Islam in Pakistan: a History

contents Acknowledgments · ix A Note on Transliteration, Spelling, Abbreviations, and Other Conventions · xi Maps · xiii Introduction 1 chaPteR 1 Islamic Identities in Colonial India 14 chaPteR 2 Modernism and Its Ethical Commitments 54 chaPteR 3 The Ùlama and the State 95 chaPteR 4 Islamism and the Sovereignty of God 135 chaPteR 5 Religious Minorities and the Anxieties of an Islamic Identity 164 chaPteR 6 The Contested Terrain of Sufism 195 chaPteR 7 Religion, Violence, and the State 226 Epilogue 263 Notes · 279 Glossary · 359 Bibliography · 361 Index · 389 [ vii ] Introduction thIs book Is conceRneD with the history of, and the contestations on, Islam in colonial India and Pakistan. The first modern Muslim state to be established in the name of Islam, Pakistan was the largest Muslim country in the world at the time of its foundation; today, it is the second most populous, after Indonesia. All the key facets of modern Islam worldwide were well represented in colonial India and they have continued to be so in Pakistan: Su- fism; traditionalist scholars, the ùlama, and their institutions of learning, the madrasas; Islamism; and Islamic modernism. Several of them received their earliest and what proved to be highly influential articulations in this vast region. It was in colonial India, for instance, that some of the first modernist Muslim intellectuals had emerged, and their work soon came to resonate well beyond South Asia.1 Sayyid Abul-A`la Mawdudi (d. 1979), whose career strad- dled British India and the first three decades of Pakistan, was, for his part, one of the most influential slamistI ideologues of the twentieth century. South Asia did not pioneer madrasas, but few countries match the growth that this institution and those associated with it have witnessed over the course of Paki- stan’s history. It is in Pakistan, too, that the movement of the Taliban emerged in the years following the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. And in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Pakistan has been not only a major front in the global War on Terror but also the site of an Islamist radicalism that has had important implications for contemporary Islam, and not just in South Asia. As one might expect, there is a significant body of literature on different facets of Islam in colonial South Asia and in Pakistan. What is lacking is a work that brings them together within the confines of a single study.2 Such studies have seldom been attempted for other regions of the Muslim world either. This is hardly surprising, given that the examination of any particular facet, whether Islamism or the Islam of the ùlama, already poses enough challenges to allow a venture very far beyond it. Yet, the sum of more specialized [ 1 ] [ 2 ] IntRoDuctIon studies can fall considerably short of meeting the need for a broader view of the religious landscape. This book is an effort in that direction. How have various facets of Islam interacted with one another and with a state created in the name of Islam? How are the different Islamic orientations to be dis- tinguished from one another? What sort of constraints have the differences among them placed on the ability of their adherents to join hands at particular moments in history? How significantly and to what effect had the various religious orientations that occupied the South Asian Islamic landscape at the beginning of the twentieth century changed in relation to one another by the early twenty-first century? What is the context, both immediate and long term, in which Islamist militancy has emerged in Pakistan? What has ham- pered the ability of the governing elite to effectively combat it? And why has Islamic modernism undergone a decline in the course of Pakistan’s history, as I would argue it has? These are among the questions I address in this book. Though the scope of this study is necessarily broad, certain facets of Mus- lim religious life have had to remain largely unattended here. How Islamic beliefs and practices are reflected in and shaped by poetry and fictional literature, art, media, and film falls, with some exceptions, outside the scope of this book. So does the lived practice of Islam. It would take extensive ethnographic work, not attempted for this study, to shed light, for instance, on the nature and meaning of devotional practices at Sufi shrines or how such shrines par- ticipate in the political economy of the region in which they are located. The question of how madrasas are viewed in or sustained by the local communities among which they operate likewise requires the kind of work that lies beyond the ambition and scope of this study. By the same token, questions relating to the religious beliefs of ordinary women and men and the changes their understandings of the faith have undergone would have to depend not only on microlevel studies but also on large-scale surveys, neither of which exist in abundance for Pakistan. This is not intellectual history in the narrow sense of being concerned only with a history of ideas; it is keenly interested in the political and other contexts in which particular ideas developed and why certain understandings of Islam found themselves disadvantaged vis-à- vis others. Nor does it posit any sharp distinction between belief and practice, between normative and lived Islam.3 Yet, it does rely more often than not on written expressions of Islam, of debate and contestation on it, of the development and change it has continued to undergo. It is therefore more attentive to the discourses and the initiatives of those aspiring to shape people’s religious and political life than it is to those whose lives were presumably being informed or shaped by such discourses. Once again, however, the barriers between these two sides look firmer in outward appearance than they may be in reality. Official archives, too, can shed much light on life, thought, and agency at the grassroots, after all. For instance, the extensive records of the Court of Inquiry that the govern- IntRoDuctIon [ 3 ] ment of the Punjab had established in the aftermath of a religio- political agitation directed against the Ahmadis, a heterodox community, in 1953 is an un- usually rich resource for an understanding not only of the views of the modernist elite governing the new state but also of the perspectives of the religio- political groups that had been involved in the agitation. We also get occasional glimpses in these records of small-time mosque- preachers, local leaders, and ordinary people caught up in it. An archive such as this, despite its focus on one particular set of events, has much to say about varied facets of Islam in Pakistan and that is how I have utilized it here.4 When it comes to state legislation, to take another example, we may not always know very well how particular initiatives relating to Islam actually shaped people’s lives. But even here, what we can try to understand is not only what vision animated those legislative initiatives but also what responses they evoked from members of particular religious groups and how the initiatives and the responses in question have shaped a contested religious sphere in colonial India and in Pakistan. If not all facets of Islam can be accommodated into this study, not all even among those represented here can obviously occupy center stage. That be- longs to Islamic modernism, which I understand as a complex of religious, intellectual, and political initiatives aimed at adapting Islam—its beliefs, practices, laws, and institutions—to the challenges of life in the modern world. Such challenges were felt most forcefully under European colonial rule. Late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century modernists—and not just the Mus- lims among them, though it is on them that I focus here—had internalized to various degrees colonial assessments of the societies under European gov- ernance. These were seen, in contrast with the European world, as tradition- bound, stagnant, priest- ridden, and superstitious; their laws as antiquated, capricious, and barbaric; their precolonial rulers as corrupt and despotic; their intellectual cultures as decadent, and their systems of education as de- void of useful knowledge.5 Defeat at the hands of the European powers had exposed the hollowness of traditional norms, practices, and structures, show- ing them all to be unsustainable. While colonial officials saw such contrasts as a justification for their rule, the early modernists viewed them as necessitat- ing a thoroughgoing reform of Muslim thought and practice. Modernist reformers tended also to differ from colonial, and Orientalist, analyses of Muslim societies in their conviction that Islam could, in fact, be adapted to the needs of the modern world without ceasing to be Islam. Writ- ing in the early twentieth century, Lord Cromer, the consul- general of Egypt (1883– 1907), had cautioned: “let no practical politician think that they have a plan capable of resuscitating a body which is not, indeed, dead, and which may yet linger on for centuries, but which is nevertheless politically and so- cially moribund, and whose gradual decay cannot be arrested by any modern palliatives however skillfully they may be applied.”6 The modernist enterprise was, however, predicated precisely on the conviction that the decline of Muslim [ 4 ] IntRoDuctIon societies could indeed be remedied and that it did not require relinquishing Islam itself. What it did require was that Islam be restored to its original pu- rity, and its core values combined with what European science and other forms of modern knowledge had to offer.

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