted labour market, health, and well-being of the whole the National Strategy for the Empowerment of society. In conservative societies, legislating on gender Women that was overseen by the Supreme Council was often most effective when discussions on women’s for Women. The Strategy served to monitor the rights emphasized how barriers to women’s equal

66 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal participation translated into losses for the society Plenary Debate at large. In the discussion, participants noted that in order to Ms. Akkelidou explained how the National Action be effective when drafting laws regarding gender Plan monitored the enforcement and implementa- equality and gender mainstreaming, it was impor- tion of gender equality measures in Cyprus. The Plan tant to have a clear idea of the needs of women and had been introduced as a comprehensive measure to how they were affected by the laws already in place. address the lack of progress at the national level in Public debate on that matter was crucial to ensure significantly improving the status of women and their that all views were taken into consideration and level of participation in public life. There were a num- draft laws had the support of the population. It was ber of lessons that could be drawn from this effort. crucial to include men in the debate and in the National Action Plans should aim to create an drafting process. enabling environment for women throughout all For many countries, the primary challenge was levels of society by designing and enforcing policies the implementation of laws that had been passed that promoted the democratic principle of gender by parliament. Some participants noted that there equality. Crucially, the goals of the Action Plan should was a lack of political will to implement gender sen- reflect the goals of regional and international agree- sitive legislation. There were a number of measures ments, such as the European Roadmap for Equality that parliamentarians could take to ensure that laws and the Beijing Platform for Action. Those plans should be comprehensive in their were monitored and enforced. goals, recognizing the links that existed between edu- The first option for enforcing implementation was national action plans cation, training, civil and political rights, and par- to establish to assist parlia- ticipation in decision-making as equally important ment in its oversight function. It was important that measures for combating discrimination and violence those plans be comprehensive strategies founded on against women. international principles and that they serve to im- Action Plans were most effective when they were prove implementation of gender sensitive legislation overseen by specialized parliamentary committees or and promote the principle of gender equality. ministries that had been established to monitor and A second option was to strengthen the role coordinate gender-mainstreaming efforts. The role played by women’s caucuses and parliamentary of parliament was to pass legislation and ensure that committees. Women’s caucuses and parliamentary laws were effectively implemented. Action Plans should committees were effective mechanisms for address- be seen as mechanisms to help parliaments in that ing matters of concern, yet they were often under- task. Committees should be established and man- utilized. Caucuses and committees could be used as dated to examine draft legislations and recommend fora for cross-party discussion and negotiation. As amendments where possible. Parliamentary com- such, they had the ability to unite women parliamen- mittees should also carry out an oversight function, tarians and build strong support for gender equality ensuring compliance with national and international measures. They could also draw public attention to standards. Action Plans should be linked to those important issues by sponsoring debates and working motives and it was therefore crucial that members closely with the media. of parliament be kept up to date with the accomplish- A third option was that of constitutional reform. ments of the plan and the challenges it still faced. Gender mainstreaming had often been facilitated by Routine progress appraisals were thus important to reforming the constitution to include explicit men- ensure that the appropriate measures were taken and tion of gender equality principles. Such constitutional gender mainstreaming was addressed strategically reforms provided a stronger basis for mainstreaming and systematically. and assisting parliaments in implementing legisla- Action Plans should not function in isolation, tion quickly. Some participants noted that, although but rather should be accompanied and informed by effective, undertaking constitutional reform was very other activities such public debates, academic re- complicated, time-consuming and required wide- search, and training programmes which seek to spread support of women and men. In this regard, regulate, inspect, and mediate on issues of gender another option would be to focus on passing legisla- equality. The realization of the Action Plan goals should tion to supplement the principle of gender equality be a priority for parliamentarians. without amending the constitution.

Legislative and Policy Outputs: Facilitating a Gender Perspective 67 The Role of Women Parliamentarians in Advocating for and Safeguarding Women’s Rights Bahiya J. Aljishi Member of the Shura Council, Kingdom of Bahrain

Introduction Council for more than one term and was well The parliamentary system in Bahrain is a bicameral known, while I was still new. We received an equal one in which the lower chamber, the House of Rep- number of votes, which led to a ballot by lottery resentatives, is elected by constituencies and the upper that went in his favour. This experience indicated chamber, the Shura Council, is appointed by the the trust Council members had in women even King. In terms of the stance towards women’s and though they did not know me well or have first-hand gender issues in parliament, the situation in the two knowledge of my performance. They acted out of chambers is quite different. There is only one woman trust and a desire to enhance the role of women in member in the House of Representatives. Although the Council. she is highly qualified and has proved her strengths, In the next legislative term another woman ran and she is capable of carrying this responsibility, al- for the position of Second Deputy Speaker and was liances on women’s issues face difficulties as they are elected unanimously. As a result, a woman has had subject to the views and opinions of the religious the opportunity to chair the Council on several groups, which constitute the majority of the House. occasions. This action was welcomed and com- The concept of gender is subject to debate among mended by everybody in the Council and widely in religious and conservative groups, who see it as more the media. One of the Councils two representatives than just equality between men and women. in the Arab Parliament is a woman, while both rep- The situation is different in the Shura Council as resentatives from the lower chamber are men. there are no religious or political groups and there is Chairing committees is another issue, where no prepared agenda to control the work of the women have held the seat of Deputy Chair of sev- Council. Liberal thought dominates, which helps in eral Committees for more than one term. I was discussing women’s and gender issues freely and elected Chairperson of the Services Committee, which without reservation. Thus, the structure of the Shura is one of the most important committees due to its Council has led to reliance on it when it comes to role in dealing with legislation related to issues, such discussion of issues related to women and gender. as health, education, employment and housing, that Male colleagues provide every possible support, which concern the whole of society. I have not sensed any allows for work as a team with complementary skills. sensitivity in chairing my men colleagues. On the If there is any sensitivity, it is not visible and does contrary, cooperation, coordination and respect not affect working relationships. have prevailed, making my mission easier. This has been reflected in the performance of the Committee. Women were appointed to the Shura Council after The Role of Women in the Shura Council the 2002 elections, in which no women candidates I was first appointed to the Council in 2002 as one were elected. Out of a belief in the role of women, of the first group of four women. With the encour- and as part of His Majesty’s reform programme, the agement and support of my colleagues, I decided to King appointed six women to the Shura Council. run for the post of Second Deputy Speaker of the The number of women appointees was increased to Council against a colleague who had been in the 10, constituting 25 percent of the Council.

68 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal These appointments helped to place women at to women. In the final analysis, such measures may the heart of the Path of National Action as active contribute to undermining and minimizing the role partners whose opinions are respected. The presence of women in the development process and could re- of women in the Shura Council and their participa- sult in turning women into an unwanted element in tion in its discussions reflect their ability to interact the labour market. with all social issues without a need to categorize Despite all such problems, communicating with them, placing them in the right perspective in the civil society occupies a large part of the agenda of light of the responsibilities and rights of citizenship. women members. Communication takes the shape This gave the women members the opportunity to of inviting concerned societies to attend meetings of have a say on gender-related legislation and to committees in order to obtain their views when pro- achieve results that do not contradict the principle posed laws are being discussed. In many instances, of equality, especially when it comes to discussing the suggestions of civil society have been taken into budget allocations to programmes aimed at women. consideration. No law was presented to the Council Hence, the role of women is represented in their without incorporating the discussions with these soci- efforts to gain the trust of their colleagues by adopt- eties. This happens all the time at meetings of the ing and regarding women’s issues as social ones that Services Committee because of its areas of responsi- have a bearing on every member of society. In this bility (outlined above). regard, they have achieved tangible successes. Women The Supreme Council for Women (SCW) is the have efficiently used all the parliamentary mecha- official body responsible for women’s affairs. The re- nisms available to them, such as proposing laws and lationship between the Council and the SCW is built posing questions to ministers about matters of im- on constant consultations and cooperation, and portance to the public. seeking the views of the SCW on proposed laws. It The success of women in the Shura Council has is important to support the National Strategy for built and enhanced trust in the abilities and capaci- Empowering Bahraini Women, which was built on ties of women. Women were the centre of attention Beijing Declaration, and to transform its Plan of and found themselves under constant scrutiny in Action into legislation. terms of their efficiency. It was a big challenge for them to prove that their performance deserved the position they occupied. The presence of women in The Women and Children’s Committee the Shura Council raised high expectations. Conse- quently, it was of great importance that this experience Women members of the Council used an article in should be a success and prove positive so that stereo the Bylaws that allows the formation of ad hoc com- typical images of women could be changed, partic- mittees for certain purposes to suggest the estab- ularly in political life, which, in turn, it was hoped lishment of a Women and Children’s Committee in would be reflected eventually by the success of women the Council. It consists of men and women members candidates in future elections. and is led by a woman. The committee studies en- Pioneering women who had the opportunity to acted laws and legislation and ensures their consistency reach this position were required to work on elimi- with international Conventions and Declarations, nating suspicions and to focus on all issues without particularly the Convention on the Elimination of All reservation. Hence, women members announced from Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) the beginning that they had no intention of setting and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), up a women’s bloc. They would instead like to be to ensure a fair legal status for women and children. considered as members of the legislative authority As a result of the Committee’s efficiency and effec- and as citizens. On the other hand, women are more tiveness, there have been demands to change its status susceptible to pressures from civil society, especially into a permanent committee. It was recently sug- women’s societies which consider them to be repre- gested that it should be represented in the Bureau of sentatives of women and exponents of their problems the Council. The committee now has a say in all new regardless of the wider public interest. Women in legislation to ensure its suitability for the needs of the Council are exposed to pressures to adopt issues women and children and protect them against dis- that may not be fair even though they seem beneficial crimination and unfair treatment.

Legislative and Policy Outputs: Facilitating a Gender Perspective 69 Conclusion bated the pros and cons of the privileges given to It is worth noting that some issues attract the atten- women, especially in the Labour Law regarding issues tion of women members not because men do not of leave and working hours. We have also had our care, but because women are more able to appreci- differences about early retirement schemes for women. ate their importance. Women parliamentarians are I personally regard it as a waste of the energies of keen to build alliances with colleagues to change women at an age of maturity and experience and the perception of such issues from feminist issues to above all an obstacle in the way of women reaching societal ones. In addition, many women parliamen- higher positions in their careers. Unfortunately, many tarians in Bahrain believe that granting women more women in the community regarded this as a setback privileges is against their long term interests because in our work and a bias against women. They raised these could become an obstacle for them in the la- the slogan of “Women against Women”, not realiz- bour market and a barrier to their promotion and rise ing the rationale behind our stance which took a lot to decision-making positions. of effort and time to explain. The increase in the number of women members We also have to confront religious attitudes that gave them an opportunity to serve on all of the com- require the implementation of Sharia, and its inter- mittees of the Council, such as the Environment, pretation, in all legislation. We do not want to consider women as fragile creatures but as human beings Legislative, Economic and Foreign Affairs commit- who have rights and duties. We intend to establish tees, where they have a major role to play and their the concept that women are concerned with all leg- opinions are taken into consideration, and to partici- islation. The Family Law, for example, does not pate in the general discussions of the Council, where concern women and children alone but the whole their views are highly respected. Women members family and ultimately all of society. have been working as a team to: The question remains how to identify the best • Coordinate with bodies concerned with issues means to guarantee the full participation of women under discussion; in activating legislation and making democracy a • Study the experience and laws of other nations tangible reality, and how to work to avoid the segre- to benefit from their expertise; gation of issues related to women from the main- • Seek expertise from international agencies; and stream of society in order to avoid contradictions and • Invite experts and legal advisers to participate in without contravening the concept of democracy. the discussions of Committees. Thus, in our work we do not seek to legislate special laws for women, but instead to build a legal system As Chairperson of the Services Committee, I am that is fair and can safeguard women’s rights. fortunate to work with a group of active and dedi- I paint a rosy picture of Bahrain’s legislative system. cated men and women members. This has helped to The picture in the lower chamber is quite different. a great extent in drafting laws and providing our There, a lone woman faces the many obstacles that input and views. Nevertheless, we have always de- are common to many parliaments.

70 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Gender Mainstreaming in Parliament: Experience from Cyprus Dina Akkelidou Member of Parliament and Chairperson of the House Standing Committee on Equal Opportunities for Men and Women, Cyprus

This paper presents the situation in Cyprus with re- equality. The committee’s mandate entails the exer- spect to gender mainstreaming. It focuses on the work cise of parliamentary scrutiny of government policies of the Standing Committee on Equal Opportunities through the examination of draft legislation and bud- for Men and Women of the House of Representatives gets and through the discussion of relevant issues at and its contribution to introducing a gender perspec- the committee’s own initiative. In terms of parlia- tive in parliament and overseeing government activities. mentary oversight, the committee also supervises Gender equality and women’s empowerment are compliance with relevant national and international issues of general concern. They are among the major standards and makes relevant recommendations to challenges that the world faces today. In the Republic the government with respect to gender equality and of Cyprus, the principle of equal treatment and the the elimination of all forms of gender discrimina- prohibition of any form of discrimination, direct or tion, except, due to a constitutional restriction, in indirect, against any person on the ground of gender cases where any such recommendation might cause are safeguarded by article 28 of the Constitution. an increase in public expenditure. Moreover, Cyprus has ratified all the international The committee cannot examine individual com- and regional (European) human rights conventions, plaints per se but, should a written complaint reach including those on gender equality and, most impor- it, it may transmit it to the appropriate authorities tantly, the Convention on the Elimination of All or, if the complaint constitutes a question of wider Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) interest, the committee may hold a discussion on its (ratified by Law 78/1985), which has been instru- own initiative or even have questions asked by com- mental in promoting gender equality in Cyprus. At mittee members addressed to the competent ministry the national level, CEDAW provides the basis for or ministries. The committee is in close cooperation government policies on the legal transposition and with the Commissioner for Administration (Ombuds implementation of measures to advance the status of man), who keeps the committee regularly informed women and achieve greater equality between men of her decisions and, at the invitation of the commit- and women. tee, participates in exchanges of views. Since its establishment in June 2006, the Stand- The dissemination of information on the coming Committee on Equal Opportunities for Men mittee’s work to the public may take the form of and Women has contributed to the enactment of a press releases or statements to the press by the Chair significant amount of national legislation. The Com- or individual members. Additionally, the commit- mittee’s field of competence covers the status of tee may participate in public discussions regarding women and gender equality issues that fall within issues of wider interest in the press or on radio or the competence of the Ministry of Justice and Pub- television. The committee’s discussions on the status lic Order, as well as questions relating thereto that of women or gender equality may include exchanges fall within the realm of other ministries, such as the with non-governmental organizations, and exchanges Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, and even with its counterparts from other countries, the EU questions that may be looked into by other commit- or international parliamentary organizations as well tees due to their multifaceted nature, such as ques- as participation in specialized conferences at home tions of human rights that specifically affect gender and abroad.

Legislative and Policy Outputs: Facilitating a Gender Perspective 71 The committee’s work has intensified since the persist. We have not succeeded in allowing gender accession of Cyprus to the European Union (EU), equality to be infused into society to the desired as has the enactment of relevant legislation. The level. It is evident and statistically proved that the Treaties of the European Union and EU Regulations involvement and participation of women in public contain explicit provisions for the safeguarding of life, especially in decision-making processes and high- full equality between men and women. These have level positions, are particularly restricted. supremacy over national law and have direct effect in In the light of this reality, and in order to pro- Cyprus. Cyprus has had to transpose and success- mote genuine equality between men and women in fully implement numerous EU Directives in its legal all sectors of public and social life and therefore system, which emphasize equal pay for work of equal contribute to the successful enforcement of existing value, equal access to employment, equal conditions legal frameworks, the National Action Plan of the at work, special protection for pregnant and breast- Equality of Men and Women, 2007–2013, was pre- feeding women and the provision of certain social pared. This plan constitutes a national initiative for security benefits. integrating gender-mainstreaming policies in all areas The principle of equality between men and of activity. Its screening and implementation have women is legally protected in Cyprus and, at the same been among the priorities of the Committee on Equal time, is no longer a political issue. Government Opportunities for Men and Women. policy and its vision is indisputably aimed at pro- The National Action Plan fully and directly re- moting real gender equality in all areas and at all flects the spirit of the Beijing Declaration. At its core levels. The legal framework is there and it is binding is the modernization of social models and the opti- at both the national and the international level. mal use of human resources, irrespective of gender, There are also mechanisms and institutions at the coupled with the elimination of all forms of discrim- national level for coordination and monitoring, as ination against women. The National Action Plan well as instruments at the international level for super- includes objectives, activities and organs that will lead vision and implementation purposes. The critical to action in six pivotal areas, as well as mechanisms question now is how to transform the existing legis- for the realization and monitoring of the plan and its lative and institutional norms into practice: how to financing. The pivotal activities of the Plan are: translate rhetoric into action. There is now an increased understanding of the 1. The promotion of the equality of men and women need to systematically take the gender element into in employment and vocational training; account in major strategy discussions and parlia- 2. The promotion of the equality of men and women mentary debates. This is a key development which in education, science and research; has generated positive outcomes. For example, a 3. The promotion of equal participation by and rep- more gender-responsive budget has already been resentation of men and women in the political, proposed, although there is still room for improve- social and financial sectors; ment. Resources have been allocated to different gender- 4. The combating of all forms of violence against mainstreaming activities, responding to women’s par- women, including trafficking; ticular and diverse needs, including free breast and 5. The promotion of equal access to and equal imple- cervical cancer testing for all women, training pro- mentation of civil rights for men and women; grammes for working women, encouraging women’s 6. Changes to social stereotypes and the shaping of businesses and funding research into issues of spe- a collective social consciousness for the benefit of cial interest to women on a more systematic basis. women. Unquestionably, the accession of Cyprus to the EU and the clear guiding principles on gender equal- In September 2009, during one of the weekly ity, together with the political will to respond to our sittings of the Committee on Equal Opportunities binding commitments, have led to significant change for Men and Women, committee members were at the legislative, administrative and societal levels. briefed on the current status of and recent develop- Nonetheless, despite these positive steps forward and ments in the Plan by a representative of the Ministry major and constructive developments, significant gaps of Justice and Public Order. They were also informed between the legal framework and practical measures of the government’s intention to establish a Permanent

72 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Ministerial Committee on gender equality. The find- in the political culture of the people, is the safest way ings of an interim report on the progress achieved to ensure societal stability and prosperity. This makes through the National Action Plan will be prepared it of paramount importance to create an enabling and presented by an independent body in the course environment and design and enforce policies that of 2010. promote a culture of democracy and peace in education Questions remain over why transformation on the systems as well as all social and political structures ground is so time-consuming. There have undoubt- and processes. edly been positive developments in the legal and While continuing to work on the policies and institutional frameworks, but a snowball effect has measures initiated in the recent years, the starting not occurred. Promoting gender equality and women’s point for a new era in gender equality issues should empowerment is now more than ever a necessity. It is be the younger generation. If tomorrow’s adults can not just vital for women themselves, but also crucial be raised with gender awareness and sensitivity, the for the effective development of society in all fields. rest will follow. Education is the keyword. Families To this end, routine appraisals of implementa- and schools are the core of a new society that must tion mechanisms and the progress achieved must be take shape gradually but definitively and without at the core or our efforts. The role of national parlia- delay. This should be taken not as a ‘back to square ments can be decisive in supporting efforts that seek one’ approach, but as a reinterpretation of an old to regulate, inspect and mediate in gender-related and successful recipe or as ‘relearning the alphabet issues. A gender-sensitive democracy, deeply rooted with new methods’.

Legislative and Policy Outputs: Facilitating a Gender Perspective 73 74 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal GENDER SENSITIVE PARLIAMENTS

Gender6 Sensitive Parliaments 75 Overview and Debate

Overview of the Session interests of both men and women in its structures, A gender sensitive parliament was one that responded organization and operations, and mainstreamed to the needs and interests of both men and women gender concerns into its work as a nation’s peak leg- in its structures, operations, methods and work. The islative institution. The sensitivity of a parliament session identified which changes could be made, or towards gender concerns could be examined in several facilities introduced, to ensure that parliaments were areas: its effectiveness at gender mainstreaming, its responsive to the needs of women and men. operational procedures and its institutional culture. Gender mainstreaming concerned the ability of • What changes to the rules and practices of par- parliament to use mechanisms (such as parliamentary liaments can be made to make them more gender- committees, caucuses, ombudsmen, gender budget- sensitive and family-friendly? ing and external experts) effectively to mainstream • How can barriers to women’s full participation gender in policy development and the work of parlia- in parliament be removed? ment. Emphasis was put on the operational proce- • What reforms have been adopted to ‘modernize’ dures and working arrangements of parliament as a parliaments, such as adopting a gender action plan, measure of sensitivity as parliaments were workplaces changing sitting times or introducing childcare that had been traditionally dominated by men, and facilities? where work obligations were often prioritized over • What benchmarks can be identified to measure family responsibilities. This was demonstrated by the the gender sensitivity of parliaments? long-held traditions regarding timetabling and the timing of debates and hearings which were often The chairperson for this session was Ms. Margaret held at peak family times, such as weekends or eve- Mensah-Williams, Vice President of the National nings. Lastly, the institutional culture was measured Council of Namibia. The panelists were Ms. Julie by the influence that unwritten rules or norms which Ballington, Programme Specialist, Gender Partner- traditionally stem from male-dominated structures ship Programme, IPU; Ms. Hillevi Engström, Mem- had on the functioning of parliament. Some of the ber of the Riksdag, Sweden, and Ms. Margaret issues included the existence of ‘old boys’ networks’, Mensah-Williams. Ms. Ballington presented the mock belligerence and confrontations. concept of a ‘gender sensitive parliament’, and out- The increasing presence of women in parliament lined the results of an IPU research survey on the had started to influence certain ways in which par- issue. Ms. Engström detailed some of the reforms liaments functioned, most noticeably in the lessening that had been made in Sweden to modernize the of aggressive language and behavior and in the intro- national parliament and make it more gender sensitive. duction of new rules on parental leave. Nonetheless, Ms. Williams then presented her personal experience crucial components such as parliamentary sitting times as a member of parliament and presented recommen- remained relatively unchanged despite the difficul- dations on how parliamentarians could help overcome ties both men and women parliamentarians faced in barriers to women’s full participation. balancing their family and political commitments. Ms. Ballington explained that a ‘gender sensitive Ms. Engström explained that reforming parlia- parliament’ is one that responded to the needs and ments to bring them up to date with the requirements

76 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal of men and women was a complicated process and and risk exclusion and ridicule, this was an impor- continuous work in progress. In Sweden, survey re- tant battle to undertake, as every success served to search had been undertaken to garner the perspectives bolster future opportunities. The perseverance of of parliamentarians on the treatment of women and women in the Namibian parliament, for example, men, which was a good tool for identifying priority had helped engender the topic of debates and the areas to be addressed in parliament. The survey went language used during sessions; introduce laws and beyond quantitative measures to focus on qualita- motions to address traditionally taboo issues of do- tive factors, such as the nature of discrimination (for mestic violence and marital rape, and gain financing instance operational, behavioral, or structural) and for outreach programmes to combat urgent problems the many forms in which it could be manifested (such such as trafficking of women. as abuse, exclusion, or ridicule). Ms. Mensah-Williams noted that it took courage A working group had been established to follow to stand up and confront traditional ideas of women’s up the findings of the survey research. The survey role in society, yet women parliamentarians should be report formed the basis of an action plan which encouraged to do so and to invent imaginative solu- specified 15 proposals that parliamentarians should tions that challenge the legitimacy of discriminatory consider in order to address the concerns of their col- attitudes in the practice of politics. The aim of creating leagues and work towards gender equality in parliament. a gender sensitive parliament should be to sensitize Some of the reforms that Sweden had implemented men and ensure that they acknowledged and were to make parliament more family-friendly included responsive to factors affecting the status of women. the provision of subsidized childcare facilities, the possibility to take parental leave without resigning, and a standardization of rules regarding working hours Plenary debate and sick-days to bring them closer to the rules guid- In the debate it was noted that change required, first ing the rest of the workforce. It had taken a number and foremost, the confidence of women to stand up of years and dedicated political will to implement for their rights and coordinate efforts so as to affect those reforms. change and initiate reform. Examples of good prac- Ms. Mensah-Williams noted that there was often tice existed, for instance the revision of parliamen- pressure on female parliamentarians to conform to tary sitting times, which had served to contribute to ideas of male political leadership, or else risk being a more family-friendly work environment. Those sidelined. Although it was daunting for many women types of reforms should be tested and emulated in parliamentarians to fight against their own colleagues different parliaments.

Attributes of Gender Sensitive Parliaments

Gender mainstreaming Parliamentary working arrangements Policy development, mechanisms Operations to promote women’s input Parliamentary facilities, sitting times, e.g. committees and caucuses budget allocations and services Institutional culture Refers to the unwritten rules, norms and mores

Components of gender sensitive parliaments

Gender Sensitive Parliaments 77 National plans, strategies and policies had been Take Action on Violence Against Women demonstrated to be effective in raising awareness about issues of discrimination and presenting possible so- The IPU strategy for combating violence against women lutions for addressing them. Those plans should be seeks to support the work of parliaments and their focused on monitoring legislation enforcement, such members by: as quotas, and codes of practice that assisted women • Building and strengthening partnerships in overcoming barriers to their full and effective between parliaments and civil society Organizing regional and national seminars participation. Parliamentarians were reminded that • • Providing technical assistance for parliaments on that required political commitment to the advance- violence again women and children ment of women in politics, and efforts should con- • Mobilization participation in public activities stantly be made to ensure that will existed. Women and campaigns. • Produce websites and campaign materials to who held leadership positions in parliament had a assist parliaments in spreading awareness responsibility to use their power to encourage change. • http://www.ipu.org/VAW/ Themedia could be a very effective tool for mo- bilizing public opinion and encouraging members of government to take action. It was important to nationality, age or social status, the IPU launched a listen closely to the will of the electorate, both men campaign and a programme of work to support par- and women, and prioritize legislation based on its liaments in their efforts to end all forms of violence need, effectiveness and feasibility. against women. The IPU strategy sought to drive change by building on parliaments’ and parliamentarians’ political IPU Strategy: Parliaments Take Action leadership at the international, regional and national levels. Parliaments were mandated to enact laws to on Violence against Women address and punish violence against women; they In 2006, IPU Member Parliaments committed them- therefore played a very crucial role in combating all selves to fighting violence against women by adopt- forms of violence. To assist them in this objective, the ing a resolution on “How parliaments can and must IPU strategy outlined measures for constructing strong promote effective ways of combating violence against legal frameworks, securing effective implementation women in all fields”. The IPU strategy for taking action of legislation, and reinforcing awareness and visibil- on violence against women, launched in 2008, was ity of the dangers that many women face. Some of a direct follow-up to that pledge. those measures included the organization of regional Recognizing that violence against women and girls and national seminars; provision of technical assistance remained the most widespread human rights viola- for parliaments on violence against women; production tion, threatening the rights, health, quality of life, and of website and campaign material; and mobilization the very life of women, irrespective of their location, of participants for public activities and campaigns.

78 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Women in the House in Namibia Margaret Mensah-Williams Vice-President of the National Council, Namibia

I became a member of parliament many years ago tarians. However, there are still unwritten rules. You when I was elected to the National Council, which is do not speak before the men. You should not take a the upper house in the Namibian bicameral system. handbag into the chamber – but I carry my bag and I was nominated with only two other women and I think my body language tells people that they was then elected Deputy Speaker. At the time, this was should not try to ask me to leave my bag outside. historic as no woman had been Speaker or Deputy We do not need to behave like men. We should Speaker before. Needless to say, the men were not still behave in a fair way. Gender-sensitive parlia- very happy but they kept quiet. ments need to vent gender issues as a means to make When I was elected Deputy Speaker nobody told men more gender-sensitive as we go along. According me that I would have to preside the next day. Until to my observations, things changed in parliament the day I was sworn in, I had not even seen the in- when women arrived. The type of debate changed. side of the parliament building. I had gone to the Women have produced more people-centred motions staff members to ask for a copy of the rules and pro- because women have emotional intelligence. The cedures. While I was in the tabling office, one of the quality of the debate has also changed. The way the staff members said, “By the way, you do know that men speak has changed: they used to say “he, he, you have to preside tomorrow?” he”, but whenever someone said “he”, we said “or I took the rules. I read them and internalized she” until it became a refrain in their minds and men them. I sat in front of the mirror the whole night and started saying “he or she”. In a way that does not I practised presiding for the next day: what to say, offend, you make men aware that there are women what to do, how to give the floor, and so on. The in the house. I do not know how they cannot see it next morning as I entered the chamber I could see because women are beautiful flowers in addition to many people thinking: “Today we are going to show having brains. The laws have also changed: there are her that women do not make it”. When I was called now the Married Persons Equality Act, the Rape Act, to preside, everything went smoothly. At the end, the Domestic Violence Act and the Maintenance Act. someone asked me, “How did you know how to do that?”. I said, “Well, women are born leaders.” He never suspected that I had not slept the night before, Women in the House but I would not tell him. I had to do this for the women and the girls in the Republic of Namibia, and Rulings in the House for women all over the world. As Deputy Speaker, whenever I am presiding I give I hate that when it comes to women, people say preference to women to enable them to speak first. “we need a competent woman”, but when it comes The men did not like this but later became used to to men is seems that they do not need to be compe- it. I would do this because men would give the floor tent. There are also gender-sensitive men, however, to other men. When women spoke they would be and I am very happy that it was such a man who heckled, so we started to heckle back. Knowing the proposed me as Deputy Speaker. Today there are written rules gives you an advantage. You simply pick women deputy presiding officers in both houses of your rules and say that no member may interrupt parliament. There are also more women parliamen- unless the member has indicated under which rule

Gender Sensitive Parliaments 79 he or she is doing so. In this way, the men have Solidarity started to listen to women. Solidarity is very important for women because we have children and we have families. It is very impor- Mainstreaming gender issues in parliament tant to value yourself first and foremost, to know your We now have a gender-sensitive budget. We provided stance in life and to have a passion for what you do. gender budget training to all members of the National This educates your family to be gender-sensitive. Council, and the men apparently enjoyed it much more Because we are saying this outside, at home we must than the women. Now they are all gender-sensitive. not speak a different language. We must not allow the There is also a tenders committee. boys to play soccer while the girls clean the kitchen. I have started to interact with a youth group on Facebook. Everybody laughed when they saw me on Outreach Facebook, but in this way I can educate the youth The women parliamentarians have started an out- on what a gender-sensitive budget means, what edu- reach programme to take the laws that we have cation for everybody means, what access means, passed to the people. We exchange ideas with the what parliament is and the right of women to be part people to see whether the laws are working. We edu- of decision-making. I think that this has increased cate women on all of the new laws mentioned above. support for women’s roles in the future and for the The issue of trafficking, especially human trafficking, girls. In my family, there is a belief that women are is well covered by the media. We have started to the best constituents of each other. These are some establish a rapport with the media. of the ways that I seek to support women.

80 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Gender Sensitive Parliaments Julie Ballington Programme Specialist, Gender Partnership Programme, Inter-Parliamentary Union

Introduction 3. The work done by women’s parliamentary cau- Since the Beijing Platform for Action in 1995, there cuses, which are cross-party networks of women; has been much emphasis placed on women’s access 4. New rules established for the functioning of to parliaments, and how to increase the numbers of parliament. women elected. There has been some research into the effectiveness and influence of women in parliaments too, but less attention has been paid to the gendered Defining a gender sensitive parliament nature of political institutions, particularly parliaments, There are at least two components of a gender sensi- how they function in practice, and how they are in- tive parliament. The first concerns the ability of parlia- deed ‘gendered’ institutions. ment to mainstream gender into policy development For the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), a gen- and its general work. Different mechanisms can be der sensitive parliament is one that responds to the established to support mainstreaming, such as par- needs and interests of both men and women in its liamentary committees and caucuses of women par- structures, organization and operations, and main- liamentarians, or the use of gender budgeting. In streams gender concerns into its work as a nation’s addition, such activities as the use of gender experts principal legislative institution. This paper examines and gender disaggregated data are important. the concept of a gender sensitive parliament and The second component is a parliament’s opera- outlines some reforms that can be undertaken to tional and institutional culture, which we term par- make parliaments more responsive to the needs of liamentary working arrangements. Theoperational women and men. culture of parliament can be reflected in different The IPU has undertaken research in this area, and ways, such as in the organization of parliamentary is seeking in particular to identify the most impor- facilities, its sitting times and budget allocations tant requirements for a gender sensitive parliament. and the services available. Institutional culture re- In 2008, the IPU published the results of a research fers to the unwritten rules, norms and mores that survey of some 300 parliamentarians on gender equal- have been adopted over time and stem from institu- 1 ity in politics. In the survey, parliamentarians were tions that were primarily designed by men. This asked to identify what they believed to be the most paper focuses on institutional culture, which is little influential factors in shaping a more gender sensitive researched and of which there are very few examples parliamentary agenda and for ensuring that the views of good practice. and concerns of women are reflected in policymaking and the work of parliament. The respondents highlighted the following areas as key: Working Arrangements 1. The support of the ruling party in parliament; In terms of parliamentary working arrangements, 2. The work of parliamentary committees, includ- the starting point is that parliaments are workplaces ing committees that specialize in gender equality that have primarily been shaped by men. They are and the status of women; organizations that follow long-held traditions, includ-

Gender Sensitive Parliaments 81 ing the timetable of sitting days and the timing of Figure 1: Rules and practices have changed with an debates and hearings. Parliamentary cultures often increase in the number of women emphasize a club-like atmosphere where work inside 50% the building is to be prioritized over other responsi- 40% Female bilities. In many cases these priorities and patterns • • Male date back to the years before women gained access 30% to parliaments. 20% Survey respondents were asked whether a gentle- 10% men’s club or old boy network dominated in their parliament. The results showed that women were 0% far more likely to see evidence of a gentlemen’s club Substantial Noticeable Small No Don’t change change change noticeable know than male parliamentarians. This can go beyond just change networks of men, and be felt in the language used and in dress codes. Some women parliamentarians The survey respondents were also asked to iden- reported that discriminatory practices still exist in tify among the changes evident as a result of there their parliaments, such as not being allowed to take being more women in parliament, which they felt the their handbags into the chamber or being prevented most. Table 1 indicates that, overall, both men and from wearing trousers. Others report that one fea- women believed that women’s presence had been most ture of parliamentary life that potentially alienates influential in bringing about a change in parliamen- women from the process is the language used in par- tary language, and slightly less instrumental in intro- liaments, and the often confrontational approach ducing parental leave provisions for parliamentarians. taken in the chamber. Significantly, parliamentarians reported the least For parliaments to evolve into gender sensitive change in the sitting hours of parliament. The issue environments, different aspects of the organization of sitting hours is important because the survey also of parliamentary work need to be reorganized and asked whether parliamentarians had difficulty in bal- updated to accommodate the needs of both men and ancing their family and political commitments. The women. One might assume that as women enter par- response was that half the women respondents and liaments in greater numbers, parliaments will evolve 40 percent of the male respondents admitted that into more gender sensitive institutions. Unfortunately, they did face such difficulties. This illustrates a sys- the results of the 2008 IPU survey show this not to temic problem that affects both men and women, be the case. and that innovative practices need to be considered by Survey respondents were asked whether the pres- parliamentarians in order to enable them to be more ence of women had brought about a change in the responsive to the needs of their fellow members. So rules and practices of parliament. The results, which what changes could parliaments consider to institute are broken down by the sex of the respondents in “family friendly” gender sensitive reforms? Figure 1, are disappointing. Only eight percent of respondents believed that there had been a ‘substantial change’ brought about by the increase in the Sitting times number of women, while 20 percent believed there In terms of changes to sitting times, a few parliaments had been a ‘noticeable change’ – with a higher con- have made improvements. Women parliamentarians centration in Europe and Africa. Nearly 40 percent are more likely to feel that parliamentarians should believed there had been a ‘small change’ and 31 per- work similar hours to other professions, that the work- cent had noted no ‘noticeable change.’ Although there ing week should be shorter and that night sittings have been sporadic attempts to modernize some should be discontinued. parliaments, by and large it is evident that ‘adding In South Africa, for instance, the parliamentary women’ to parliament is not enough – much more calendar has been reorganized to match the school needs to be done to improve the gender sensitivity calendar so that parliamentarians are either in recess of parliaments by changing cultural mores and mod- or have constituency time when students are on vaca- ernizing operational arrangements. tion. Debates finish much earlier in the evening to

82 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Table 1: Changes resulting from women’s participation in parliament

Parliamentary language and behaviour is less aggressive. 2.5

Maternity/paternity leave provisions for parliamentarians have been introduced. 2.3

More training opportunities are provided. 2.1

The rules and practices of parliament have changed. 2.0

Childcare facilities have been introduced. 2.0

Dress codes take into account the needs of women and men. 1.9

The sitting hours of parliament have changed to take into account the needs of women and men. 1.7

The score indicates the average level of activity that respondents attached to each of the policy areas on a four-point scale, where a great deal was scored as 4, noticeable change as 3, small change as 2 and no noticeable change as 1. accommodate parliamentarians with families, and Conclusion childcare facilities have been put in place. In Australia, If they approach it at all, legislatures usually approach the sitting hours of the House of Representatives used the issue of gender sensitive parliaments by introduc- to be distinctly family unfriendly. The hours were ing piecemeal mechanisms for improvement. The amended in 2003 to ensure the House rose no later survey notes that removing the barriers to women’s than 9.30 p.m. – instead of 11 p.m. participation is crucial for creating gender friendly parliaments that respond to the needs and interests Childcare of both men and women. Creating a gender sensitive parliament includes the creation of a working Changes such as providing on-site childcare or re- environment that is family friendly and free of har- vising parental leave provisions could be considered assment and violence. It also requires the evolution to help both men and women parliamentarians bal- of a new institutional culture with language and prac- ance their family responsibilities. The provision of tices that encourage the best in both men and women. childcare facilities is important as it provides fur- Such changes could usefully be measured by under- ther flexibility for parliamentarians, especially when taking institutional performance reviews of parlia- parliament is located far from home constituencies. ments using benchmarks and performance indicators. One study finds that “of all the possible work place The IPU is continuing its research into and develop- innovations, few make a stronger statement about ment of indicators on gender sensitive parliaments, family-friendly practices than having childcare facili- 2 and further information is available at www.gender- ties paid for and arranged by the institution.” Some parliaments.org. survey respondents highlighted the role of parliament in setting an example for other public and private sector workplaces. As a woman respondent from Saint Lucia noted: “I believe that parliament must lead by Endnotes example in setting up day care places for women 1 IPU, Julie Ballington, 2008. Equality in Politics: A Survey of parliamentarians so that while they are dealing with Women and Men in Parliament, IPU: Geneva. the business of running the country they can feel 2 Colleen Lowe Morna (ed.), 2004. Ringing up the Changes: Gen- secure that their children are safe. This can also work der in Southern African Politics, Gender Links, Johannesburg. well for the men who can also assist their wives in taking care of the children. This can be extended to all public offices so as to encourage and increase productivity.”

Gender Sensitive Parliaments 83 Gender Sensitive Parliaments: The Swedish Experience Hillevi Engström Member of the Riksdag, Sweden

There is no quick fix for gender questions. They have important factors. Nothing will happen if you rely no easy solutions and our various parliaments have on chance. Few people will share their power unless to tackle them in circumstances that are often quite they have to. different. Nor is it an issue that can be dealt with as It is not only the proportion of women that is im- a project, with a clear beginning and a clear end. It portant but also the position of women and men in is in fact a process that must proceed continuously politics. Is there an even distribution in different policy and eventually be integrated into the ordinary work areas? Do women and men have equal power and of a parliament. Gender equality efforts must be kept influence? Is there an even gender distribution between up constantly in parliament, in the family and in the the Chairs of the various parliamentary bodies? workplace. A younger generation is not automati- Sweden passed its first gender equality legislation cally more aware of gender equality than an older one. in 1980. This only applied to workplaces, but one of On the contrary, it can be the case that the more ex- the ideas contained in the Act’s preparatory materials perience you have of life, the more aware you become. was that if women obtained a better position in the It is also important to state clearly that a gender- workplace, this would lead to better opportunities in sensitive parliament is not primarily a women’s the rest of society. issue. It is an issue for both men and women, in Around 1999, the Swedish Parliament opened a which solutions must be sought in cooperation and kind of daycare centre where parliamentarians can understanding so that both men and women are able leave their children for longer or shorter periods of time. to combine family life and responsibilities, such as The service is subsidized but not free. It also has those of a member of parliament. This is not a women’s important symbolic value as proof that the Swedish issue, but an important issue for women. Ultimately, Parliament is making a real effort to allow everybody gender equality is a question of human rights. to serve as a member, including the parents of young The Swedish Parliament has 349 members. The children. Members, both men and women, have the balance between men and women is almost 50:50. option to take parental leave, in which case a substitute Some parties have adopted a type of quota system from their constituency can deputize for them. Parents – a ‘take-it-in-turns’ procedure that is also known as are also eligible for time off to care for sick children, a zipper system or a zebra system. Other parties have with the same conditions as employees in Sweden. adopted other solutions. This is up to each individual Around 1994, the Speaker at the time, Birgitta party. There is no legislation regulating the propor- Dahl, initiated a discussion about how to make the tion of women to men in parliament. best use of the high level of women’s representation. The proportion of men in parliament across the The Speaker’s Women’s Network was set up and held world is 82 percent. This is, of course, quite unac- breakfast meetings and seminars for parliamentarians ceptable. It is ultimately an unresolved question of and employees. These activities were continued by democracy. In Sweden there is strong external pres- the next Speaker, Björn von Sydow. In the autumn sure on political parties to take responsibility for of 2003, the Network published a document raising gender equality and women’s opportunities, in both questions under the heading A Gender-equal Working society and politics. Media scrutiny and the work Environment in the Swedish Parliament. These ques- being done by the women’s movement are particularly tions were also raised in Private Members’ Motions.

84 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal It is commonly said that crises are important for institution should work methodically and continu- development, and this is what happened in 2004. One ously with such issues. The Riksdag Board should lay of Sweden’s largest newspapers, Svenska Dagbladet, down a gender equality programme for each electoral sent a comprehensive questionnaire to all women period. The objective is to promote gender equality parliamentarians. It was completed by 155 out of the in the Riksdag primarily in relation to qualitative 158. With very few exceptions, the women declared aspects, which means that men and women parlia- that the male power structure in the Swedish Parlia- mentarians must have the same material conditions ment influenced its work. Women found it more dif- for performing their duties. ficult to reach senior posts, and the most prestigious The programme must be reported on and followed positions went to men. Many respondents (97, or 62 up. According to the proposal, the Secretary General percent) stated that they had received worse treatment of the Riksdag should have primary responsibility for purely because they were women. Examples included the Gender Equality Programme. It is important that a number of the techniques of domination or negative responsibilities are clearly designated, that those re- control observed by Berit Ås, a Norwegian researcher sponsible have both the power and the opportunity and former member of parliament: (a) invisibility, to make real decisions, and that resources are made those who are not seen or shown interest feel insignifi- available for the work. Once again, it must be empha- cant and insecure; (b) ridicule, people made to feel sized that there are no quick fixes. embarrassed, ashamed and uninteresting; (c) exclu- After the 2006 election, the new Speaker, Per sion from information or ‘being left out of the loop’; Westerberg, set up a reference group for gender equal- (d) imposition of guilt and shame, if you feel system- ity issues with a member of each Riksdag party. All atically inferior it is easy to feel guilt and shame; and seven of the people in the group are women. Perhaps (e) double punishment, ‘damned if you do, damned this fact in itself demonstrates that we need more men if you don’t’, that is, women being criticized for not who have both knowledge and commitment. giving priority to their children while at the same An action programme has been drawn up for the time being criticized for not giving priority to their electoral period 2006 to 2010. This programme has an political duties. The newspaper article and the question- institutional part, a part relating to ongoing efforts naire gave extra impetus to the work in parliament. and a part that specifies more detailed measures. The There was a lot of media publicity. measures include: the production of in-depth gender In 2005, in-depth interviews were conducted with equality statistics; internal research in the Swedish Par- a randomly selected group of parliamentarians – both liament containing consequence analyses with regard to female and male. The results were compiled and a gender equality; ongoing monitoring of research in the seminar was held on the basis of the study. This be- policy area; and a gender equality conference, within came an element in the gender equality programme the framework of the Swedish Presidency of the Euro- adopted by the Riksdag Board. Many people con- pean Union, held in Stockholm in November 2009. sidered that men in the Riksdag find it easier to The Swedish experience demonstrates that there reach positions of power, and that there are visible and is still much room for improvement, but that there invisible male structures supporting men. By con- has also been some progress. Women are here to stay. trast, women are shown lower levels of tolerance, Improvements and developments in this area are both make higher demands of their surroundings and them- necessary and possible, but an explicit strategy is re- selves, find it harder to be seen and to get attention, quired. Individuals with a clear mandate must be find that age is used against them to a greater extent, responsible for implementing the strategy, and re- and lack the established network contacts that give a sources must be made available. person authority, power and influence. Most respon- Regardless of the measures undertaken, attitudes dents, both men and women, experienced difficul- are what matter. Common sense and good judgment ties in combining the duties of a parliamentarian with cannot be instilled by way of legislation or created parenthood and a family. Parliamentary duties re- in action plans. It is also important that people in quire a family’s total support. leading positions want to take a principled stand and A working group of officials was tasked with draft- are capable of doing so. It is crucial that the Speaker, ing a document. This resulted in the report15 Pro- the party leaderships and other influential individuals posals for Gender Equality in the Riksdag. A major line play an active part in making the Swedish Parliament of thinking in the report is that parliament as an a model workplace for both women and men.

Gender Sensitive Parliaments 85 List of Participants

Mr. Anders B. JOHNSSON Participants Secretary General of the Inter-Parliamentary Union Afghanistan BALKHI, Sediqa (Ms.) Member of the Mishrano Jirga, Chair of the Committee on Panellists (in alphabetical order) Women’s Affairs and Civil Society Ms. Dina Akkelidou NILI, Nasrullah Sadiqui Zada (Mr.) Member of the House of Representatives, Cyprus Member of the House of Representatives, Member of the Dr. Bahiya Al Jishi Committee on Finance and Budget Member of the Shura Council, Bahrain SADAT, Samia Azizi (Ms.) Ms. Massuma Al Mubarak Member of the House of Representatives, Member of the Member of the National Assembly, Kuwait Committee on Cultural Affairs Prof. Drude Dahlerup HACHEMI, Daoud (Mr.) Department of Political Science, Stockholm University, Sweden Permanent Mission Ms. Hillevi Engström Member of the Riksdag, Sweden Algeria BENBADIS, Fawzia (Ms.) Ms. Kay Hull Member of the National Council Member of the House of Representatives, Australia MOKRANI, Nacer (Mr.) Ms. Linah J. Kilimo Member of the National Council Assistant Minister for Cooperative Development and Marketing, Member of Parliament, Kenya EL-BEY, Hacène (Mr.) Ms. Alyson Kozma Permanent Mission Program Manager, National Democratic Institute for Inter- Andorra national Affairs (NDI) FONT, Albert (Mr.) Ms Margaret Mensah-Williams Member of Parliament, President of the Committee on Social Vice-Chairperson of the National Council, Coordinator of Affairs, Member of the Committee on Health and Environment all National Council Standing Committees MONSERRAT, Gil (Ms.) Ms. Colleen Lowe Morna Member of Parliament, Member of the Committee on Social Executive Director, Gender Links, South Africa Affairs, of the Committee on Health and Environment and Ms. Daniela Payssé of the Committee on Home Affairs Member of the House of Representatives, Uruguay Dr. Marcela Tovar Angola Director of the Latin American Studies Program at Queens DE DEUS FARIA DE MORAIS, Inocência (Ms.) College – City University of New York Member of Parliament Ms. Irène Yameogo DOMINGOS, Luis (Mr.) Member of the National Assembly, Burkina Faso Member of Parliament

86 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal Australia KHENG, Lork (Ms.) HULL, Kay (Ms.) Member of the National Assembly, Member of the Commit- tee on Health, Social Welfare, Veteran Rehabilitation, Voca- Member of the House of Representatives tional Training, Labour and Women’s Affairs Bahrain SREY VYNA, Ly (Ms.) AL JISHI, Bahiya (Dr.) Member of the National Assembly Member of the Shura Council, Chairperson of the Services KOL, Bopea (Ms.) Committee, Member of the Committee on Women and Children Adviser AL-GAOUD, Lateefa (Ms.) Member of the Council of Representatives, Member of the Cameroon Committee on Finance and Economics N’NOLO ONOBIONO, Marie-Suzanne (Ms.) Member of the National Assembly ABUL, Abdulmajeed (Mr.) Head of Representatives Affairs, Council of Representatives Canada AL-QAISHAWI, Tariq (Mr.) JAFFER, Mobina S.B. (Ms.) International Communication Specialist Senator Benin GOODY, Allison (Ms.) Analyst, Parliament Library KEKE AHOLOU, Hélène (Ms.) Member of the Chamber of Deputies, President of the Central African Republic Committee on Laws ZAMA, Sylvestre (Mr.) LODJOU, Jude (Mr.) Member of the National Assembly, Vice-President of the Member of the National Assembly Committee on Population, Gender and Development, Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law Brazil LASSE, Jérôme (Mr.) VERONESE RODRIGUEZ, María Helena (Ms.) Member of the National Assembly, Member of the Committee Member of the Chamber of Deputies, Member of the on Population, Gender and Development, Human Rights and Committee on Amazonia and of the Committee on Labour, International Humanitarian Law Administration and Public Service Chile Burkina Faso LEÓN, Roberto (Mr.) YAMEOGO, Irène (Ms.) Member of the Chamber of Deputies, Member of the Com- Member of the National Assembly mittee on Foreign Affairs, of the Committee on National DARANKOUM, Eric (Mr.) Defence and of the Committee on Natural Resources Member of the National Assembly PEILLARD, Jacqueline (Ms.) Burundi Director of International Affaires of the Chamber of Deputies CEGETERA, Audace (Mr.) Cyprus Senator AKKELIDOU, Dina (Ms.) BARUSAIYEKO, Pierre (Mr.) Member of the House of Representatives, Chairperson of the Ambassador Standing Committee on Equal Opportunities or Men and Women, Member of the Standing Committee on Health Cambodia Affairs and of the Standing Committee on Human Rights SICHAN, Pum (Ms.) Ecuador Senator, Vice-Chairwoman of the Committee on Health, Social Welfare, Veteran Rehabilitation, Vocational Training, CABEZAS RODRIGUEZ, Irina (Ms.) First Vice-President of the National Assembly Labour and Women’s Affairs SEAN, Min (Mr.) DELGADO ACURIO, Oscar Santiago (Mr.) Adviser Member of the National Assembly, Vice-Chairman of the Committee on Health, Social Welfare, Veteran Rehabilita- VIVAR, Maria del Carmen (Ms.) tion, Vocational Training, Labour and Women’s Affairs Permanent Mission

List of Participants 87 Gabon AFFEY, Mohammed (Mr.) Member of the National Assembly, Chairperson of the NGOUA MBINA, Beni (Mr.) Committee on Equal Opportunity Member of the National Assembly, Vice-President of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, Member of the Committee MUNGA, Consolata W. (Ms.) on Social Affairs and of the Committee on Laws Delegation Secretary BOUANDJA NDJANA, Anna (Ms.) MUCHIRY, Makena (Ms.) Member of the National Assembly, Rapporteur of the Commit- Permanent Mission tee on Social Affairs, Member of the Committee on Finances Kuwait and of the Committee on Laws AL-MUBARAK, Masouma (Ms.) India Member of the National Assembly, Chairperson of the Com- mittee on Women’s Affairs, Member of the Committee on BOTCHA, Jhansi Lakshmi (Dr.) Legislation and of the Committee on Environmental Affairs Member of the Lok Sabha, Member of the Committee on Railways AL-WADI, Aseel (Ms.) Member of the National Assembly, Member of the Committee NATARAJAN, Jayanthi (Ms.) on Education, of the Committee on Disabled’s Affairs and of Member of the Rajya Sabha, Member of the Committee on the Committee on Women’s Affairs Personnel, Public Grievances, Land and Justice, of the Com- AL-GHARABALLY, Nijoud (Ms.) mittee on Government Assurances and of the General Purposes Permanent Mission Committee PANDEY, N.K. (Mr.) Latvia Additional Director, Lok Sabha Secretariat STAKE, Dagnija (Ms.) RAJ, William (Mr.) Member of the Saeima, Member of the Committee on Social and Employment Affairs, of the Sub-Committee on Public Consul General Health and of the Sub-Committee on Social Security GOPONATHAM, A. (Mr.) Permanent Representative Luxembourg CHANDER, Rajr (Mr.) KARTHEISER, Fernand (Mr.) Member of the Chamber of Deputies, Member of the Com- Deputy Permanent Representative mittee on Family, Youth and Equal Opportunities, of the RAO, Sashi Bushena (Mr.) Committee on Foreign and European Affaires, Defense, Permanent Mission Cooperation and Immigration, of the Committee on Culture and of the Committee on Education, Vocational Training Indonesia and Sports RADHI, Chairun Nisa (Ms.) Malawi Member of the House of Representatives, Vice-Chairwoman of the Committee on Religion, Social Affairs and Women’s MPHANDE, Juliana (Ms.) Empowerment Second Deputy Speaker of Parliament, Member of the Women’s Caucus NAJA, Abdul Hakam (Mr.) ZULU, Rachel Mazombwe (Ms.) Member of the House of Representatives, Vice-Chairman of Member of Parliament, Member of the Committee on Media the Committee on Religion, Social Affairs and Women’s and Communications, of the Committee o Public Appoint- Empowerment ments and Declaration of Assets and of the Women’s Caucus RACHMAWATY, Diah (Ms.) BAMBI, Maleka (Ms.) Secretariat General of the House of Representatives Administrative Assistant SOMANTRI, Acep (Mr.) CHIGUMULA, Harvey (Mr.) Permanent Mission Committee Clerk Kenya Mauritius KILIMO, Linah J. (Ms.) JUGGOO, Bedwantee Kalyanee (Ms.) Member of the National Assembly, Assistant Minister for Member of the National Assembly and Parliamentary Private Cooperative Development and Marketing Secretary

88 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal MUNGUR, Vishwakarmah (Ms.) United Kingdom Permanent Mission NORTHOVER, Lindsay Patricia (Baroness) Namibia Member of the House of Lords MENSAH-WILLIAMS, Margaret (Ms.) HARRISON, Lord Lyndon Henry Arthur Member of the House of Lords Vice-Chairperson of the National Council, Coordinator of all National Council Standing Committees Uruguay SIBIYA, Rosalia (Ms.) PAYSSÉ, Daniela (Ms.) Member of the National Council, Member of the Committee Member of the House of Representatives on Constitutional and Legal Affairs, of the Committee on PIQUINELA, Oscar (Mr.) Habitat and of the Committee on Public Accounts and Head of the International Relations Department, Secretary Economy of the Inter-Parliamentary Group and of the GRULAC KAVARI, L. Karen (Ms.) GALVALISI, Carina (Ms.) Member of the National Assembly, Member of the Committee Assistant of the Secretariat of the Inter-Parliamentary Group on Economics and National Resources, of the Committee on Human Resources and Community Development and of the Zimbabwe Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs MATIENGA, Margaret (Ms.) IIPINGE, Eunice Maano (Ms.) Member of the House of Assembly, President of the Portfolio Member of the National Assembly Committee on Women, Youth, Gender and Community Devel- opment, Member of the Committee on natural Resources TJIRERA, Chippa I. (Mr.) and Environment Principal Parliamentary Clerk NYAMUPINGA, Biata Beatrice (Ms.) GANTANA, Audrey (Ms.) Member of the House of Assembly, Member of the Committee Parliamentary Staff on Women, Youth, Gender and Community Development, Panama of the Committee on Health and Child Welfare and Chair- person of the Women’s Caucus VALLARINO DE SELLHORN, Marylin (Ms.) Member of the National Assembly, Member of the Committee on Women’s Affairs, Children’s Rights, Youth and Family, of the Committee on Canal Affairs and of the Committee on Associate Member the Budget East African Legislative Assembly ZZIWA NANTONGO, Margaret (Ms.) Romania Member of the Legislative Assembly, Member of the Com- STAVROSIU, Maria (Ms.) mittee on Communications, Trade and Investment and of Member of the Chamber of Deputies, Secretary of the Com- the Committee on Accounts mittee on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men, Member of the Committee on Education, Science, Youth and Sports POP, Georghe (Mr.) Observers Senator, Secretary of the Committee on Equal Opportunities Madagascar Sweden RASOARIFENOMAZAVA (Ms.) Legal Secretary of the national Assembly, Administrative ENGSTRÖM, Hillevi (Ms.) Secretary General of the Women Parliamentarians Caucus Member of the Swedish Riksdag, Chair of the Committee on RAMANANKAVANA, Thierry Ulrich (Mr.) the Labour Market Head of Service, Assistant to the Administrative Secretary Togo General of the Women Parliamentarians Caucus DJOBO, Nassara (Ms.) United Nations Development Programme Member of the National Assembly (UNDP) AMEGANVI, Manavi Isabelle (Ms.) COWLEY, Susan (Ms.) Member of the National Assembly Senior Parliamentary Advisor to the Cambodian Parliament

List of Participants 89 United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) ARMITAGE, Alana (Ms.) Director, UNFPA Office in Geneva National Democratic Institute (NDI) KOZMA, Alyson (Ms.) Senior Programme Manager

Secretariat Inter-Parliamentary Union JABRE, Kareen (Ms.) Manager, Gender Partnership Programme BALLINGTON, Julie (Ms.) Programme Specialist, Gender Partnership Programme HILAL, Zeina (Ms.) Project Officer, Gender Partnership Programme FILION, Brigitte (Ms.) Programme Officer, Gender Partnership Programme SISTEK, Valeria (Ms.) Administrative Assistant, Gender Partnership Programme FILIPPIN, Marina (Ms.) IPU Secretariat MACKENZIE, Catherine (Ms.) IPU Secretariat KAMINKER, Melissa (Ms.) IPU Secretariat

90 Is Parliament Open to Women? An Appraisal