Of BPO Organization. the New Mantra for Job Opportunities Among Young Population Is “Call Center”

Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 1-9 of BPO organization. The new mantra for job opportunities among young population is “call center”. A call center is nothing but a voice-based customer service. Call center is defined as any communications platform from which firms deliver services to customers via remote real-time contact. From the recent past, call centers have started performing a number of activities including e-mail response and customer interaction services. A call center provides all these services to the local as well as the international customers through a wide telecom, web and database network (Ghazi, 2006). Human resources play a vital role in the successful functioning of these organizations. Their prime duty is to provide the customers with the needed information. So organizations recruit them with great care and spend a lot in training them also. But the news in the magazines and newspapers depict that the call center employees are facing a lot of problems like excessive workload, unreachable targets, and pressurizing and abusive customers. Above all, continuous night shifts create biological imbalance in them and finally makes them stressful. So stress is an important problem encountered by the call center employees. In a study on work related problems across 26 occupations, six occupations were identified as having worse than average scores on three factors namely physical and psychological well being and job satisfaction. The occupations include ambulance workers, teachers, social services, customer services- call centers, prison officers and police. The respondents of these occupations were having low levels of job satisfaction and most stressed regarding physical and psychological well being (Sheena, 2005). These results are confirmed by another study which says that, even the BPO cabbies are under stress. It also states that, after senior level employees and agents, it is the turn of BPO cabbies to take the stress-busting sessions (Harsimran, 2007). The statement clearly shows that the employees of BPO sector are experiencing stress. The problem is very crucial and needs attention because most of the employees in the sector are youngsters. In other words, it is entirely run by youngsters. Ultimately it creates physical, psychological and behavioural deviations among them. It not only affects the individuals and the industry but the country on the whole. The tamil daily Dinamalar (2004) states that Burn Out Stress Syndrome (BOSS) affects young people in the computer field. It occurs due to increased depression which affects the well being of the individual. BOSS generally affects those working in call centers, BPO offices and those working on continuous night shifts. As these employees have to sit continuously for eight hours, they get back pain which is the primary symptom of BOSS. The other symptoms of BOSS are tiredness due to loss of sleep and results in mental depression followed by problems in respiratory system, digestive system and ultimately affects the biological clock. So it becomes necessary to act according to the biological clock to

G. Latha and N. Panchanatham 2 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 1-9 the 365 days. They generally engage the employees in shifts. The time duration of each shift is eight hours. The company usually arranges transport facilities for the employees to reach the office and back home. The organizations take great care in recruiting the right persons for the job. They also pay special attention in training the employees for the job especially in English accent, which may be American or Australian, accent. He also confirmed that the change of the name of employees as prevailing in the industry. Thus the call center employees have dual names, one original and the other, the organizational name. The employees are continuously monitored on the job. They are also monitored for the number of calls and the time duration of each call. The feedback is collected from every customer in specific format. The employees are given short breaks in between.

Prospects in Call Centers The project leader is proud to express that call centers provide plenty of employment opportunities especially for the youth. The minimum educational qualification required is UG degree. Above all, the prime need is fluency in English and the ability to communicate. The starting salary for a fresher in the industry is higher compared to other sectors. Many organizations lay importance for the induction programs and treat employees ahead of the customers. The working environment in international call centers is better than the domestic ones. Most of the companies arrange transportation facilities for their employees. They are also provided separate but small cubicles. The companies also provide good canteen facilities. In spite of all these prospects, the problems are comparatively more.

Pressurizing Problems The project leader opined that call centers have many unique characteristics. Majority of the employees are young and relatively inexperienced. They are provided with lots of money and freedom. The industry is entirely managed by young workers. Most of them work continuously on night shifts. They work during the night and sleep during the day. This shift from the normal routine affects the biological balance. So the employees are prone to sicness, irritable and depressed moods. This behaviour is aggravated further by the nature of the job. The jobs are monotonous, repetitive and heavily target oriented in nature. They have to deal with a lot of abusive and indifferent customers. The feedback collected from the customers has a great impact on the progress and prospect of the employees. Another pressurizing problem is that appreciating or satisfactory feedbacks are rarely exhibited. On the other hand, feedbacks carrying critical comments are displayed on the notice boards. Also, there is a less scope for moving up in the value chain. The Chairman and Managing Director of a BPO, Raman Roy opined that alcohol

G. Latha and N. Panchanatham 4 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 1-9

Results and Discussion The following Table 5 indicates the percentage of professionals having low, medium and high job stress. The results on overall response indicate that only 8 percent of the respondents have low level of stress. 80 percent of the call center employees have medium stress level and 12 percent have high stress level. Besides work and organizational factors, many societal factors also make call center jobs even more stressful. So, high occupational stress is not myth but a stark reality of the call centers (Ghazi, 2006).

Table 5: Stress Level of Respondents

Stress Level Frequency High 12 Low 8 Medium 80 Total 100

The Table 6 shows the score of the respondents about job feedback, working condition, job Clarity, job security, workplace politics, job satisfaction, workload, promotion, interpersonal relations and changes in the workplace. Among these stressors, job feed back, workload and promotion opportunities create high level of stress for majority of the call center employees. Other factors like working conditions, job security, workplace politics, job satisfaction and changes taking place in the workplace are a source of medium stress for the respondents. As far as the interpersonal relations are concerned, 37 percent of respondents experience medium stress, 27 percent experience high stress and 36 percent experience low stress.

Table 6: Job Stressors of Respondents

Stressors Frequencies Criteria Low Medium High Total Job Feedback 15 20 65 100 Working Conditions 36 53 11 100 Job Clarity 74 23 3 100 Job Security 16 50 34 100 Job Satisfaction 39 50 11 100 Politics at Workplace 16 50 34 100 Work Load 5 13 82 100 Promotion 5 32 63 100 Inter Personal Relations 36 37 27 100 Changes in Workplace 23 55 22 100

G. Latha and N. Panchanatham 6 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 1-9 that there is little career progression in call centers. Another important fact is that every one who joins the call center does not end up becoming a team leader or moving into the top management roles (Pallavi, 2007). Majority of the respondents are experiencing stress due to interpersonal relations at work place. Most of the employees ride to and from work together. They work just few feet away from each other and sometimes share apartments, if they are away from family. This sometimes leads to problems in the work place (Pallavi, 2007). Apart from this, the employees are monitored continuously. They also experience a very close supervision. Poor work environment is a major issue in the call center (Indradevi and Kamala, 2006).

Conclusion The call center provides lot of job opportunities. But the employees are not clear about their personal growth and development. The organizations should identify the sources of stress for their employees. Job feedback, workload and promotion opportunities are the major stressors for the call center executives. Working conditions, job security, workplace politics, job satisfaction, changes taking place in the work place and interpersonal relations create medium stress among them.

In giving job feedback, good performance and achievements are to be apreciated. They must be brought to the notice of others. Feedbacks of poor performance and inadequacies are to be dealt personally and the executives must be helped to overcome them. President of India technology operations states that (Mr. Shekar Nair, Personal communication) during performance reviews, achievements are rewarded and inadequacies are evaluated so that the employees are asisted to overcome them (Vinutha, 2005).

The stress due to workload and poor working conditions can be reduced by improving the working conditions. Providing good canteen facility or cafeteria where employees can go for a break and refresh and giving them enough leisure time and holidays can really help. Taking the employees for a holiday outing can improve the interpersonal relations and reduce their stress level.

The responsibility of the call centers is to provide a clear career path to its employees so that the stress due to job security and promotion opportunity can be eliminated. Open door policy and speedy solution to employee issues can improve job satisfaction and reduce workplace politics.

The organizations should also show care and concern for the employee. The employees should be properly trained on stress management and

G. Latha and N. Panchanatham 8 1 0 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43

Introduction Sri Lanka is an Indian Oceanic island (65610 km2) with distinct geographical zones, climatic regions and monsoon patterns (Aston and Gunathilleke, 1987). Attributed to the geo-climatic and hydrological diversification within a relatively small land area, the island is having a wide range of on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems harboring an exceptionally rich biodiversity and high endemism (Gunathilleke and Gunathilleke, 1990; Myers et al., 2000). The country has a variety of lentic and lotic freshwater habitats distributed throughout the island. The lotic habitats comprise a large number of rivers and streams arise from tropical rainforests of the wet zone, particularly from the central hills (i. e. Peak Wilderness) and other montane regions (eg: Knuckles Range) owing to the frequent and high rainfalls and watershed characteristics. The majority of the streams and rivers in the island are perennial, especially those that flow entirely through the wet zone. The flowing-water habitats in the hill-country of Sri Lanka are relatively fast flowing and are aptly named torrential streams (Fernando, 1990). The lentic habitats of the island include man-made lakes, reservoirs as well as natural stagnant water bodies such as forest pools, Inland freshwater marshes, villu grasslands, floodplains and paddy-fields (Arumugam and Ratnatunga, 1974; Thayaparan, 1982). Additionally, coastal and brackish water habitats such as estuaries, lagoons and coastal marshlands are occasionally associated or inhabited by some freshwater ichthyofauna (De Silva and Silva, 1979; Moyle and Cech, 1988).

Each and every kind of freshwater habitats are inhabited by a wide spectrum of freshwater fauna. The total richness of freshwater fish in Sri Lanka consists of 82 indigenous species with 44 are endemic and twenty five introduced species. All these species fell within eight orders and 17 families with Cyprinids accounting for the highest diversity harboring 41 species (Pethiyagoda, 2006). Most of the native fishes are concentrated in the wet zone, which includes the southwestern lowlands and the central highlands. Forested areas of southwestern foothills and the Knuckles Range are exceptionally high in endemism and diversity of freshwater fish (Amarasinghe et al., 2006). The freshwater ecosystems of the wet zone such as streams of tropical rainforests enjoy most favorable limits that promote the optimal physiological, biochemical and behavioral functions of freshwater fish (Senanayake and Moyle, 1984). The Molecular taxonomic research has further strengthened the degree of endemism in Sri Lanka for instance, revealing that some Sri Lankan Puntius species forms a distinct clade with limited biotic exchange with the Indian Puntius species (Bossuyt et al., 2004).

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 1 2 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43

Figure 1: A Geographical map of the Rawan Oya region Source: Mahaweli Authority (2006)

Objectives With the recognition of the importance of ecological studies on the island’s freshwater fish we proposed to investigate the freshwater fish diversity and ecology in the main stream of Rawan Oya, a hitherto unstudied left bank tributary of River Mahaweli, the longest river in Sri Lanka. The specific objectives of this research were: i. To study the freshwater fish species richness and relative abundance in Rawan Oya ii. To study the habitat preferences of fish species in Rawan Oya iii. To study microhabitat selectivity of fish species in Rawan Oya

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 1 4 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43 biota were also were also recorded from observations. The data on species richness and relative abundance of fish were pooled and the relative abundance of fish species was determined by using Shannon Diversity Index (H’) and Species richness was determined by using Margalef’s Diversity Index (D) (Magurran, 1988).

Important physical and chemical parameters such as the stream velocity, water depth, water temperature, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand for a five-day period (BOD5) and hardness of the stream water at each pre-selected sampling sites were determined monthly using standard techniques (APHA 1989). These parameters were considered as the microhabitat parameters that signifies the basic ecological conditions in the stream habitats. Hardiness and BOD were determined in the laboratory from the water samples brought from the field. Other parameters were measured in the field. Following is the techniques used in determining the microhabitat features (Table 1).

Table 1: Techniques and instruments used in measuring different microhabitat features in Rawan Oya stream ecosystem

Measurement on Technique/instrument used microhabitat features Stream velocity Hand held digital flowmeter with flow probe (model: Swoffer 2100) Water depth Water level meter (model: Watermark 6594) Temperature Digital thermometer (model: TR Turoni 53201) pH pH meter (model: Jenway M3310) Conductivity Conductivity meter (model: Jenway 470) Dissolved Oxygen DO digital meter (model: Jenco 9251N)

BOD5 Wrinkler’s titrimetric method Hardness Titration with 0.001M EDTA using Eriochrome black T as the indicator

Results on microhabitat characteristics were subjected to the one-way ANOVA (using MINITAB statistical software release 14.0) to examine the significance of site specific variations of microhabitat parameters in pools, runs and riffles. To determine the most preferred microhabitat parameters (ecological conditions) of freshwater fishes in Rawan Oya, a Pearson Correlation was carried out using MINITAB statistical software release 14.0.

The threats encountered by the freshwater biota, particularly the freshwater fish and the ecosystem in general were assessed by two strategies. 1. Questionnaire survey, involving a random sample of 75 people from adjacent

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 1 6 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43

7% 7% 7% 13% Bagridae Balitoridae 13% Cichlidae 7% Cyprinidae Gobiidae Poecilidae Loricariidae 46%

Figure 2: Family-wise representation of species richness of fish in Rawan Oya

The Table 3 summarizes the diversity and abundance of freshwater fish in different habitat types of Rawan Oya. Figure 3 depicts the relative abundance of freshwater fish species in the different habitat types of Rawan Oya. These data revealed that the runs are the lotic habitat that celebrates the highest species richness (12). Riffles are the poorest in species composition (02) whereas the pools housed an intermediate number of species (09).

Table 3: Average values for relative abundance of each fish species in pools, riffles and runs of Rawan Oya

Fish Species Pools Riffles Runs Total Hypostomus sp 5 0 0 5 Devario malabaricus 0 0 20 20 Garra ceylonensis 19 30 18 67 Glossogobius giuris 0 0 1 1 Lepidocephalichthys thermalis 0 0 2 2 Mystus vittatus 0 0 1 1 Oreochromis mossambicus 4 0 15 19 Puntius filamentosus 10 0 5 15 Puntius dorsalis 5 0 6 11 Puntius bimaculatus 2 0 0 2 Poecilia reticulata 10 0 21 31 Rasbora danicoinius 0 0 2 2 Schistura notostigma 4 10 4 18 Tor khudree 1 0 0 1 Xiphophorus maculates 0 0 2 2 Total Abundance in each habitat type 61 40 97

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 1 8 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43 richness and relative abundance is highest in the runs. The Margalef’s Index (Table 5) also shows the same trend. Both diversity indexes showed that riffles are the poorest lotic habitat in diversity.

Table 4: Shannon-Weiner Diversity Indices in pools, runs and riffles of Rawan Oya

Habitat type Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index Pool 1.98 Run 2.17 Riffle 0.57

th H´= - S pi ln pi, H´ = Shannon Weiner Diversity Index, Pi = Proportion of i species in the sample Table 5: Margalef’s Diversity Indices in pools, runs and riffles of Rawan Oya Habitat types Margalef’s Index Pool 2.339 Run 4.288 Riffle 0.389

-1 D = (s )/logeN, D = Margalef’s Index, S = Number of species found in each habitat, N = Total number

Looking into the Table 3, it can be concluded that Puntius bimaculatus, Hypostomus sp and Tor khudree are only restricted to pool habitats of the stream. Further, Devario malabaricus, Glossogobius giuris, Lepidocephalichthys thermalis, Mystus vittatus, Rasbora daniconius and Xiphophorus maculatus are confined to runs of the stream. No species seem to be confined to riffles. Garra ceylonensis and Schistura notostigma occupy all three kinds of habitat types. The rest of fish species are occupying both the runs as well as the pools of the stream. The relative abundance of Garra ceylonensis and Schistura notostigma, is significantly higher in riffles than compared with other two habitats (Mann-Whitney Test; w=21.0, p<0.05; for each species). Among the fish that only were recorded form the pools and runs, the abundance of Puntius filamentosus is significantly higher in pools than that of runs (Mann-Whitney Test; w=57.0, p<0.05). A reversed conditions is seen in the abundances of Poecilia reticulata and Oreochromis mossambicus where the abundance of runs were significantly higher than that of pools (Mann-Whitney Test; w=21.0, p<0.05; w=28.0, p p<0.05 respectively). The abundance of Puntius dorsalis in pools and runs does not significantly differ (Mann-Whitney Test; w=30.0, p>0.05). Another interesting finding in this research is the occurrence of Oreochromis mossambicus in high frequencies. Both adults as well as the juveniles were seen in this survey. Further, the nest building behavior and some spawned

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 2 0 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43 ceylonensis and Schistura notostigma are cold water fish that selects stream microhabitats with relatively low temperature. Further, Devario malabaricus, Glossogobius giuris, Lepidocephalichthys thermalis, Mystus vittatus, Puntius dorsalis, Poecilia reticulata, Rasbora daniconiu and Xiphophorus maculatus prefer slightly acidic water and negatively correlate with increasing pH. Hypostomus sp, Oreochromis mossambicus, Puntius filamentosus, Puntius dorsalis, Puntius bimaculatus, Poecilia reticulata and Tor khudree prefer nutrient rich water where these species demonstrate a positive affinity for conductivity. Further, Devario malabaricus, Glossogobius giuris, Lepidocephalichthys thermalis, Mystus vittatus, Oreochromis mossambicus, Puntius filamentosus, Puntius dorsalis, Puntius bimaculatus, Rasbora daniconius, Schistura notostigma and Tor khudree showed significantly high degree of tolerance to low dissolved oxygen concentration and are used to associate habitats with a high oxygen demand. Only Garra ceylonensis and Schistura notostigma seemed to show a capability to live under high water flow rates where Hypostomus sp, Puntius filamentosus, Puntius dorsalis, Puntius bimaculatus and Tor khudree appeared to prefer relatively still or slow flowing water. The different microhabitat types selected by the 15 fish species recorded at Rawan Oya is listed in Table 7 and Preferred microhabitat types of the freshwater fish species in Rawan Oya (Table 8). Table 7: Pearson correlation coefficient values shown by each freshwater fish species against each microhabitat parameter measured in the three stream habitat types

Pearson correlation coefficient value

Freshwater fish pH BOD Depth Oxygen Oxygen

Species Velocity Dissolved Hardness Hardness Conductivity Temperature Temperature

Hypostomus sp .693* .419 .634* -.185 .034 -.938* .821* .971* Devario malabaricus .277 -.996* .353 -.844* .849* .169 -.905* -.277 Garra ceylonensis -950* .636* -.972* .899* -.915* .719* .158 -.637* Glossogobius giuris .277 -.996* .353 -.744* .849* .169 -.905* -.277 Lepidocephalichthys .277 -.996* .353 -.744* .849* .169 -.905* -.277 thermalis Mystus vittatus .277 -.996* .353 -.744* .849* .169 -.905* -.277 Oreochromis .515* .986* .582* -.894* .956* -.091 -.765* -.021 mossambicus Puntius filamentosus .961* -.091 .936* -.990* .829* -.986* .426 .961* Puntius dorsalis .922* -.697* .949* -.860* .945* -.661* -.238 .573* Puntius bimaculatus .693* .419 .634* -.785* .634* -.938* -.821* .971* Poecilia reticulata .701* -.919* .756* -.298 .198 -.321 -.593* .213 Rasbora daniconius .277 -.996* .353 -.744* .849* .169 -.905* -.277 Schistura notostigma -.971* .577* -.987* .929* -.882* .759* .084 -.639* Tor khudree .693* .419 .634* .785* .834* -.938* .821* .971* Xiphophorus .277 -.996* .353 -.144 .049 .169 -.905* -.277 maculatus

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 2 2 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43

Several key threat categories were recognized during this research with respect to the stream ecosystem and associated terrestrial habitats of Rawan Oya. They were, i. deforestation of the riverine forest and the upper catchment areas; ii. Excessive application of pesticides and other agrochemicals for the cultivated lands around the stream; iii. Pollution caused by anthropogenic activities; iv. Introduction of exotic fish species to the stream; Extraction of fish for the stream for ornamental and food purposes. Following is a detailed account on the threats prevalent in the concerned ecosystem.

Deforestation of the riverine forest and the upper catchment areas Deforestation mainly happens through forest clearing for agricultural purposes in river bunds in the lower part of the stream. The estate based agricultural practices such as small and medium scale tea plantations are recognized as a major factor causing deforestation. Deforestation of the gallery forest and destruction of other forms of riverine vegetation will essentially jeopardize the microhabitat conditions required by the shade loving fish species (Kouadio et al., 2006). For most of the indigenous fish, stable, cool water temperature is required for their metabolism and other biological activities. Logging operation in gallery forests removes the canopy over the stream and destroy the vital microhabitat conditions in the stream (Helfman, 1981). Further, clearing riverine vegetation will aggravate soil erosion and increase the sedimentation rate in the stream bed, which will on one hand destroy the breeding grounds and foraging niches of benthic fish communities (Hewawasam et al., 2003). Besides, silt and runoff soil particles are known to clog gills of fish and other aquatic fauna and can also reduce the primary production of phytoplankton, algae, mosses and the macrophytes of the stream. Further, if increased sedimentation will reduce the height of water column, especially downstream. Moreover, clearing riparian vegetation at the onset of rain by the tea plantation practice reduces the spawning grounds and nursery grounds of fish (Pethiyagoda, 1994). Apart form that, in and around the functional and abandoned tea plantations, the tributaries of the Rawan Oya have completely dried out. Consider the Polgolla reservoir, which is fed by Rawan Oya, the water capacity is reduced by 40 percent due to siltation (GEF-SGP, 2003). The erosion of riverbanks is common due to deforestation and agricultural practices near the riverbanks of the Rwan Oya (GEF-SGP, 2003). Although, a Pinus plantation has been afforested by the conservation authorizes covering abandoned tea estates and completely logged areas, the ecological impacts might be further endangering the stream and associated terrestrial ecosystem, such as overextraction of groundwater and subsurface soil water. Besides, the Pinus plantation is not supporting the regeneration of

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 2 4 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43 directly discharge their effluents into the stream. Suspended particles such as saw dust will reduce the light penetration of the stream which intern effect the primary productivity. Presence of chemical wastes will create many short-term as well as long-term adverse impacts on freshwater fauna. The residents were also noted for discarding garbage and kitchen waste, including polythene materials to the stream. Accumulation of higher quantities of solid waste in the stream will even alter the hydrological characters. Pollution by waste disposal damages not only the ecological processes but also the scenic beauty and the aesthetic value of the stream. Introduction of exotic fish species and invasion by the alien aquatic plants Oreochromis mossambicus is the most abundant freshwater exotic fish species encountered in this research. O. mossambicus was released into the Polgolla reservoir and VRR reservoir complex by the government of Sri Lanka during the Mahaweli Development Project as a food fish and also to encourage commercial capture fishery (De Silva, 1988). Today, this species has moved and colonized far from the point of introduction and has successfully established in the stream habitats with continuous perennial breeding. Although Oreochromis mossambicus was only introduced to several reservoirs and lakes to encourage inland fishery and to promote aquaculture as a food fish, this exotic species today have invaded many other lacustrine habitats (Pethiyadoga, 2006). Our observation provide more evidences for this In addition to being an invader of lentic habitats, Oreochromis mossambicus with its observations at a lotic system like Rawan Oya, even including the flowing water regimes. On several previous occasions, this species have been noted in other lotic habitats of the wild, including the streams of protected areas in upcountry (Marambe et al., 2001). As a ravenous plankton feeder and a proliferate breeder who is resilient to a broad ecological conditions, O. mossambocus can pose a serious threat with competition for space and food with native freshwater fauna. Oreochromis mossambicus is considered responsible for extinction of Labeo lankae, the endemic carp, who showed an overlapped distribution with that of Oreochromis mossambicus (Pethiyagoda, 2006). Our inquiries from the local residents and observations revealed that these Hypostomus species are not only accidentally but also purposefully released to the stream by the local inhabitants. It was observed that some local residents release adult fish into the stream when they grow up and achieve a larger body size (it is practically impossible to rear a well grown adult Hypostomus in a tank). Then, in the stream, the fish breed and then the local inhabitants collects back the juveniles from the stream for ornamental purposes. In this way, the stream is used as a rearing and breeding site for

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 2 6 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43 kudree are usually harvested in the middle and lower part. The questionnaire survey revealed that in the past the laborers employed in the tea plantation used to catch G. ceylonensis for food. The local inhabitants showed a significant degree of interest regarding rearing of the ornamental fish form the stream. For instance, P. dorsalis is the most popular ornamental species among the villagers, because of its’ attractive color patterns which remain unchanged even under captive conditions and the ability to adapt into the small niche spaces such as small-sized glass tanks. The villagers do not collect or breed fish in commercial scale for ornamental or aquarium rearing purposes, but Rasbora daniconius, Puntius bimaculatus, Mystus vittatus, Schistura notostigma, Xiphophorous maculatus, Danio malabaricus and Lepidocephalichthys thermalis are some of the indigenous fishes that were recognized as being used for tank/aquarium rearing purposes in the households in the vicinity of Rawan Oya. However, the local inhabitants do not practice commercial capture fishery form Rawan Oya

Discussion The species richness of freshwater fishes of Rawan Oya significantly high where the study site harbors about 18 percent of the islands native freshwater species. The study site falls within the Mahaweli river Basin within which 43 freshwater fish species have been recorded (Pethiyagoda, 1991; Wikramanayaka, 1990a). Interestingly, seven species were recorded considering the elevation regime of our survey (500-1100m) within the entire Mahaweli River Basin. However, later, several Puntius species were introduced to the Mahaweli Basin form Kelani River Basin in the recent past. Nevertheless, the endemicity of freshwater fishes recorded in our research is significantly low. In contrast, ten endemic species occupy the Mahaweli ichthyofaunal province (Pethiyagoda, 1991; Wikramanayaka, 1990b). Family Cyprinidae is the most species-rich family of freshwater fishes in Rawan Oya. Usually they are the commonest family in stream ecosystems in the wet zone habitats. According to IUCN (2007), there are 17 species belonging to family Cyprinidae (Kullander, 2001; De Silva, 1991). Here only 7 species were found, because Rawan Oya mediates through the mid country and up country wet zone, where the cyprinids are not much prominent. However, most of Cyprinidaes are recorded in typical lowland wet zone habitats, including foothills and the lowland fluviatile, swamps and other lentic habitats (Murray and Little, 2000). High cyprinid diversity has also been recorded form the Keleni river basin and Mahaweli river basin. Further, the number of endemic species recorded at the Ginigathena, an areas falling within the upper part of the Mahaweli basin is higher than that of Rawan Oya (Wickramanayake and Moyle, 1989; Sundarabarathy et al., 2004).

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 2 8 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43 proliferation of phytoplankton and thence for an increased secondary production of Zooplankton. On the other hand, riffles showed the lowest diversity, which can be attributed to the torrent nature of water flow and the low availability of dissolved nutrient and potentially scarce food supply. Besides, the low height of the water column reduces the spatial scale for a higher diverse biomass. However, pools have much more organic matter accumulation in the bottom than the other two habitats. For a stream ecosystem, the principle energy source comes form the deteriorating organic matter and sustains through allochthonous food chains provides suitable conditions for growth of phytoplankton (Dumont et al., 1994). Consequently the pool habitats potentially account for a higher food availability compared to the other two habitats. The freshwater fish species found in this research show a significant degree of habitat preference and habitat selectivity based on their ecological adaptability, microhabitat conditions and resource availability in each major habitat type. Generally, the habitat utility of freshwater fish can be explained through the species physiological tolerance, metabolism, food niche and reproductive niche (Dumont et al., 1994). In this study, certain species showed broad ranging among all three major habitat types with higher preference for a particular type, whereas few species seemed to have restrictions in their habitat selection. Garra Ceylonensis and Schistura notostigma were recorded in significantly higher numbers in riffles of the stream compared to other two habitat types. These two are usually found in shallow, fast flowing water, especially of streams of the central hills at higher elevations (Sundarabarathy et al., 2005; Costa and Fernando, 1967). In our survey, this species was recorded from riffles of upper parts of the stream in high frequencies confirming the above fact. In fact, only G. ceylonensis and S. notostigma occur in the uppermost areas, especially over 1000m elevation, where the temperature range is between 18.5 and 19.0 0C and relatively high dissolved oxygen availability, where the optimal temperature prevails for these species. These two species are well adapted to live in rapidly flowing water with their subterminal suctorial mouth using which the fish attach to the rocks and feed on the algae grown on it (De Silva, 1991; Sundarabarathy et al., 2005). The absence of a preferred substrate may be the reason for these species being low in abundance in pools, which consists of sands and mud at the bottom. Most previous literature regards these species as a prominent fish in the higher hill streams (Silva and Davies, 1986). In contrast to our sampling records and Sundarabarathy et al., (2004) found that G. ceylonensis was the only fish species that dwells on the bedrocks which was the common substratum of the upper region of the Rawan Oya. Our observations disclosed that not only G. ceylonensis and S. notostigma are sympatric but also breed well in

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 3 0 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43 that is know in be highly resilient and adaptability to a wide physico-chemical environment (Reznick, 1990). This alien fish occurs in warm tropical springs and creeks, open canals and ditches with typically slow-moving water, silt bottoms and weedy banks and swamps. As a benthopelagic fish it feeds on worms, crustaceans, insects and plant matter (Milton and Arthington, 1983).

Lepidocephalichthys thermalis and Rasbora danicionius are common fishes occupying quite running water habitats particularly with a sandy bottom below 600m elevation. The low frequency of this species in our research may be the species restriction to lowland habitats (Sundarabarathy et al., 2001; Wikramanayake, 1990b).

The runs in between the upper and middle part of the stream, which consists of big boulders and pebbles, sheltered with the canopy are good spawning sites for Devario malabaricus, which explains the high frequency of this species in the runs. D. malabaricus is a very common fish that prefer boulder strewn mountain torrents rather than lakes and reservoirs although they are generally found in any freshwater habitat in all bioclimatic zones of the country. Nonetheless, in our survey, this species as only recorded form the runs, although they are expected to occur in riffles. The absence of D. malabaricus can be attributed to the big boulders that act as barriers and prevent colonization of upper stream from the populations occupying low- elevation regions of the stream (Pethiyagoda, 1991).

Puntius filamentosus adult individuals were mostly found in pools and runs, which are over 2.5m deep and possess a significant coverage of aquatic macrophytes. The reason for this type of a habitat selection may be their preference for such habitats for spawning (Axelrod, 1980). The spawning habitats of this species are mostly pools that are rich in organic matter, and muddy substrate, a wider littoral zone with semiaquatic macrophytes with significant shad from the riverine canopy, which consists of big trees such as Terminalia arjuna. These trees provide enough shade and keep water temperature at constant level (Schut et al., 1984). Puntius dorsalis is a common fish in flowing water and in our research were noted form pools and runs, especially in those with a pebble substrate. This observation can be undoubtedly attributed to the feeding habit of P. dorsalis as a pebble substrate browser who mainly feed on detritus and benthic diatoms and zoobenthos. Besides, a littoral zone with high density of semi aquatic grasses is required for spawning by this species (Talwar and Jhingran 1991).

P. bimaculatus is an abundant fish even in the hill-streams (Arunachalam et al., 2000). On the contrarily, in our study, we found this species in very low frequencies in pools where there are ample detritus and algal forms are

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 3 2 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43 framework on conservation oriented matters should be maintained in a satisfactory level.

Similar conservation measures must be enforced on the riparian vegetation. Riparian vegetation of Rawan Oya is not receiving any conservation status by the government authorities. Hence, it is recommended that a reservation with natural vegetation of suitable extent is allocated for the gallery forest by the forest department for the purpose of prevention of deforestation in the river banks and the immediate terrestrial ecosystem. This reservation should be continuous, throughout the flow of stream, including the urban areas, where the pressure is most intense on the river banks.

Reforestation of deforested and degraded areas of the catchment and the river bank, including the immediate terrestrial habitats of the stream.

A significant, but uncaliberated extent of lands is already deforested and today, is left unused for any propose. Due to the logging practices and forest clearance for tea plantations and other forms of agriculture, some of such lands and river banks are severely degraded. Such barren lands and river banks should be reforested with suitable native fast growing vegetation, which is well adapted to grow in poor soil conditions. A couple of decade ago, the forest department has introduced the Pinus species as a measure to prevent soil erosion in exposed lands (Aston et al., 1987). Such areas should be immediately replanted with native forest vegetation too. In forest replantation, in the initial stages of the vegetation, soil conservation measures should be applied to prevent erosion. Soil conservation measures, such as plantation of grasses, growing hedges, construction of ridges are vital in reforestation actions of the riparian zones. Further, restoration of severely eroded landscapes, such as abandoned tea plantations might have to be subjected to soil enrichment using organic fertilizers and decaying organic matter and other biological soil improvement methods such as plantation of legumes. Reforested lands must be closely monitored until the completion of the primary succession. Such monitoring should ensure that no invasive plant invade the degraded/deforested land. If a previous invasion prevails, before replantation of indigenous forest species, the invasive species must be eradicated manually or mechanically. Introduction of chemical herbicides are not encouraged since such artificial substances may act as a toxicant once on the freshwater biota, especially the aquatic macrophytes and it accumulate in water.

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 3 4 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43 harvested. The fishermen can be encouraged to harvest these introduced fish, especially Tilapia by paying them a high price for capturing alien fish species (Clavero and García-Berthou, 2005). Eradication of alien aquatic plants is equally important. In addition to the mechanical and manual removal, even biological controlling methods where a native animal species can be introduced to feed on the invasive species. If an exotic species is to be used as a biological agent, the new species should be experimentally proven to be safe and non invasive in the natural environment. Adverse conditions or aggravations of the prevailing condition should be avoided (Gordon, 1998).

Prevention of extraction of native fish species Collection or capturing of fishes form this stream must be limited only to the alien species. Capturing other native species must be prohibited. Such regulations can primarily be achieved through a sound scheme of physical protection with adequate continuous patrolling. Strict penalties ought to be imposed on those who violate rules.

Community based conservation activities including education and awareness programs All these conservation approaches will be of a value only if the local communities and the general public are properly acknowledged on the importance of the stream ecosystem and the stream biodiversity. Workshops can be arranged with the participation of the local public and with the involvement of the conservation authority and the regional government. Through such workshops; i the importance of conservation of Rawan Oya ecosystem and its biota must be highlighted, ii the ecological and sustainable ecological benefits of the stream must be emphasized, iii rules and regulations regarding the strict protection of the habitat should be thoroughly explained with references to the penalties on violation, iv the negative effects on the stream ecosystem due to pollution, excessive synthetic agro-chemical use, overextrraction of biological aquatic resources, releasing invasive fish, deforestation, encroachments have to be elaborately explained. Moreover, the governmental conservation authorities should involve the local people in conservation actions. For instance, in eradication of invasive species, reforestation programs, the Forest Department can hire the local inhabitants.

Research based activities The universities and the governmental agencies in the environmental and natural resources conservation sector of Sri Lanka can involve in research oriented activities. The research should focus long-term evaluation of biodiversity wealth of the stream and the associated terrestrial habitats and

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 3 6 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 11-43

Biggs, B.J.F. (1997) Eutrophication of streams and rivers: dissolved nutrient-chlorophyll relationships for benthic algae, Journal of the North American Benthological Society, v. 19, pp. 17–31. Battaglin, W. and Fairchild, J. (2002) Potential toxicity of pesticides measured in midwestern streams to aquatic organisms, Water Science and Technology, v. 45, pp. 95-103. Bermúdez-Saldañaa, J.M., Escuder-Gilaberta, L., Medina-Hernándeza, M.J., Villanueva-Camañasa, R. and Sagrado, S. (2005) Modelling bioconcentration of pesticides in fish using biopartitioning micellar chromatography, Journal of Chromatography A 1063, pp. 153-160. Bossuyt, F., Meegaskumbura, M., Beenaerts, N., Gower, D.J., Pethiyagoda, R., Roelants, K., Mannaert, A., Wilkinson, M., Bahir, M.M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K.N.G.P.K.L., Schneider, C.J., Oommen, O.V. and Milinkovitch, M.C. (2004) Local endemism within the western Ghats–Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot, Science, v. 306, pp. 479-481. Clavero, M. and Garcý´a-Berthou, E. (2005) Invasive species are a leading cause of animal extinctions. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, pp. 20-110. Clout, M.N. and Veitch, C.R. (2002) Turning the tide of biological invasion: the potential for eradicating invasive species in Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species. Veitch CR and Clout MN (eds.) IUCN/ SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group. Gland, Switzerland. Costa, H.H. and Fernando, E.C.M. (1967) The food and feeding relationships of the common meso and macro fauna in the Maha oya, a small mountainous stream near Peradeniya, Ceylon. Ceylon Journal of Science v. 7, pp. 74-90. Crusz, H. (1973) Nature conservation in Sri Lanka, Biological Conservation v. 5, pp. 199-208. Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1933) Names of some fishes of Ceylon. Ceylon journal of Science, v.5, pp. 79-111. Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1952) A colored atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon: Fishes, National Museum, Colombo, Sri Lanka. De Silva, S.S. (1988) Reservoirs of Sri Lanka and their fisheries. FAO, Rome, Italy. De Silva, S.S. and De Silva, E.I.L. (1979) Fish fauna of coastal lagoon in Sri Lanka: distribution and seasonal variation. Bulletin of fisheries Research Station, v.29, pp. 1-9.

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Horne, A.J. (1994) Limnology. Charles Remington Goldman, USA. IUCN/FAO,(International Union for Conservation Nature and Natural Re- sources / Food and Agriculture Organization) (1997) Designing an optimum protected areas system for Sri Lanka’s natural forest conservation, IUCN and FAO, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Jayeratne, R.L. (2005) Distribution and diversity of freshwater fish in Rawan Oya, Kandy, Sri Lanka, BSc Dissertation. Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Mihintale, Sri Lanka. Kouadio, NF., Kouamelan, E.P., Douba, V.N., Kone, T., Snoeck, J. and Ollevier, F. (2006) Updates of fish biodiversity and impact of human activities on the community structure, Me River (Ivory Coast). Journal of Biological Sciences, v. 6, pp. 805-814. Kullander, F.F. (2001) Phylogeny and species diversity of the South and Southeast Asian cyprinid genus Danio Hamilton (Teleostei, Cyprinidae). Department of Zoology, Stockholm University and Department of Vertebrate Zoology, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden. Lindholm AK, Breden F, Alexander HJ, Chan W, Thakurta S.G. and Brooks R. (2005) Invasion success and genetic diversity of introduced populations of guppies Poecilia reticulata in Australia. Molecular Ecology v. 14, pp. 3671–3682. Lowe S, Browne M, Boudjelas S, De Poorter M. (2000) 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species A selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) a specialist group of the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Auckland, New Zealand. Macchi, P., Cussac, V.E., Alonso, M.F. and Denegri, M.E. (1999) Predation relationships between introduced salmonids and the native fish fauna in lakes and reservoirs in northern Patagonia. Ecology of Freshwater Fish. v. 8, pp. 227–236. Maeder, P., Fliessbach, A., Dubois, D., Gunst, L., Fried, P. and Niggli U. (2002) Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming Science, v. 296, pp. 1694-1697. Magurran, A.E. (1988) Ecological Diversity and its measurement. Croom Helm London, UK.

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Schut, J., De Silva, S.S. and Kortmulder, K. (1984) Habitat, associations and competition of eight Barbus (Puntitus) species (Pisces, Cyprinidae) indigenous to Sri Lanka, Netherlands Journal of Zoology, v. 34, pp. 459- 181. Senanayake, F.R. and Moyle, P.B. (1984) Conservation of Freshwater Fishes of Sri Lanka. Biological Conservation, v. 22, pp. 181-195. Silva, E.I.L. and Davies, R.W. (1986) Movements of some indigenous riverine fish in Sri Lanka. Hydrobiologia, v. 137, pp. 265-270. Sundarabarathy, T.V., Edirisinghe, U., Dematawewa, C.M.B. and Nandasena, K.G. (2001) Morphology and some biological aspects of Common spiny or lesser loach (Lepidocephalichthys thermalis) and Banded mountain loach (Schistura notostigma) of Sri Lanka, Tropical Agricultural Research, v. 13, pp. 411-420. Sundarabarathy, T.V., Edirisinghe, U. and Dematawewa, C.M.B. (2004) Captive breeding and rearing of fry and juveniles of Puntius titteya (Deraniyagala) (Cherry barb), a highly threatened endemic fish in Sri Lanka, Tropical Agricultural Research, v. 16, pp. 137-149. Sundarabarathy, T.V., Edirisinghe, U. and Dematawewa, C.M.B. (2005) Breeding and larval rearing of threatened, endemic fish stonesucker, Garra ceylonensis (Bleeker). Aquaculture Research v. 36, pp. 196- 201. Talwar, P.K. and Jhingran, A.G. (1991) Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries,CRC Press, Rotterdam, Netherland, v. 1. Thayaparan, K. (1982) The role of seasonal tanks in the development of freshwater fisheries of Sri Lanka, Journal of Inland Fisheries v. 1, pp. 133-167. Wanigasekera, R. and Weerakoon, S.B. (1998) Study on the bank protection of banks of the Polgolla reservoir against erosion, Proceedings of Institute of Engineers Sri Lanka, 60th Annual Session. Central Province Centre, Kandy, Sri Lanka. Welcomme, R.L. and Vidthayanon, C. (2003) The Impacts of Introductions and Stocking of exotic species in the Mekong Basin and policies for their control. Mekong River Commission (MTC) Technical Paper No. 9, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 4 2 4 4 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 45-55

Introduction The wave of crimes has been rapidly increasing in Sri Lanka as a key social problem and it is developing as a result of the rising of the population and the intelligence of the modern technology than the earlier. The crimes which are differed to each society has a big impact on contravention of the collective conscious that helps to positive existence the in the society. As well as this social revolution process copes with the globalization process. The crimes such as murder, rape, child abuse, hitting, robbery and illegal money printing have been expanding in Sri Lankan society with the current wave of crime. Crimes are the major criterion of determining development in each country. Only homicide is concerned by this study because it is directly influenced to the people. Homicides are increased at present rapidly than the earlier because of the complexity and the competition of the society. Due to this condition, the large numbers of harms have spared out to the people all over the country. Fear of the people, suspicions, threats, revenging, suicides are the several consequences of the homicide and this topic was selected to seek the causes of homicide in Sri Lanka in sociological aspect.

Literature Homicide is the one of the significant impact of the human beings considering the other types of Crimes of Sri Lanka. It can be explained simply as “the unlawful killing of a human being with malice aforethought” (Kornblum and Julian, 1974). According to the Encyclopedia of Americana homicide explains, “Assassinate a person with purposively is a homicide” (The Encyclopedia Americana, 1959). It means someone is killing a person must be positively with the feeling of assassination otherwise it may happened accidentally is not consider as a homicide. Mainly Homicide can be classified in to two ways as Lawful Homicide and Unlawful Homicide (Grero, 1988). Lawful Homicide can be divided into two ways again as Justifiable homicide and Excusable Homicide. According to reference, “The psychological of crime” murder has been classified in to two ways as symptomatic murder and manifest murder (Abrahamsen, 1960). Mainly the criminals related to symptomatic murder, their internal divergence coming from the inner part of the mind since their childhood is the consequence to this type of crime and it is taken place unconsciously. Sexual drives and aggression drives including Frustration and sexual jealousy directly influenced to this type of murder cases. Mostly the manifest criminals are making out the general crimes of the society coping with the community and make the erroneous against to society is significant.

N.S.Jayathunga 4 6 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 45-55

The main objective of this Study was recognition of the causes of Homicide in Sri Lanka. Understand the ethnicity, age group, civil status, educational level and family back ground of the criminals, understand the methods which criminals used for homicide, understand the nature of the relationship with the community of the criminals, recognition the attitudes towards the law of the criminals and suggest the possible solutions for Homicide were the other specific objectives of this research.

Methodology Non-probability purposive sampling used for the study because the area is much specified and is not very common scenario for each household. 20 cases of homicides were included in the sample because of this circumstance was a social deviant behavior differed than the other social behaviors of the human beings. The sample is derived through the secondary source of police reports taken from the Annual Reports of the I.G.P. Administration, Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, magazines, Census related to the homicide were used as the secondary data and Structural and Non structural interviews, Case Studies and Observations were further used as the primary data. This study mainly expected to make out the causes of homicide related to one of the grave crimes. This study was selected only the Rathnapura police division which included 15 police divisions because of several reasons. It is one of the divisions which recorded the highest number of crimes and it has an increasing trend of crime mainly represents the crimes in rural sector.

Background Details of Criminals This study found the ethnicity, age structure, civil status, educational level, employment, and family background of the criminals as the background details of the homicide in Rathnapura police division. Consideration of the ethnicity majority of the Sinhalese represented 80% as the high quantity concerned with the homicide and 20% Tamil was less represented. It shows the following Table 1.

Table 1: Ethnicity of the criminals

Characteristics No % Ethnicity Sinhalese 16 80 Tamil 04 20

Source- Field Data According to Table 2 categorizing of the age structure in systematically 30% represented in a 31-40 age group in view of high amount deal with the

N.S.Jayathunga 4 8 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 45-55 their educational level. Family background of the criminals can be shown as the following Table 5.

Table 5: Family Background Details of Criminals

Family Members No %

Parents, Relatives and Children 5 25

Father, Step Mother and Children 3 15

Mother, Step Father and Children 3 15

Only the Mother and Children 4 20

Husband, Wife and Children 2 10

Husband and Wife Only 6 30

Source- Field Data

Highlighted persons of the table were criminals of the Homicide. This study identified the children who were with their parents and relatives (Extended Family) and only husband and wife family implicated with the murder cases contributing as a large proportion was representing 25% and 30% but less significant number for the husband, wife and children family type (Nuclear Family) contributing to the homicide.

Main purpose of this study was making out the causes link with the homicide in Rathnapura police division. According to this research mainly it was recognized the causes as informal sexual relations representing 30% as the big impact, revenging purposes representing 20%, high temper representing 20%, drunkenness representing 15%, mining industry representing 10% and rapes representing 5%. These causes can be summarized according to the following Table 6.

Table 6: Causes for Homicide Reasons No % Illegal sexual affairs 06 30 Revenging purposes 04 20 High temper 04 20 Drunkenness 03 15 Mining industry 02 10 Rapes 01 05 Total 20 100

Source- Field Data

N.S.Jayathunga 5 0 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 45-55 area. Stealing the gem, quarrelling for gem and swollen the gem were identified matters dealing with the mining were directly caused to homicide. This study found the rape as a major cause for the homicide and especially there was a inter relationship ensued among the drunkenness, rape and assassination. Murder was the final alternative of the rape case by the criminals used. Hitting on the head by using stick representing 35%, hitting on the head by using weapon representing 25%, snubbing representing 20%, strangling the neck representing 15% and hitting by using the axe were the methods identified through this study. Assassination techniques can be showed as the Figure 2.

Figure 2: The ways of homicide

Hitting on the head by using stick was the key technique of contributing the large extent and the smaller amount usage was the hitting by using the axe of this study. The relationship between homicide and victimized was a significant aspect of this research. According to this relationship mainly people who assassi- nated the people were unknown the high representation of this study. Other offences were in orderly as neighbors, son, father, friend, husband and wife. Following Figure 3 shows the summary of the above relationships. Large amount of the people being unknown who involved with the murder cases was the significant factor, which may be the contract for determining the financial require. But less percentage of wife and husband were impact to the homicide was a different significant of this study. The Table shows the relationship between homicides and victimized.

N.S.Jayathunga 5 2 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 45-55

Table : 8 The attitudes towards the law of the Criminals

Attitudes towards the law No % Ignoring the law due to high temper 07 35 Revenging purposes by ignoring law 06 30 Hiding to the law 04 20 Engaging with the faults by knowing the 03 15 law Total 20 100

This study found the majority of the criminals that ignored the law because of the high temper representing 35% of the total. Even though Majority of the criminals had the views about the law of the country but they did not consider the law because of giving priority for high temper. Above factors mainly influenced to the homicide in Rathnapura police division. There are large number of secondary results were created based on murder because it is directly influenced to the people against to the humanity. Decreasing the social integration, disorganizing the social structure, contravention the customs, values and norms, back warding the development of the country, increasing the fear to survival, increasing accidents, rising the family problems, developing deviant behaviors, disregard the responsibilities are the few circumstances created from the increasing homicide in the country. This can be considered as a major social problem because this condition directly and indirectly inclined to the entire society very destructively.

Conclusion Rathnapura Police division was the selected study area because of the increasing trend of crimes could be identified and it was one of the highest crimes recorded area among the other districts in Sri Lanka according to police reports. Majority of the criminals related to homicide were uneducated and very distant from the urban cities. Majority of criminals were employed with the minor occupations and they had the low economical condition result of the poor education. As the main purpose of this study, recognized the several major causes related to homicide. Informal sexual relations, revenging purposes, unexpected anger, drunkenness, mining industry and rape were the significant reasons recognized through this study. Informal sexual relations were the most indispensable reason caused to homicide based on the sexual jealousy in a psychological aspect. And the rape was a low representation rate attach to the homicide result of the breaking the ways revealing information to another was assassination. Criminals had very close relations with their community before they involved with the crimes. Even if the society is changed by the modernization, the modern techniques were not used for murders in rural areas. And most of them were with the general views of

N.S.Jayathunga 5 4 5 6 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 57-63

As Tilapia is produced in seasonal tanks, over production result during in the peak season and leads to post harvest losses. Hence, proper application of post harvest technology is needed to overcome this problem. Direct consumption of Tilapia is restricted due to lack of taste leading for a less popularity of Tilapia among consumers except in Dry Zones. Therefore, value added product with good physico-chemical properties could be used to attract and encourage people to consume Tilapia as a good protein source. The jaadi is wet cured traditional fermented fishery product and creates a pleasant, mouth watering sensation in our tongues (Weerasinghe, 1991). Jaddi is a Tamil word and its means huge pots. Indian people also call ‘Thaadi’. In pali it is known as ‘Thathi’ (kariyawasam, 2007). Therefore, this study was undertaken develop a fermented fish product, jaadi, using Tilapia (O. niloticus), to evaluate sensory properties of the product and changes in pH value of product during storage.

Materials and Methodology Preliminary processing of fish

This study was carried out at Aquaculture laboratory, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Preradeniya, Sri Lanka. Approximately, 300-350g of weight and 25cm (from snout to base of the caudal fin) of total length fish were selected for processing. Pre- processing inspection of fish was done to select fish without any defects like cuts, bruises, cruises or discolouration. The belly area was cut opened and the internal organs like digestive track, uro-gentital systems were removed. Body cavity was cleaned using clean water. All the fins were removed except the caudal fin. Deheading of fish were done by cutting the head as canting the head as a contoured cut which run perpendicular to the fish’s backbone and then at an angle of 45 ° manually. Pectoral bones were also removed along the head. Skinning was done to reduce microbial count and to remove scales. Finally caudal fin was removed and carcasses were washed using clean water. During processing period, contamination by flies was never allowed. 0.3 m diameter and 0.25 m height clay pots were taken and washed thoroughly by using tap water and sterilized by boiling water. Goraka (G. gambodiea) was also washed and sterilized with boiling water before using.

Preparation of jaadi The experiment was arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design with four replicates. Salt and goraka (G. gambodiea) were mixed well, produce as curing mixture and packed in previously washed and sterilized

Lakshmi W.G.I, Prassanna P.H.P. and Edirisinghe U. 5 8 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 57-63

Determination of pH of the final products during storage The final product was prepared using the optimum salt and goraka (G. gambodiea) contents found in the study. The product was storage for period of four months at ambient temperature 27 °C and pH value of the product was determined using a digital Hanna pH meter at one month interval to find out mould with storage.

Sensory Evaluation Acceptability of the product was tasted by preparing a curry of jaadi samples and randomly coded and served to a panel of 30 in-house untrained 25 years male and female panellists from Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. They assessed colour, odour, flavour and overall acceptability of each sample supplied. Each parameter was ranked on a 5-point Hedonic scale (5- Like very much 1- Dislike very much).

Statistical Analysis The results of sensory evaluation were analyzed by Friedman test using MINITAB statical package á = 0.05 and means were separated by multiple comparison. Data related to the pH changes were separated according to the Duncan’s Multiple Ranges Test (DMRT).

Results and discussion

Determination of suitable salt content Result revealed that there was a significant deference (P< 0.05) for taste and overall acceptable of treatment T4 having 500 g goraka (G. gambodiea)

(Table 3). T1 containing 200 g salt and 100 g goraka (G. gambodiea) was the least preferred one. Therefore, 500 g salt level was selected as the optimum salt level and used for the next experiment to determine optimum goraka (G. gambodiea) content. Weerasinghe (1991) reported a different finding for preparation of jaadi from marine fish that 100 g of salt could be used for 300 g of fish. Salt to fish ratio for Tilapia Jaadi was 1:2 while Weerasinghe (1991) used 1:3 salt to fish in his study to have a good quality jaadi.

Lakshmi W.G.I, Prassanna P.H.P and Edirisinghe U. 6 0 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 57-63

Changes in pH values of jaadi samples stored at ambient temperature 27 °C pH level of jaadi samples did not changed significantly (P> 0.05) for a period of 4 months (Table 5). It proves that there are quality changes in prepared jaadi during storage especially growth of harmful microorganisms like mould. Goraka (G. gambodiea) was used as a souring agent for this experiment because it contains gambogic acid, which helps in preservative action by reducing pH (Amarasinghe and Jayaweera, 1994). Further it acts as an antimicrobial agent retarding the microbial growth due to forming acidic medium. Pathmalatha (2001) indicated that pH of goraka (G. gambodiea) is around 4 and it can inhibit undesirable microbial growth. Weersinghe (1991) indicated different results for pH in marine jaadi that was around 4.2. This difference may be due to higher salt content used in this study. The remarkable feature of this study was that there was no any mould growth or bad smell in jaadi even after 4 months of storage.

Table 5: The pH Values during Storage

Months pH Value 1 5.08a 2 5.06a 3 5.09a 4 5.07a

Note: Sums of Ranks in columns with the same letter are not significantly different (α = 0.05).

Conclusions The Premium quality jaadi could be prepared by using 1 kg of deskined Tilapia (O. niloticus) without head, 500 g salt and 100g goraka (G. gambodiea). There was no change in pH level of stored jaadi samples for 4 months period at ambient temperature 27 °C.

References Amarasighe, B.D.V. and Jayaweera, V. (1994) Extension of the shelf life of Ambul Thiyal. Journal of National Aquatic Resources and Development Agency, v. 32, pp. 2-8.

Lakshmi W.G.I, Prassanna P.H.P and Edirisinghe U. 6 2 6 4 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 65-80 cultural practices from their perception, diffusing from the date back 6000 years in Neolithic Age (The famous Jade Dragon was excavated in the Inner Mongolia from the Hongshan Culture) (Bayer and Kevin,1992). The biological organism states and the trajectory result of its lived history inculcates habitués takes it to be. The mythologies on the Dragon acculturate and transcending the concept of “man is descending from the Dragon” as an individual form and let the masses to mingle with the ongoing social environment with seamless interconnected.

Mythological Approach to the Dragon Concept The viable features and mutual codetermination of the Dragon and the social environmental practices are significantly different from Eastern to West. Social interaction, action, knowledge, power, virtue and interdependent things and much are based on the supreme spiritual power of the Dragon. These West and East Dragons represent the celestial and the terrestrial strength, power and wisdom. The Dragon is residing once in water and in sky brings the people mighty hopes, prosperity, cognitive world and becoming an individual agent and lives as a symbol in the perception of the masses. This mythical creature has an enormous force to fly and walk marvelously and has the ability to change its divine power rapidly. It is clear that the social system is in the highest degree of sharing these cultural practices. The homogeneous tradition has a huge net work of social system and remarked the China as “The land of Dragon” proudly and believed that the nation descended from Dragon. The biological phenomenon mingles into the social phenomenon and it triggers to articulate the ongoing history of social structure. The social system communicate that the soul and the savior of the Chinese nation is The Dragon and has become a fabulous and universal symbolic figure that is founded in most cultures throughout the world. The legends transmit the information of the Dragon as a loathsome beast and an evil enemy to humankind (Kiessling, 1970). It was a winged being; had a magical power to fly to god and come back to earth to create the human race (Goodkind, 1991). This creation has become an important symbology as a blueprint of the reality to express this cultural creation. From the very ancient body of the practices of Chinese culture, they validated explicitly four magical, spiritual and benevolent animals. They had been known as the “Dragon”, the “phoenix”, the “Unicorn”, and the “Tortoise’. The Dragon had been the most powerful, dominant and revered creature emerging from the social structure and became the trans-generational domain of practices in a social system. Metaphors, linguistic and other oral devices remark that his claws grasp an enormous magical pearl, which is capable of multiplying the power and strengthen of masses. The ancient social system

Dharma Keerthi Sri Ranjan D.G. and Zhou Chang C. 6 6 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 65-80 creature which is strongly combined with the concept of the Dragon. Much more innate creational legends on the Phoenix as a taxonomic structure immerged and influenced to organize and to construct in making a relational net work of the social system. The fables and legends say that the Dragon is a central figure of both good and evil in the Chinese culture. According to the legends in China, the Dragon had originated in the middle kingdom and had five toes. Some of the Dragon had four toes and some had three toes. Finally the Dragon is seen to be a gregarious creature who can make people wandered was created by the nature. The historical legends say that if the Dragon would step out from China, he could lose more toes. i.e. when the Dragon would reach to Korea it could lose one toe and by the time he would move to Japan he could lose another toe. According to this the Japanese dragon has three toes. This also explains why he had never been to Europe or the Americas (Smith, 1918). If he would move that far, he could lose all of his toes and could not be able to walk. So Dragon lore says he is lazy to walk away from this region.

The Dragon Culture in Himalaya and Tibet as a Spirit The most prominent historical evidence convinces that the Dragon culture had been embedded into Himalaya Mountain ranging from the very ancient times. The Dragon concept is most drastically mingled into the Tibet culture which is situated next to the Himalaya range. However in the southern ranges of Himalaya, the myths of the Dragon and the concept of nagas (Cobra) of India had been mingling one another. The Dragon in Tibet is known as Druk (‘brug), Drug or Zhug. Bhutan, the kingdom at the southern border of the Himalaya is being called Druk Yul; the “land of the peaceful Dragon” or the “thunder dragon land”. The dragon concept emerged and embodied practices in the temples which have known as the dragon temples. Many monuments of the Dragon are alive viably at present. Many legends and archaeological evidences convince that the concept of the Dragon who impacts on the social structure at the Himalayan regions, back at least to the “Tang” Dynasty in China. “Li Yuanding” travelled during the reign of “Tang” to the ancient kingdom in Himalaya where he saw Dragon images in the tent of the king. In Lhasa, a city in the territory of ancient ‘Zhangzhung’ is a monastery “Jo’khang” or “Tsuglagk’ang” where a statue of Shakyamuni Buddha has been found. In the front side of it, there are two pillars with Dragon. During the period of “Tang” Tibet came in touch with the Chinese feng shui and some traces of them are still seen to be alive. Sporadic structural coupling with much larger groups combined with closer kin relations are lived as a part of the social structure.

Dharma Keerthi Sri Ranjan D.G. and Zhou Chang C. 6 8 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 65-80 three claws dragon. It is true that the concept of Dragon in Japan goes back to the people in pre - historic age. No longer could we see a Dragon as same as in china but all the elements of the culture are different from one another (Komatsu, 1978). When the Dragon departs away from Japan, the more toes would grow. So the Chinese and other Dragon have more than three toes. According to the Chinese social practices Dragon is the symbol of most divine protection. But Japanese traditional description has remarked the Dragon as a symbol of power. It would not be unexpected that there are variations in cultural practices. In the Japanese socio - cultural structure the community revere for the various types of Dragons (Daniels, 1960). But with no knowledge of the meaning of cultural practices and its elements, no one could understand socio - cultural structures. The Concept of the Dragon in Japan is enormously powerful in their cultural practices and traditions. Japanese culture has imposed duties and responsibilities on the Dragon according to their various cultural practices.

Dragon in Korean The Dragon represents in the Korean social structure is different from the Dragon in Japan and in China. The Korean dragon has four toes. The Korean community believes that the origin of all eastern Dragons in Korea. When the dragons leave Korea towards China, they would gain more toes and a reverse could happen when it would moves towards Japan. The Koreans do not believe that the social structure of relations to concept of Dragon deriving from some other domain. Their habits and the ways of thinking are demonstrating their cultural practices. The Dragon has been symbolized particularly in the ancient Korean arts calligraphy and etc. The political stream from the very ancient time mingled into and interacted with the concept of the dragon. The Korean Dragon was said to have certain specific traits: no wings, and have a long beard. The Korean mythologies and legends indicated that the history of the Dragon had survived from the thousands and years ago. The history of the Dragon runs back into the pre- historic era in the Korean history. The Dragon is revered as a totem and believed it has a marvelous spiritual power to change the world.

The Dragon Concept in West and its Influence All within the conceptual frame of the Dragon concept remarks the hierarchical structure and a large degree at different levels from the traditional features to the popular culture. But all units have been incorporated into a same category and representing as a uniformly concept if the cultures use different ways and different functions. Similarly, the dragon in the West

Dharma Keerthi Sri Ranjan D.G. and Zhou Chang C. 7 0 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 65-80 man is thought to rebirth at Dragon. The Dragon is believed to be the guardians of treasures in burial chambers. The concept of the Dragon provides the fundamental groundings for the community to operate their patterns of behavior. In the Greek legends, the concept of the Dragon has been described explicitly and generated practices in the disposition mentality and the social behavior of the community. The concept of Hercules is highly durable and persists through the life of the people. The mythology described that the Hercules encountered, and killed the Dragon laden while fulfilling his eleventh labor. The Scandinavian history, social structure and the literature is inscribed that the Beowulf was slain by a Dragon (Lawrence, 1918). The concepts of the Dragon and the concepts of the Hercules are still alive and disposition of the habitués of the people and generate continually the social production and reproduction. The pebbles and mythologies are extending information and providing the groundings for the masses to operate fundamentally, what always must be taken for granted. It corresponds to what can be explicitly stated and critically reflected on.

The Different Features of the Dragon from Female to Male: The concept of the Dragon depicts and expresses the biological differences and the social position of the male and the female Dragon. Legends do not dare to inculcate that the organism or biological differences are considered as a privilege as well as duty. The state of male and female organism participating in social structural coupling highly depicts the vary in social positions. It is directly reflected that the dragon labor is different from female to male. For instance, male Dragon usually holds a club in their hand while females hold a fan. The club shows the wickedness of the male dragon. The male Dragon horns are thinner near the base of the head and thicker and stronger outwardly. Females have nicer mane. They are rounder, and seen as more balanced than the rigid mane of the males. Its nose is usually straight, their scales are thinner, and has a thicker tail. In every continental Dragons brought by the mythologies are varied from one another.

The Dragon as a Spiritual Force of the People and Authority: The Dragon is the most powerful and strengthened animal or totem living in the consciousness of the Chinese masses. The Dragon is named as “Long” or “lung” in Chinese language. According to the social structural phenomenological responding of the Chinese, the Dragon physically consists of 117 scales. 81 of them are totally remarks as positive and 36 of them are

Dharma Keerthi Sri Ranjan D.G. and Zhou Chang C. 7 2 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 65-80 with a red dragon. The emperor “Liu Bang” believed to be the heavenly son of real Dragon who ruled the world by divine rights. The Dragon was omnipresent in the emperor palace. Ultimately the whole of the cultural elements of the emperor was based on the Dragon concept. i.e. emperor’s robe was called the Dragon robe, the throne was called “Dragon seat”, and the emperor’s bed was called the Dragon bed (Cammann, 1951). The emperors particularly revered the yellow or golden Dragon who has five claws. In the period of “Chine” dynasty the Dragon was clad into the national flag. To wearing Dragon symbolized clothes were banned and were a major offence. The Dragon had been carved in the staircases of imperial palaces and tombs. i.e. the Forbidden City in Beijing (Hua and Xian, 2005). These decorations of the Dragon displayed mighty appearance to the civilians of the kings. The Dragon became the symbol of the imperial supreme power and authority. Some legends emphasize that the emperors were born with the birthmarks of the Dragon. i.e. one of the mythology inculcated that “these birthmarks of the Dragon never let the princes to be hidden from their enemies”.

Dragon’s Nine Spiritual Forces and Nine Sons in the Chinese Culture: There are nine types of Dragons in the Chinese culture. But their capabilities and the appearance are different from one another. Number nine is remarked as lucky to the Chinese which is probably the concept highlighted below.

-The Horned Dragon - who is completely deaf, powerful and ability to produce rain.

-The Celestial Dragon - who is protecting the gods.

-The Spiritual Dragon - Who controls the wind and the rain

-The Earth Dragon - Who rules all water and run through the earth.

-The Underworld Dragon - who protects the precious metal, gems and the hidden fortunes.

-The Winged Dragon - who has wings.

-The Coiling Dragon - who dwells in the water in lakes.

-The Yellow Dragon - who emerged from the sea and gave the knowledge of writing to the ancient Chinese emperor Fu Xi.

Dharma Keerthi Sri Ranjan D.G. and Zhou Chang C. 7 4 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 65-80

Dragon culture. The masses are strongly fostered the dragon cultural structure by the endemic fictionalizing mainstream.

Dragon Depicted in the Chinese Architecture, Paintings, and in the Material Culture The history of the cave paintings associates more than 25,000years. i.e. the rock paintings found in Shanxi province in China are older than 8000 BC years. In these cave paintings, the Dragon picture had been depicted. The Dragon symbol has been strongly contextualized into the material culture and indicated the similarities and differences in association with the Dragon categorization (Hornblower, 1933). It shows up in arts (Ward, 1898), literature, poetry, architecture, songs, and many aspects of the Chinese consciousness. Some of them can be articulated as follows; Vase:- In the reign of “Chia Ching” (1532-1455) the Porcelain vessels were colored (five), enameled and decorated in imperial five clawed Dragons sporting amid in the waves of the Sea. They are still alive at the Art Treasures of the Peking Museum. Wine Jar: - The Chinese ceramic and stoneware vessels which had been brilliantly colored with the Dragon features, has a long history and it was popular in the reign of Ming Dynasty in the early period of 16th century. This heralded the long history of the Dragon culture and the Chinese ceramics. Royal Dragon robes of emperors:- In the reign of the “Tai-Tsung” (626 – 649 AD), in the “Tang” Dynasty yellow color was used only in the royal purposes. The Empress “Xiao Jing” embroidered the 100 boy’s jackets with figures of Dragons. (Cammann, 1951) Gilded bronze dragon:- The gilded bronzed Dragon in the period of “Tang” Dynasty (618-906 AD) was excavated at the city of Xi’an in the Shaanxi Province in China in1975. They are well protected in the Shaanxi History Museum. Red Dragon:- A pair of red Dragon was painted in a lacquer brush - pot in the period of “Wan-li” (1573-1620). Nine Dragon Wall:- The Nine Dragon Wall built in 1756 existing in the BaiHai Park in Beijing, China was 21m long, 15m high and 2m thick and depicted 635 Dragons in addition to the main nine Dragons. It is faced with 4247 colors ceramic tiles. There is a giant Dragon exists at the centre of the wall. The wall is covered from edge to edge with many smaller Dragons.

Dharma Keerthi Sri Ranjan D.G. and Zhou Chang C. 7 6 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 65-80

This greatly respected Dragon puppet is called sacred Dragon. This has become a special performance of arts in the Chinese physical and mental functioning. The Dragon dance is a skilled team effort. In Song Dynasty in the 10th century, the Dragon was used with lanterns to form a kind of visual arts. The Dragon lantern dance became a major item of entertainment during the festive period which is on the 15th day of the first lunar month. This festival is celebrated to achieve bumper harvest in their agriculture at locally, regionally and nationally throughout the China, forging and sustaining the cultural practices to suite to the modern society. Particularly, “Dragon Raising Head Day” is taken place in every 2nd of lunar February. People cut their hair with the hope of a happy life with one another. The movement of the dance is pretending of chasing the pearls and displaying a powerful and majestic momentum. The various patterns of the dance fulfill the ambitions of the people through these events To perform the Dragon cultural dance, there should be many performers and it is used for the different symbolic and festive reasons. When lion dance is performed, it requires two persons. The size and the shape of the lion are totally different from the Dragon. The lion dance is thought to bring prosper and blessings for the wedded life and the business purposes people.

Conclusion According to the Anthropological and sociological perspective, researching and recognition of the folklore, in the “primitive and the mass societies” as an educational tool for transmission of cultural conventions, social integrative quality and the institutional aspect of values, pattern of entertaining and its physical and mental aspects, histories from one generation to the next which functioning in the Dragon culture should be documented as an important contributions. The man is emotional at least as much as reason and he is constantly vigilant to discover the emotional as well as the rational basis of human action. Their functional, traditional and dramatically diversities comes alive grasping the modernity, portraying the validity of them for the rapid development of the country and to reach the unique goal. The Chinese Dragon, stretching its hands throughout all the regions controls and leads the social system varying from tradition to the modernity. The Belief and the behavior on the Dragon has been leading the masses to alive as a spiritual force in their mind and in the functional activities of the social system. The Chinese entertaining culture helps to make this event alive in the social super structure.

Dharma Keerthi Sri Ranjan D.G. and Zhou Chang C. 7 8 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 65-80

Simpson, J. (1978) Fifty British Dragon Tales: An Analysis, Folklore, v. 89, pp. 79-93. Smith, G.E.(1918) An American Dragon, Man, v. 18, pp. 161-166. Stokley, J. (1973) Dragon Visible in September, Science News, v. 104, pp. 126. Ward, W.H. (1898) Bel and the Dragon. The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, v. 14, pp. 94-105. Ying Hu, S. (1967) The Economic Botany of Dragon Tongue, Economic Botany, v. 21, pp. 288-292. Zhao, Q. (1989) Chinese Mythology in the Context of Hydraulic Society, Asian Folklore Studies, v. 48, pp. 231 – 246.

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Introduction Pollution of groundwater by nitrates is presently receiving increasing attention in the world. All living systems need nitrogen to exist as it is used to build many essential components such as proteins, DNA, RNA, and vitamins as well as hormones and enzymes. However, it becomes potentially hazardous when present in drinking water at significantly high concentrations. Groundwater is one of the most important natural resources and the main source of drinking water in many countries of the world. Studies on the effect of fertilization and groundwater pollution in intensive agricultural areas are of prime importance. The current research study was aimed to investigate how far the problem as of excessive nitrates has affected the quality of regional groundwater under different climatic conditions (wet zone in Sri Lanka and lowland in Japan). The behavior of the geochemistry of nitrate distribution during periodical application of fertilizers in the wet zone on Sri Lanka and the lowlands in Japan was compared. Nitrate rich drinking water, is potentially harmful to human health, particularly to infants causing the condition known as methemoglobinemia, also called “blue baby syndrome” (Dissanayake et al. 1984) (Figure 1). It is therefore recommended that pregnant women and lactating mothers should limit the nitrate consumption. Possible connections between nitrate and other health problems such as nervous system disorders, cancer, and heart damage, are not well documented.

NO3 IN SOIL

BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL DENITIFICATION

NO3 IN GROUNDWAT ER

WATER TREATMENT

NO3 IN DRINKING WATER NO3 IN FOOD

NO3 IN HUMAN BEINGS

MICROBIAL REDUCTION

NO2 IN FOOD

NO2 IN HUMAN BEINGS METHEMOGLOBINEMIA

REACTION WITH NITROSAMINES & NITROSAMIDS

N.NITROSO COMPOUNDS WORKING PLACE, SMOKING N.NITROSO COMPOUNDS PHARMACEUTICALS IN HUMAN BEINGS CANCER(?)

Figure 1: Nitrate pathways and metabolism (Paul and Clark, 1989)

Gunatilake, S.K. and Iwao, Y. 8 2 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 81-95

Methodology A total number of 115 groundwater samples were collected from 23 selected dug wells and 4 tube wells of the Udunuwara area in Sri Lanka, at frequent intervals during January to March 1998, which coincides with the Maha season. An attempts was made to select the sampling locations within the paddy fields or adjacent to paddy fields or along the flow of groundwater from paddy cultivated areas. Reference sampling points were also selected at close proximity. The sampling was carried out every 2 weeks in order to observe the variation of the nitrate concentration in groundwater caused by the application of nitrate fertilizers to the adjacent paddy fields. All-important information on location, hydrology, geology, landuse etc. was also recorded.

Water samples collected into pre-cleaned plastic bottles which were quickly transported to the laboratory for immediate analysis and to prevent any influence of microbiological activity. Samples were analysed for nitrate using the cadmium reduction method. DR/2000 HACH programmable spectrophotometer was utilized for the colorimetric determination using HACH powder pillows.

The field study of the Sriroishi Plain in Japan commenced in December 2000 and a total of 82 numbers of shallow wells were drilled within the uppermost soft Ariake clay (Figure 3). The shallow well were approximately 1.5 m deep. A base map of the Shiroishi Plain with 1 square kilometer grid reference was used for sampling. Locations were selected within the study area, making sure that the only possible source for nitrate fertilizers. Water from the shallow wells was sampled into pre-cleaned plastic bottles using a submersible type pump. Before each sample is collected, the static well water depth was measured. Several samples of drainage water at the outlets of the creeks passing into the interceptor drains, deep groundwater (around 80 m deep) and interceptor drain water samples were measured at monthly intervals. The portable HACH DR/2010 spectrophotometer was used for in-situ analysis. As the farmers use nitrogen fertilizers and phosphorus fertilizers together in their land nitrate, ammonia and phosphate concentrations of the water samples were measured. The nitrate concentrations in the samples were measured by the cadmium reduction method using the Nitraver 5 powder pillows. The pH of the water sample was obtained using pH indicator papers.

Gunatilake, S.K. and Iwao, Y. 8 4 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 81-95 free groundwater. It is important to note that certain dug wells and almost all the tube wells yield water with very low nitrate levels ranging from 1-5 mg/l (Figure 6). However the nitrate values of deep tube wells remained constant throughout sampling whereas a few dug wells showed a remarkable increase of the nitrate levels upon adding fertilizer to the adjacent paddy fields (Gunatilake, 1998).

70 LO C.2 LO C.3

LO C.7 LOC.10(TW ) 60 LOC.13(TW ) LO C.16

LO C.17 LO C.19 50

20 IRT OCNRTIN(gl) ION (mg/l CONCENTRAT NITRATE

0 <1 Week 2 Weeks 4 Weeks 6 Weeks 8 Weeks TIME LA PSED A FTER FERTILIZ ER A PPLICA TION

Figure 4: Variation of nitrate in groundwater with time after application of fertilizer(Udunuwara area, Kandy)

60 LOC .6 LOC .21 50

20 NIT RATE CONCENTRATION (mg/l) CONCENTRATION RATE NIT 10

0 2 We eks 4 Weeks 6 We eks 8 We eks 10 We eks TIME LA PSED A FTER FERTILIZER A PPLICATION

Figure 5: Tendency of decreasing nitrate levels after few weeks, as a result of groundwater flow (Udunuwara area, Sri Lanka)

Gunatilake, S.K. and Iwao, Y. 8 6 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 81-95

The near constant nitrate levels of very low concentrations in samples from locations 8, 14 and 15 confirmed that the groundwater of that area is not being contaminated by nitrates as no fertilizer had been applied to the nearby paddy fields. There was no other possible nitrate contamination from any other source in the close proximity.

All the above observations were made assuming the natural sources of nitrate pollution to be negligible compared to the contribution from the nitrogenous fertilizers. But in certain cases, the natural contribution through the process of microbial degradation of organic nitrogenous material also could be significant. Further, farm animal wastes from cattle sheds, poultry farms and certain human excreta disposal practices (unprotected pit latrines etc.) would largely contribute to the nitrate concentration in groundwater. However during the selection of sampling sites, such possibilities have been avoided to the maximum extent. (b) Case Study : Shiroishi Plain in Saga Prefecture in Japan The chemical analysis results of the Shiroishi Plain were statistically analyzed and studied with respect to seasonal changes, various crop types cultivated, and the type of samples obtained (whether from the shallow tube well, deep tube well, sub-surface drainage pipes, interceptor drains, streams etc). Chemical analysis of the samples collected from the study area indicates that the nitrate concentration in groundwater varies between 0.1- 60 mg/l as

NO3-N. The average nitrate level of the groundwater in Shiroishi plain was calculated to be 1.4 mg/l and considered as the background nitrate concentration of the area. The pH values of the all samples were ranged between 4 - 4.5. As pointed out by many researchers (Angle et.al., 1993, Hubbard et.al., 1987, Kanwar, et.al., 1995 and 1996, Spalding and Exner, 1993) the nitrate-N level above 1 mg/l of WHO levels indicates contamination. Accordingly, shallow groundwater in the large part of the study area is considered vulnerable for nitrate pollution after fertilization. Sixty four percent of samples analyzed did not show contamination as they had NO3-N levels less than 1 mg/l. Twenty six percent of wells showed elevated nitrate concentrations of 1 to 3 mg/l as NO3-N. Around 10% of the sampled wells showed nitrate contamination more than 3 mg/l. At a pH less than 6.0 the rate of the nitrification process in agricultural soils decreases and become negligible when pH is below 4.5 (Hart et.al., 1994). The pH of the study area ranged between 4-5 at the time of sampling. Although fertilization causes pH changes, the high cation exchange capacity of Ariake clay does not allow much change in pH in soil and that may be the reason for low nitrate concentrations in shallow groundwater in most areas. The ammonium concentration also was very low values. It can be believed

Gunatilake, S.K. and Iwao, Y. 8 8 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 81-95

Even though densely populated agricultural areas generally cause environmental problems, the influence of fertilization in the Shiroishi plain is a temporary process yielding much productivity to farmers in the area. In the first part of this study it was shown that research carried out in the lowland area in the Central Province of Sri Lanka (Dissanayake et.al., 1984) clearly showed that cultivated and irrigated soils contaminate the shallow aquifer by nitrates derived from fertilizers. In the Udunuwara area there was sandy soil and the shallow groundwater level was deeper than that of the Shiroishi plain. Apart from the groundwater depth difference, the special ability of Ariake clay to absorb nutrients has protected from contaminating the shallow water in the Shiroishi Plain.

Figure 9 shows a comparison of the variation of the NO3-N within the well, drainpipes and nearby interceptor drain/creeks. It clearly indicates the low nitrate levels in wells and relatively high levels in drainpipes and elevated Nitrate-N concentrations in surface water of drains. Different nitrate levels in different locations may be due to different fertilizer application rate and crop type. The average NO3-N value observed in sampled subsurface drainage pipes was 8 mg/l, which could be considered a significantly elevated figure. It also showed that the average nitrate levels in the subsurface drainage pipes are different from those in the sample wells and interceptor drains. This difference may be due to climatic changes, irrigation practices as well as fertilization. However, the high nitrate level in subsurface drainage means that there is significant leaching of the nutrients from the Ariake clay. The subsurface drainage system therefore reduces the nutrients in soil that had accumulated from fertilization from affecting the surface water. As the water with excess nutrients is added to interceptor drains through drainpipes, the water from interceptor drains become dark green and emanates a bad odour.

1 Nitrate-N Concentration (mg/l) Concentration Nitrate-N

0 Lo c.1 Lo c.2 Loc.6 Lo c.1 4 Loc. 18 Lo c. 66 L oc .39 L oc .48 Loc .66 Location Number Sam.Well Sub.Dra.Pipe In t.Drains 2 pe r. Mov. Avg. (Sub.Dra .Pipe ) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Sa m .Wel l) 2 pe r. Mov. Avg. (Int.Drains )

Figure 9: Comparison of the Variation of the NO3-N within the Wells, Drain pipes and Nearby Interceptor Drain/Creeks (Shiroishi Plain, Japan)

Gunatilake, S.K. and Iwao, Y. 9 0 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 81-95

C T  C a C l  aC g ------1(c)

where

CT - total solute concentration

Ca - adsorbed solute concentration

Cg - gaseous solute concentration

Cl - dissolved solute concentration  - bulk density  - volumetric water content

Js - total solute flux t - time of interest

Figure 10 indicates the variation of nitrate leaching only by pure diffusion process. This figure shows that solute (nitrate) concentrations ratios in a large part of the area are completely become zero around 0.7 m depth from the surface. The results show in figure 10, fits well with one of the most important observations made during the analysis of data collected from this study area. It is observed that the nitrate leaching takes place mainly within the upper most layers (0-0.6 m) and is not likely to extend to the low permeable Ariake clay. Accordingly there is no possibility of polluting deep water due to the application of fertilizers.

S olute (nitrate) Concentration ratio 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0

0.5

1.5 epth ) D (m 2

2.5

Figure 10: Variation of Nitrate leaching through soil by diffusion (Shiroishi Plain, Japan)

Gunatilake, S.K. and Iwao, Y. 9 2 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 81-95

References

Angle J.S., Gross C.M., Hill R.L. and McIntosh, M.S. (1993) Soil nitrate concentrations under corn as affected by tillage, manure, and fertilizer applications. Journal of Environmental Quality. v. 22(1), pp. 141-147. Booker, J.R. and Rowe, R.K. (1987) One dimensional advective-dispersive transport into a deep layer having a variable surface concentration. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, v. 11(2), pp.131-142. Dissanayake, C.B., Weerasooriya, S.V.R. and Senaratne, A. (1984) The distribution of nitrates in the potable waters of Sri Lanka, Aqua No.1, pp. 43-50. Dissanayake, C.B. and Weerasooriya, S.V.R. (1987) Medical Geochemistry of Nitrates and Human Cancer in Sri Lanka. International Journal of Environmental Studies, v. 30, pp. 145-156. El-Shafei, A.A. (2000) Geo-environmental and geotechical assessments of nitrate polluted soil. Ph.D. thesis, Saga University, Japan. Gunatilake, S.K. (1998) Appraisal of nitrate contamination of groundwater by intensive use of fertilizer around Kandy area in Maha Season, MSc Thesis, Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka Hart, S.C., Stark, J.M., Davidson, E.A. and Firestone, M.K. (1994) Nitrogen mineralization, immobilization and nitrification. In “Methods of soil analyses”, Part 2, “Microbiological and biochemical properties”, Soil Science Socity. Am., Madison, Wisconsin:, pp. 985-1018. Hubbard, R.K., Thomas, D.L., Leonard, R.A. and Bulter, J.L. (1987) Surface runoff and shallow groundwater quality as affected by center pivot applied dairy cattle wastes. Transactions of the ASAE., v.30(2), pp. 430-437. Kanwar, R.S., Karlen, D., Cambardella, C. and Cruse, R.M. (1995) Swine manure and N-management systems, Impacts on groundwater. In Proc. Natural Conference of Water Quality: Clean Water Clean Environment- 21st Century, St. Joseph, Mich.: ASAE. pp. 91-94. Kanwar, R.S., Colvin, T.S., Karlen, D., Cambardella, C., Cruse, R.M. and Pederson, C. (1996) Impact of manure and N-management systems on water quality. International Proceeding of Integrated Crop Mgt. Conf., Iowa State University, Extension, Ames, Iowa.

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Introduction ‘Systematically analyzing errors made by language learners makes it possible to determine areas that need reinforcement in teaching’ (Corder, 1974). Error analysis is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make. It consists of a comparison between the errors made in the Target Language (TL) and that TL itself. Corder (1967) is the ‘Father’ of Error Analysis. It was with his article entitled ‘The Significance of Learner Errors’ that EA took a new turn. He contended that those errors are ‘important in and of themselves.’ For learners themselves, errors are ‘indispensable,’ since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to learn. Gass and Selinker (2001) defined errors as ‘red flags’ that provide evidence of the learner’s knowledge of the second language. Researchers are interested in errors because they are believed to contain valuable information on the strategies that learners use to acquire a language (Richards, 1974; Taylor, 1975; Dulay and Burt, 1974). Moreover, according to Richards and Sampson (1974) “At the level of pragmatic classroom experience, error analysis will continue to provide one means by which the teacher assesses learning and teaching and determines priorities for future effort.” Before 1960s, when the behaviouristic viewpoint of language learning was prevailing, learner errors were considered something undesirable and to be avoided. It is because in behaviourists perspectives, people learn by responding to external stimuli and receiving proper reinforcement. A proper habit is being formed by reinforcement, hence learning takes place. Therefore, errors were considered to be a wrong response to the stimulus, which should be corrected immediately after they were made. This belief of learning was eventually discarded by the well-known radically different perspective proposed by Chomsky (1957). He wrote in his paper against (Selikner, 1989) that human learning, especially language acquisition, cannot be explained by simply starting off with a ‘tabula rasa’ state of mind. He claimed that human beings must have a certain kind of innate capacity which can guide learner through a vast number of sentence generation possibilities and have a child acquire a grammar of that language until the age of five or six with almost no exception. He called this capacity “Universal Grammar” and claimed that it is this very human faculty that linguistics aims to pursue. According to Corder (1974), error analysis has two objectives: one theoretical and another applied. The theoretical objective serves to “elucidate what and how a learner learns when he studies a second language.” And the applied object serves to enable the learner “to learn more efficiently by exploiting our knowledge of his dialect for pedagogical purposes”. The investigation of

Rohan Abeywickrama 9 8 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 97-114 an error analysis- the best tool for describing and explaining errors made by speakers of other languages (Johanson, 1975) - in order to know the sources of these errors and the reasons behind their continued occurrence year after year with different groups of learners.

It is essential here to mention the fact that the language these students speak at home is mainly Sinhala, not English; hence, they are ESL students, however immersed in English they might be at school and at a university.”To use two languages familiarly and without contaminating one by the other is very difficult” (Johnson, 1761).

Can this fact account for the problems? Is our undergraduates’ native language (L1) ‘contaminating’ their English (L2)? If this were to be true, then the reason behind all those errors is Negative L1 transfer/Mother Tongue interference. ‘And the best way to discover such a transfer is through error analysis’ (Sridhar, 1980). However, can transfer alone justify all the errors made?

Research Problem “Is negative L1 transfer/interference the major cause for errors in the English writings of Sinhala speaking undergraduates?”

Problem Statement Various researchers have concentrated on errors which demonstrate the influence of one’s native language to second language acquisition. Before Corder’s work, interference errors were regarded as inhibitory; it was Corder who pointed out that they can be facilitative and provide information about one’s learning strategies. According to Hagège (1993) interference between L1 and L2 is observed in children as well as in adults. In adults it is more obvious and increases continuously, as a monolingual person gets older and the structures of his first language get stronger and impose themselves more and more on any other language the adult wishes to learn. In contrast, as regards children, interference features will not become permanent unless the child does not have sufficient exposure to L2. If there is sufficient exposure, then instead of reaching a point where they can no longer be corrected (as often happens with phonetics features), interference features can be easily eliminated.

This study focuses on errors in English essay writing of Sinhala speaking undergraduates in order to identify whether the L1 transfer is the major cause for errors in English writing of Sinhala undergraduates.

Rohan Abeywickrama 100 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 97-114 at the same time and the different learners were then be assumed to represent different stages of development.

Target Population Selected Sinhala speaking undergraduates who are offering English as a second language for their BA (General) Degree at the Universities of Kelaniya, Peradeniya and Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka. It is evident that most of the students, who offer English as a second language for BA Degree of the above three universities, belong to the Upwardly Mobile Middle class. From infancy they have been exposed to an extensive use of Sinhala and frequent Code-Mixing involving a few English expressions. Their primary and secondary levels of educations have been in Sinhala. At the same time some have more opportunities to use the English language from their infancy than the students of Upwardly Mobile Middle class.

Method of Data Collection For the selection of a corpus of language, following the guidelines offered by Ellis (1995) a sample of written works were collected from 60 students who are in the first and the second academic years of their Degree programmes. They are taught English mainly by qualified instructors and lecturers. These students were provided with the topics‘An Unforgettable Day in Your Life’ and ‘My University Life’ and were asked to write on it in 200 to 250 words. They were given sufficient time to write (Ellis, 1997). They started with an outline, then a first draft and a final draft.

Results/Discussion Structurally different areas of the two languages involved would result in interference. Dulay and Burt (1974), Krashen (1982) suggest that there are two possible ways of describing the term ‘interference’. One is from a psychological perspective, which suggests that there is influence from old habits when new ones are being learned. The second is from a sociolinguistic perspective which describes the language interactions which occur when two language communities are in contact. Nemser (1971) argues ‘in creating Interlanguge (IL), learners sometimes make the L1 or L2 categories equivalent and sometimes they do not’. The main findings of the study reveal that the negative L1 transfer/ interference is not only the cause for errors in the English writing of Sinhala speaking undergraduates.

Rohan Abeywickrama 102 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 97-114 adjectives.There is evidence and counter evidence of transfer in studies related to word order. Studies have focused on whether, for example, SVO L1s carry this pattern over into the L2. Rutherford (1986) suggests that Japanese learners do not use their L1 SOV in learning English. McNeill (1979) in fact argues for the SOV pattern as being the basic, universal word order in L1 acquisition. The following example taken from the sample of writing conveys the influence of the LI SOV over L2 acquisition.

Sri Lankan experience has directly influenced to use the phrases temple priest (pansale hamudhuruwo) for reverend and one at home (gedhara kena) for husband in the following sentences produced by Sinhala speaking undergraduates .This is considered as a direct translation and it effectively shows the LI interference.

a) We went to meet the temple priest. b) She started to cry as the one at home died.

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At the same time Sinhala speaking undergraduates use inappropriate prepositions in clause level due to the influence of the L1.

We it lesson from learned We learned from the lesson (example) We learned it in the lesson. (correct)

Consequence of mixing the order of conjunctions in Sinhala with that of in English, the English learner of Sinhala tend to make mistakes by misplacing conjunctions.

Rohan Abeywickrama 106 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 97-114 forms no and not to express the same language function is considered as free variation as it does not co-relate with any environment factors and is unpredictable in similar linguistic environment. It is the similarities, not the differences that cause the greatest problems. (Koutsoudas and Koutsoudas 1962) According to Wode (1978) ‘only if L1 and L2 have structures meeting a crucial similarity measure will there be interference, i.e. reliance on prior L1 knowledge.’ However, it is apparent that all other errors except the analyzed above cannot be categorized under L1interfernce. Developmental errors are caused because of the learners’ efforts to build up hypothesis about the language from his limited experience in the classroom. Richards classifies these errors under various heads like, overgeneralization, ignorance of rule restrictions, incomplete application of rules and false concepts hypothesized. Richards (1971) “refers to the learner’s competence at a particular time, as the transitional competence.”He says that the learner’s competence at a particular stage is full of what he calls as intralingual or developmental errors. These errors illustrate some of the characteristics of language acquisition. The learner’s competence is transitional because it keeps changing as long as the learner tries to improve his competence. If he stops learning his competence at a particular stage becomes his final grammatical competence. These errors are systematic and are not caused by memory lapses, fatigue and the like. These errors occur repeatedly “from one year to the next with any group of learners” (Richards,1971). The following errors demonstrate three different developmental language errors in the sample of writing.

a) Father leaved the country after hearing the news. b) Then I asked where is the post office? c) I was araid and went to meet my frinds.

In the first example, the learner has overgeneralised the rule so leaved is used instead of left. The second also overgeneralises to embedded questions: Then I asked where is the post office? The third shows clear spelling mistakes. As discussed earlier all three are considered as developmental errors. In short, language learning began to be seen as a process which involved the construction of an IL, a ‘transitional competence’ reflecting the dynamic nature of the learner’s developing system.

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Initially, the variation in the use of these two forms is non systematic. That is the forms are used interchangeably with no apparent difference in meaning. This is considered as one source of variability with regard to the variable use of the two forms on negation, no and not.

“Learners tend to pass through stages as they acquire a particular syntactic rule or feature of the language. For example, learners acquiring negation in English as a second language begin by placing a negator in front of some sentence nucleus, such as No+drink beer for I don’t drink beer. In a subsequent stage, learners place the negator within the nucleus: I no drink beer (here, don’t may occur as a variant of no).Later, modals appear and the negator is attached to them. For many learners, however, the negated modal may be an unanalyzed unit, such as I can’t drink beer or I won’t drink beer. In the final stage, learners reach native like negation as the modal and auxiliary system comes under control.” Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991)

According to Eisenstein and Madden (1982) adult ESL learners use V-ing and simple verb forms in a cross- sectional study in free variation, to express similar functions, (Giving me/ Give me the book etc.) It is almost certain that Sinhala speaking undergraduates’ English writing indicates the learner’s use of simple and progressive verb forms like:

a) Giving me what I asked for give me what I asked.

b) Taking steps to prevent… for take steps to prevent ..

“There is another type of variation that may occur from the early stages- Systematic Variation. It is evidenced when two or more sounds/grammatical forms vary contextually. Some variation is linguistically based; some is sociolinguistically determined. While ILs are indeed synchronically variable, much of the internal inconsistency is not due to free variation, systematic.” Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991)

In other words, at least part of the variability can be predicted and accounted for, as due to the effect of situation, linguistic context, degree of planning, or some other identifiable cause. The same learner on a given day may alternate between supplying and omitting definite /indefinite articles, between using plural NPs with and without a plural S allomorph.

It is evident that the sample of writing provides enough examples to show that the learner is not aware of the exact place where the indefinite/definite articles are used. Therefore the learners have overgeneralised the use of indefinite/definite articles’

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References Ariyaratne, M. (2008) A Comparative Study of Word Order in Spoken Sinhala and English. Unpublished PHD thesis. Chomsky, N. (1957) Syntactic Structures, Mouton and Co. http:www// .protile.mypace.com, Accessed on 30th of December 2007. Cook, V. (1991) Second Languages Learning and Languages Teaching, London, Edward Arnold. Corder, S.P. (1967) The Significance of Learners’ Errors. Reprinted in J.C.Richards (ed.) (1974, 1984) Error Analysis: Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. London: Longman, (Originally in International Review of Applied Linguistics, v. 5 (4), pp. 19 - 27. Corder, S.P. (1974) Error Analysis. In J. P. B. Allen and S. Pit Corder (eds.) Techniques in Applied Linguistics (The Edinburgh Course in Applied Linguistics:3), London: Oxford University Press (Language and Language Learning), pp. 122-154. Dulay, H. and Burt, M. (1974). You Can’t Learn without Goofing. In Error Analysis. ed. J. C. Richards. London: Longman. Eisentein, B. and Madden (1982) in Freeman, D.L and Long, M. (1991) An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. New York: Longman. Ellis, R. (1995) Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (1997) SLA Research and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (1999) Theoretical Perspectives on Interaction and Languages Learning. Accessed on 8th of September 2009 from http:ll www. benjamins.com/egi-bin/t Felix, S.W. (1980) The Effect of Formal Instructions on Second Language Acquisition, http:www.interscience.wiley, Accessed on 15th of January 2008. Gass, S. and Selinker, L. (2001) Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. Mahwah, NJ: LEA, chapter 3.2. Hegège, C. (1993) The Language Builder (Current Issues in Linguistics Theory), John Benjamins Publishing Company.

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Selinker and Gass (1994) Second Language Acquisition, An Introductory Course, Lawrence Erlbaum, Associates, Hillsdale. Sridhar, S.N. (1980) Contrastive Analysis, Error analysis, and Interlanguage, IN: J. Fisiak (ed.) Contrastive Linguistics and the Language Teacher. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Taylor, B.P. (1975) The Use of Overgeneralization and Transfer Learning Strategies by Elementary and Intermediate Students of ESL, Language Learning, 25, pp. 73-107. Wode, H. (1978) Developmental Sequences in Naturalistic SLA in E. Hatch (ed) Readings in Second Language Acquisition, Rowleg, M.A. Newbury House. Wode, H.(1981) in D.L Freeman, and M. Long, (1991) An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. New York: Longman.

Rohan Abeywickrama 114 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 115-132 and cultural factors of human life. Normally, the level of development of a country has a direct relationship with the level of urbanization of the country since the development of secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy influences the urban growth. Accordingly, urbanization offers increased opportunities for specialization, production and goods and services. This process is cumulative and moreover increases the general scale of settlements due to the progressive concentration of people and activities in urban areas, changes the economy where by non agricultural activities become dominant, change the structural characteristics of demography, spreads the urbanism beyond the built-up areas of towns including rural dilution and defuse economic, social and technological changes in the rural areas. In this context, most of the developed and developing countries have recognized urbanization as a crucial phenomenon of economic growth and social change of a country because it provides a stimulus towards growth and development. They believe that urban areas are the foci and agents of innovation diffusion and socio economic transformation (Mangiza, 2005). Europe has recognized urbanization as a progressive process and as one of the key forces underlying technological innovation, economic development and socio-political change. Most Latin American countries have linked urbanization to the development models because urban growth was seen as a positive agent of modernization including change. Asia and Africa also have identified urbanization as one of the most conspicuous phenomena which has important and crucial linkages with economic growth and social change. These countries now feel that growth strategies based purely on agriculture are not adequate to create economic growth. Especially the developing countries in the past have sought the solution to this problem through agricultural development. However, the past experiences have shown that, it is difficult to achieve an appreciable level of economic growth through investment only in the rural agricultural sector. This is due to some inherent problems associated with the rural agricultural economy such as low agricultural productivity due to obsolete agricultural practice, inadequate irrigation facilities and poor water management, low price for agricultural products and low absorption capacity of labor due to absence of diversified rural economy (Perera, 1996). These causes imply the problem of stagnation of the rural economy. Therefore, this situation has urged developing countries also to promote the process of urbanization as a growth strategy which brings speedy growth and development in regions. When considering the process of urbanization in the global context, though the level (rate) of urbanization in developed countries is much higher, level of urbanization in developing countries is much lower. For instance, in the South Asian Region the average level of urbanization is around 30 percent, as against the level of 75 percent in industrialized nations (United Nations,

R.J.M. Uduporuwa 116 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 115-132 was associated with the tanks, irrigation channels and hydraulic civilization. The locations of these cities changed according to the changes of the kingdoms in the areas of Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Sigiriya, Yapahuwa, Kurunegala and Kandy. By about the 13th century AD, there was a concentration of population within the south-western quadrant of the island due to the collapse of the hydraulic civilization in the north-central plains as a result of foreign invasions. Most of these coastal towns had grown during the Portuguese and Dutch occupations and were further developed by the British. The inland centres were developed by them for the purposes of administrative, commercial, plantation and holiday resorts etc. Most of these urban centres are located within raw material supply routes that are linked to the main administrative centres in Sri Lanka. These urban centres comprise about ¾ of the total urban population even today. A large concentration is in the city of Colombo and around it. Therefore, the main urban cluster of the country is in the Colombo district with the polarization of Colombo city. In addition, it is possible to identify certain concentrations in the Dry Zone associated with the colonization schemes and in the central hill country which are directly linked to the plantation economy. After the independence also this distribution pattern continued. Considering the nature of urban growth and level of urbanization in Sri Lanka, previous data reveal that Sri Lanka has a slow tempo of urbanization and a low level of urbanization as well. As shown in Table 1 the urban population in Sri Lanka has slowly increased from 1871 up to 1981. The average annual growth rate ranged from 0.8 percent from 1881 and 1963 to 6.2 per cent. The natural increase of population and the increase of migration in the Colombo and Gampaha Districts and colonization projects in the Dry Zone were the factors for this sudden increase in 1963. In addition, the creation of 45 towns and the extension of town limits in three municipalities in 1963 have also increased the urban population (Panditharathne, 1996). After 1963 a decreasing trend can be observed in urban growth and in 2001 there was a slight increase in it up to 2.2 percent. The level of urbanization had increased only by ten fold in nine decades. It gradually increased from 10.8 percent in 1871 up to 22.4 percent in 1971. In 1981 this gradual increase declined to 21.5 percent and dropped to 14.6 percent at the Census in 2001. The major reasons responsible for this decreasing trend of level of urbanization are the absence of an acceptable definition of urban settlements and an- island wide Census in 2001. Definition of urban areas of a country is a very important factor in understanding the real picture of urbanization of a country. Unlike most of other countries an “urban area” in Sri Lanka is not based on any definite criterion as regards the size of population, population density, proportion of the male population in non agricultural occupations or status of civil administration (Panditharathne, 1996). In Sri Lanka, “urban status” is

R.J.M. Uduporuwa 118 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 115-132 excluded by the present urban definition. However, due to the re-classification and the loss of 89 urban settlements, the level of urbanization appears to have declined further to 14.6 percent at the 2001 Census of population. This is due to the direct result of the downgrading of 89 urban centers, the failure to revise city boundaries and to incorporate emerging dynamic centres. Therefore, As Wanasinghe and Karunanayake (2003) pointed out, the country has under-estimated the rapidity of growth of the urban population. According to the Urban Development Authority a more realistic degree Urbanization would 30 per cent and this proportion is projected to increase to 65% by the year 2030.

The other reason for decreasing trend of level of urbanization is the absence of an-island wide Census in 2001. The Census of population in 2001 enumerated only 18 out of 25 districts due to the war situation in the North and Eastern provinces.

Taking the province wise urban growth of the country into consideration, it is obvious that significant differences exist in urban growth rates, the number and the level of urbanization among provinces of the country. According to Table 2 except for the Western Province, all other provinces still experience a low level of urbanization. Western Province being the urbanized core region in the country consists of the highest percentage of urbanization and the highest number of urban centres. All the other provinces of the country have not gained a significant urban growth even today. The clear observation in terms of the levels of urbanization in other provinces (in plantation regions and Dry Zone areas) is their slow growth or stagnation during the last 20 years. However, one noticeable feature of the level of urbanization of the provinces is that the level of urbanization of Dry Zone is somewhat faster than that the level of urbanization of plantation areas. Currently, the level of urbanization of the North-Central Province is higher than that of the Uva and Sabaragamuwa Provinces. This is directly due to the relationship of colonization schemes and the urban development of the Dry Zone areas (Figure 1). Presently, provinces that comprise of plantations are experiencing a very slow growth and a low level of urbanization when compared to the other provinces of Sri Lanka. Uva and Sabaragamuwa being predominantly plantation areas have a very low share of urban population and a fewer number of urban centres. It implies that, though favorable conditions were created by the colonial government for investments and entrepreneurs in these areas in the nineteenth century, at present, such forces have weakened in these areas.

R.J.M. Uduporuwa 120 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 115-132 handling of inputs and outputs directly by the state, signing of the Sirima- Shastri pact, the decreasing importance of railways as a transporter of freight and the decimation of the urban hinterland through out-migration contributed to the reduction of the influence of factors that had originally stimulated urban growth in the plantation areas. Thus, with the Independence in 1948, the contribution of the plantation sector to the overall economy of the country has declined gradually.

Discussion

Urban Growth and Level of Urbanization in the Sabaragamuwa Province Sabaragamuwa Province which is one of the nine provinces located outer periphery in Sri Lanka. (Samarasinghe 1984, Moor, 1984, Wijedasa, 1992, Wanasinghe, 2001). It is bounded North by the North-Western and Central Provinces, East by the Uva Province, South by the Southern Province and West by the Western Province. It covers an extent of 4968.2 Sq. Km of land area and it is 8 per cent of total land area of the country. It consists two administrative districts namely Rathnapura and Kegalle. In terms of climatic conditions, 67 percent of the land area in the province falls within the Wet Zone of the island and the rest of 26 percent is covered by the intermediate and dry climatic conditions. The agro-climatic divergence in the province produces a wide range of agricultural products such as tea, rubber, coconuts, paddy and other export crops, vegetable and fruits. According to the Census of 2001, Sabaragamuwa Province had 1.8 million of population. It accounts for about 10 percent of the national population, in comparison with the 8 per cent of the total land area. The share of population of the province is relatively low when compared with some other provinces such as Western, Central and Southern.

The economy of the Sabaragamuwa Province predominantly consists the agricultural sector. The agricultural sector consists mainly of plantation and paddy cultivation including minor crops. According to the general land use of the Sabaragamuwa Province, nearly 76 percent of the area in the province is under agriculture. 47.2 percent of the population in the Rathnapura District and 31.2 percent in the Kegalle District are engaged in agriculture (Department of Census and Statistics, 2002). As in the case of other provinces in Sri Lanka, the industrial sector of the Sabaragamuwa Province is highly insignificant. The gem industry is one of the important sectors of the economy of the Province. According to most of the socio-economic

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Though there was a considerable increase in the level of urbanization within the intercensal period of 1963-1971, it has slowed down after 1971. Although, in 1981 it has increased up to 7.6 percent and the increase is only 0.5 percent during the 10 year period.

However, according to the Census in 2001, at present the total urban population of the Sabaragamuwa Province is about 75,801. It accounts for 4.2 percent out of the total population of the province. Between the two districts in the province, Rathnapura is more urban than Kegalle. The Rathnapura District accounts for 3.3 percent, while the Kegalle District accounts for 0.9 percent (Table 4). It is far below than most other districts and the national level.

Spatial Distribution of Urban Population in the Sabaragamuwa Province

Similar to the urban population in other provinces in the country, the urban population in the Sabaragamuwa Province is highly unevenly distributed within the Province. Although there were 12 officially declared urban centres at national level in 1981, according to the present administrative structure, the Census in 2001 has identified only 3 urban centres at the national level in three DS Divisions out of 25 DS Divisions (Table 4). All other 21 DS Divisions have no urban areas according to the present administrative system. Rathnapura District consists of 2 urban areas namely Rathnapura and Balangoda while the Kegalle District comprises only one urban area namely Kegalle.

Urban Hierarchy of the Sabaragamuwa Province

According to the Central Place Theory (Christaller,1933) a hierarchical order of service centers of a region or a country is a vertical class system in which service centers might be classified according to the threshold and range values of their functions. Generally orders of a hierarchy could be identified using different criteria such as the rank size of service centers based on population, the extent of area served by a center or the magnitude of the complementary region, types of service functions provided and the number and value significance of functions etc.

R.J.M. Uduporuwa 124 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 115-132 system of distribution and exchange between agricultural areas and urban areas. Therefore, absence of a well developed hierarchical system of urban centers obstructs the emergence of sectorally and geographically balanced pattern of economic growth. Poor countries without such a spatial system cannot achieve geographically diffused development and reduce regional and rural-urban disparities, because, without access to an integrated system of urban hierarchy farmers cannot easily sell their surplus, obtain input, modernize their technology and adopt products to consumer demand (Rondinelli, 1984).

In this context, it can be observed that Sabaragamuwa Province has no well developed urban hierarchy. Although there were 12 officially declared urban centres at national level in 1981 according to the present administrative structure, Sabaragamuwa Province consists only 3 urban centres at the national level in three DS Divisions out of 25 DS Divisions. This is mainly due to the absence of an explicit definition of urban settlements in the country. This situation is a major barrier to realize the current real picture of the urban growth in Sri Lanka and the Sabaragamuwa Province as well.

According to the present administrative structure, urban areas such as Pelmadulla, Kahawatta, Warakapola and Mawanella are presently incorporated into the Pradeshiya Sabhas and are not officially declared as urban centres at the national level though demographically and functionally they are growing faster than other centres in the province. According to section 154 of the Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution in 1987 only the urban local authorities Municipal and Urban Councils have the powers to implement the economic plans under the Municipal Councils Ordinance. As a result, Pradeshiya Sabhas are restricted in their capacity of independent decision making and actions. Under this situation the expansion of urban economic activities, urban services and utilities of most of the towns are restricted as they have not been promoted to Municipalities or Urban Councils. Hence, this situation inhibits the urban growth and its impact on the development in the Sabaragamuwa Province. It restricts the promotion of all kinds of activities such as industries, urban services, constructions, transport, communication and utilities in such towns. This is a great barrier for the dynamism of the centres in the province.

However, at present, at the local level the Urban Development Authority has identified 96 service centres in the Sabaragamuwa Province (Urban Development Authority, 2005). The Rathnapura District consists of 46 centres and the Kegalle District consists of 50 centres. The Urban Development

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Table 5: Local Urban Hierarchy in the Sabaragamuwa Province

Size of population Change of Average Order Urban centre (000) population annual 1981 2001 within growth rate 20 years (000) (%) (1981-2001) 1981-2001 First order Rathnapura ** 37354 46309 8955 1.2

Second Kegalle ** 14928 17430 2502 0.8 order Balangoda ** 10263 12062 1799 0.9 Pelmadulla 6153 8000 1847 1.5 Mawanella 13898 23501 9603 3.5 Kuruwita * 8000 - - Ehaliyagoda * 8900 - - Embilipitiya * 22000 - Third Ruwanwella 4856 7850 2994 3.1 order Rambukkana 5952 7790 1830 1.5 Warakapola 4701 7984 3283 3.5 Kahawatta 3650 5980 2330 3.5 Galigamuwa * 5890 - - Deraniyagala * 4270 - - Yatiyantota 2217 4285 2028 4.6 Rakwana 1799 3985 2186 6.0 Dehiowita 6950 8190 1240 0.9 Nivitigala * 6000 - - Fourth Anguruwalla/ * 4850 - - order Karawanella Bulathkohupitiya * 3110 - -

** National urban centres * No urban status in 1981 Source: Urban Development Authority, (2005)

R.J.M. Uduporuwa 128 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 115-132 factors as well as the immigration of British planters and South Indian plantation workers contributed to the emergence of a number of service centres in the hill country areas. During that period theses service centres played a vital role as collecting centres of agricultural produce and catering goods and services to the population in these areas. After Independence, a number of negative impacts existed on the growth of service centres in these areas due to the gradual decline of the plantation sector. After Independence these service centres developed within a separate framework. Since the population in the country increased rapidly after Independence these service centres had to cater to a large population.

Presently, the most striking feature in relation to the urban growth in the Sabaragamuwa Province is the very slow growth (in 2001 negative growth) of urban population and the lowest level of urbanization among all other provinces of Sri Lanka. It still remains as a highly agricultural region though there were a number of development programs during the last 20 years. Although Sabaragamuwa Province has several functionally and demographically dynamic service centres, they have not been identified as urban centres at the National level and only 3 centres have been identified as national centres. Therefore, the spatial distribution of urban population in the province also is highly uneven.

The absence of an accepted definition for urban areas is the major factor which is responsible for inhibiting the real picture of urban growth and urbanization in the regions as well in the country. Due to this situation the country has under-estimated the rapidity of growth of the urban population. Therefore, redefinition of urban areas is essential for the country.

Since urbanization is a powerful instrument for promoting economic and social change, the slow growth and low level of urbanization directly and indirectly affect the less dynamic economy of the province. Therefore, if necessary actions are not taken to promote the process of urbanization in the Sabaragamuwa Province, it will be a major obstacle to the development of the Sabaragamuwa Province.

References Berry, B.J.L. (1967) Geography of Market Centres and Retail Distribution, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Christaller, W. (1933) Cental Place Theory in Southern Germany, Translated by Baskin, C.W. 1966. Englewood Cliffs, L.J: Prentice-Hall.

R.J.M. Uduporuwa 130 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 115-132

Rondinelli, D.A. and Ruddle, K. (1978) Urbanization and Rural Develop- ment: A Spatial Policy for Equitable Growth, Praeger Publisher Special Studies, New York. Rondinelli, D.A. (1984) Small Towns in Developing Countries; Potential Centres of Growth, Transformation and Integration. in H. Detlef Kammeier, and Peter J. Swan (ed) Equity with Growth? Planning Per- spectives for Small Towns in Developing Countries, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand. Samarasinghe, V. (1984) Government Policy and Regional Development in Sri Lanka, Paper Presented at the Seminar on Staff Studies (9th March) University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Uduporuwa, R.J.M. (2005) Strengthening Small and Medium Size Service Centres in the Sabaragamuwa Province, Unpublished M.Phil Dissertation, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. Uduporuwa, R.J.M. (2007) Regional Dimensions in Sri Lanka, Sabaragamuwa University Journal, v. 7(1). United Nations (2002) World Urbanization Prospects: the 1999 revision, New York. United Nations. Urban Development Authority (2005) “Urban Hierarchy in the Sabaragamuwa Province” Sab Office Ratnapura. Wanasinghe, Y.A.D.S. (1995) Urban Growth and Recent Urbanization Trends in Sri Lanka in Mauri Palomaki and J.A. Karunaratne (ed), Acta Wasanesia No 45, Geography 6, Vaasa Finland. Wanasinghe, Y.A.D.S. (2001) Regional Imbalances in Sri Lanka: A Critique of Regional Development Policies and Strategies in M. M. Karunanayake (ed) People, Space and Resources: Perspectives on Development Issues in Rural Sri Lanka, Department of Geography, University of Sri Jayewardenepura-Sida/SAREC Research Cooperation Project. Wanasinghe, Y.A.D.S. and Karunanayake, M.M. (2003) Urban Development and Regional Planning in Sri Lanka in M. M. Karunanayake (ed) Rural- Urban Interface in Sri Lanka: Studies in Regional Development, Department of Geography, University of Sri Jayewardenepura-Sida/ SAREC Research Cooperation Project. Wijedasa, M.B. (1992) Spatial Patterns in Socio-Economic Well-being in Sri Lanka, Malaysian Journal of Geography, (June).

R.J.M. Uduporuwa 132 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 133-145

According to the GTZ (1998) a country must fulfill the following in order to fulfill the tenure security needs;  functional certainty and security of the law and human rights;  public participation in the politics of land issues;  credit systems that acknowledge secured tenure as collateral;  functional and accountable institutions and authority;  improved employment and business investment opportunities; and  a functioning land market and economy (GTZ, 1998).

Further, even though such conditions fulfill its importance to ascertain whether the existing tenure system provides insufficient tenure security (e.g. number of prevalent land disputes), there are many situations where customary tenure system provides sufficient security for investments. There is also no need for formal land registry when it is of little or no demand for land transactions, as customary systems are sufficient to facilitate the volume of transactions (Feder and Nishio, 1999). It is also worth not to overlook the social or cultural norms, retractions and prohibitions which limits the transaction of land. Neglecting them would result in difficulties to achieve the desired objective of formal land registration systems. It may also contribute to ‘land grabbing’ by the well privileged groups (e.g. land officers, elites) in societies. This may contribute to form landless classes within the society due to the fact that smallholders and the poor will be tempted to sell their lands to larger landowners and wealthier persons. Hence it is imperative to investigate the title registration of Sri Lanka and study its effectiveness in providing secure land tenure before further investing large sums of money. In embarking on such a study the present paper confines its investigation to one of the customary tenure system in Sri Lanka named service tenure. This system is one of the very complex tenure systems in Sri Lanka due to its unique development under various political, cultural, economical and natural influences. Hence, the outcome of the study clears the way to evaluate the effectiveness of the Sri Lankan title registration system against one of the most complex tenure systems in Sri Lanka.

In view of the above observations it is intended to identify the outcomes from secure tenure elements within the areas where service tenure exists and investigates the factors behind the outcomes so as to find the effectiveness that affect security of title registration in providing secure land tenure with the service tenure areas.

Theoretical Framework The objective of this section is to find an analytical framework to study land tenure system so as to identify the effectiveness of a tenure system in providing a secure land tenure.

N.M.P.M. Piyasena 134 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 133-145

According to Feder and Feeny (1991) formal institutions consist of the constitutional order and institutional arrangement while informal institutions consist of normative behavioral codes. The constitutional order refers to the fundamental rules and how society is organized. Institutional arrangements are created within the rules specified by the constitutional order. These arrangements include laws, regulations, associations, contracts and also the property rights in land. The third category, normative behavioral codes, refers to the cultural values which legitimize the arrangements and behavioral constraints.

When studying the land tenure systems in Asian, African and certain other countries, the informal institutions need to be differentiated further. Within these countries, informal institutions consists of customary and other legitimate institutions. Customary institutions can be distinguished from other legitimate institutions as customary institutions have standard organizations1 while legitimate institutions may or may not have organizations. If it has organizations they are common only for a few groups of people (e.g. a small community). Hence, for the purpose of this study four types of institutions were used; namely, constitutional order, institutional arrangement, customary institutions and other legitimate (or informal) institutions (Piyasena, 2009).

The creation of institutions within a land tenure system can be explained as follows. Due to the interests and ideological imperatives on the lands by individuals, a human to land interaction is created. However, as humans live in a community, other individuals who are living in the same community may have the same or different interests and ideological imperatives over land and demand property rights to satisfy their interests. As such, human to human interactions are created. Nevertheless, these human to land and human to human interactions also form organizations in order to regulate such interactions. Such organizations can be formed from formal institutions such as constitutional order or informal institutions. However, once they are formed we can consider them as separate bodies with their own interests/ objectives over the land and its resources (e.g. forest department). Hence, in order to satisfy their interest, individuals need to have an interaction with these organizations as well. As such, there are basically three kinds of interactions (or relations) created from an individuals’ side; namely individual to land, individual to individuals and individual to organizations (Figure 1). The institutions governing these interactions define not only rights and restrictions but also responsibilities, values and norms. As we discussed in the above session, these institutions can broadly be classified into constitutional order, formal, customary, and informal. Individual to land and individual to

N.M.P.M. Piyasena 136 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 133-145

INDIVIDUAL TO INDIVIDUAL ORGANIZATIONS TO ORGANIZATIONS

(INFORMAL) (Formal, CUSTOMARY &

C O )

LAND

Figure 2: Land tenure system (Source: Piyasena, 2009) A land tenure system hence consists of six complex relations. These relations are controlled by institutions which contain rights, restrictions, responsibilities, values and norms.

The proper function of the above institutions is necessary for providing land tenure security, which has been identified as the prime requirement by The United Nations Centre for Human Development (Deininger, 2003). The elements of secure tenure may change according to the objectives of the stakeholders. However, according to Deininger (2003) general elements of secure tenure are namely: “duration of rights, boundary definition, subject of rights, properties of enforcement institutions, and the evolution of rights in response to changing relative scarcities. Duration of rights provide sufficient time to reap the benefits of investment (FAO, 1999). Proper boundary definition leads to less ambiguity and thus fewer disputes. Mean while, subjects of rights; either private or communal rights, need to be selected according to appropriate conditions under which they perform well for providing secure tenure. The enforcement of organizations needs to be easily accessible, legitimate and accountable to ensure proper implementation of such rights (Deininger, 2003). New property rights need to be defined and implemented together with changes in resource value (e.g. due to population growth) in order to accommodate new cost benefit situations. Without adequate institutional changes it would result in conflicts and thus insecure tenure (Deininger, 2003).

Methodology Initially, an analytical framework has been developed from literature in order to understand and analyse the service tenure system. A case study method was used to investigate a service tenure system. This method allows us to have a closer look at the ground conditions. Data were collected in pre- identified areas as service tenure is only limited to a few areas of Sri Lanka. From the initial literature survey it was able to identify that Balangoda and Imbulpe divisional secretariat divisions has well established service tenure

N.M.P.M. Piyasena 138 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 133-145

Main objective of the below data analysis model in Figure 3 was to identify the main causes behind each of positive and negative outcomes from the secure tenure elements. For this purpose models developed in the theoretical framework has been used. Accordingly the service tenure system can be subdivided into three main components, namely, system of ownership, system of resource sharing and system of labour sharing. Each of these components may consists of six types of relations between man, land and organization. Once relation/s are identified behind each of the outcomes, the models identified in the theoretical framework can be used to find out the main cause/s behind the outcomes. The results were put into a Table.

+/- Outcomes from secure Involving Factors Relations -individual tenure element /organizational

Constitutional Duration of rights Man to land relation Order System of Man to man relation Ownership Formal institutions Boundary definitions Man to organizational System of Service relations resource Tenure Informal sharing System Subjects of rights Institutions

System Customary Properties of en forcing Institutions Organization to land organizations relation

Other Factors Evolution of rights with -Natural Organization to man changing conditions relation -Demographic -Economic etc. Organization to organization relations

Figure 3: Analytical Model

Table 1 in section 5 represents a sample format of the table. This allows to determine whether the existing tenure system provides sufficient secure tenure or not for individuals as well as relevant organizations (e.g. Devala). Then the investigation was made to identify whether the measurements taken by the title registration system (Bimsaviya) is sufficient or not to uplift the existing tenure security, if the service tenure do not provide sufficient secure tenure.

According to Table 1 the outcomes were represented according to the relations involved. This is necessary in order to find out what causes are involved. The models in Figure 1 have being used for this purpose.

N.M.P.M. Piyasena 140 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 133-145 weight 4 of the same diagram resulting from the combination of relations R1, R2 and R3, thus represented in cage R1R2R3. In a similar manner the outcome weight 24 resulting from R1 and thus represented in cage R1, 4R1 and so on.

Similar to outcomes from individuals’ side, the organizational outcomes mainly result from three basic relations namely, organization to land (R4), organization to individuals (R5), and organization to organizations (R6). These outcomes can be represented as O4, O5, and O6 respectively. However, similar to the individuals’ side, there are also other outcomes which result from a possible combination of these relations which can be represented as O4O5, O4O6, O5O6, and O4O5O6. The negative and positive outcomes from organizational side can be represented in Figure 4 and 5 respectively.

Outcomes related to institutions Outcomes related to Other Factors - + + - R1 R1 2 R2 R2 - R1 24 R1 14 R3 R3 26 0

5 4 R2 R2 12 6 R2 R2 39 27

14 R1 10 R1 R3 R3 6 R2 12 R2

R3 R3 Outcome = 118 Outcome = 81 R1 –Individual to land relation R2 – Individual to organizations relation R3 – Individual to individuals relations

Figure 4: Outcomes from the individual’s side

Outcomes related to institutions Outcomes related to other factors + - + - R4 R4

R5 R5 4 70 41 R4 15 R4 1 R6 R6 34 30 4 0 R5 R5 4 21 R5 R5 76 61

6 R4 18 R4 R6 R6 23 R5 38 R5

R6 R6 Outcome = 158 Outcome = 213

R4 –Organization to land relation R5 – Organization to individuals relation R6 – Organization to organizations relation

Figure 5: Outcomes from the organizational side

N.M.P.M. Piyasena 142 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 133-145 other causes. Other causes consist of natural and economical causes which is beyond the scope of the study. However, when studying the results illustrated in figure 6 bulk of the causes for insecure tenure lie within the category of institutional causes. To this end, individual title registration partially eliminates causes for insecure tenure in service tenure areas as it tries to formalize the existing rights over land. However, there is a risk of disturbing the existing web of relations within service tenure relations and thus further depart the institutional inconsistencies within the concerned areas as individual title registration do not recognize the secondary rights of all three components of the tenure system, namely system of ownership, system of resource sharing and system of labor sharing.

Tenure system within the service tenure areas needs to be built from the existing situations. To this end, functions of the informal institutions under the framework of identified vision of humankind to land relations (UN-FIG, 1999) are largely important. One of the main focus of informal institutional development need to empower people and their capacity building to solve local secure land tenure problems locally to a greater degrees. Further, tenure reforms can not be considered as an individual component. It must be a part of the whole process of rural development. As such, establishment of norms for good governance is important to sustain the tenure system.

Footnotes

1Well known to the community and society

References Deininger, K. (2003) Land Policies for Growth and Poverty Reduction: The World Bank,Washington DC. Dekker, H.A.L. (2003) The Invisible Line, Land Reform, Land Tenure Security, and Land Registration: Universiteit van Amsterdam. Dey, I. (1998) Qualitative Data Analysis, A user-friendly guide for social scientist, Buddles Ltd, Guildford and King’s Lynn. Feder, G. and Feeny, D. (1991) Land Tenure and Property Rights: Theory and Implications for Developing Countries, The world Bank Economic Review, v. 5(1). Feder, G. and Nishio, A.(1999) The benifits of land registration and titling: Economic and social perspectives, paper presented at international conference of land tenure and land administration, Orlando, Florida, Nov 12-14.

N.M.P.M. Piyasena 144 146 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 147-169

The employment generated from seasonal village tank fish culture is estimated to be around 6 000 of which 13 percent are women (Siriwardena and Jayakody, 2003). It was estimated in 1999 that the shrimp aquaculture industry provided approximately 40 000 jobs both directly and indirectly, which represents 11 percent of the total employment in the fisheries sector (Siriwardena, 1999). However, the previously estimated figure of 20 000 directly employed as a result of shrimp farming has currently been reduced to 8 000 due to the repeated occurrence of disease within the shrimp industry. The participation of women in shrimp aquaculture is around 5 percent of the total workforce (Siriwardena and Jayakody, 2003). An estimated 2 500 people are engaged in the production and breeding of ornamental fish (Haputanthri et al., 2001) of which around 30 percent are estimated to be women, however, no thorough survey has been carried out on this aspect (Siriwardena and Jayakody, 2003).

Supply status has been changing drastically through out the year and depends highly on the availability of rain. Consumption behavior affects badly on the changing the supply of aquaculture fish to the domestic market. In general, people in rural areas used to consume more freshwater fish, compared to coastal communities. Only a handful of researchers paid attention on supply chain management of Sri Lankan fisheries and this study aims to investigate the supply chain management in aquaculture industry. This paper reviews the peculiarities of the supply chains in the fishing industry with its highly fluctuating raw material supply and stringent quality demands.

Study methodology The study supply chain analysis of aquaculture industry of Sri Lanka has been structured to capture the essence of the process and flow of the value chain in aquaculture. The framework of the study will help to understand the levels of supply chain, its role and importance, the cost of operation, the barriers to entry, mobility and exit, the economies of scale, the effect of market forces viz the demand and supply forces. The study has been designed to map the key processes and flows in the supply chain of aquaculture in the local market.

Research framework The frame work employed in the research “supply chain analysis of aquaculture” in Sri Lanka is a stratified frame work in which the stake holders are employed on the horizontal axis of inquiry and the various concerns and

S.P.M. Jayantha and D.A.M. De Silva 148 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 147-169

The regional markets were selected on the basis of the size of the operation, number of forward and backward linkages, the volume of daily trade, etc. The places covered were mainly the landing centers in West coast, North- Central, East and Sabaragamuwa provinces. These landing centers were both inland landing centers and brackish water landing centers. The major regional market for fishing was covered during the study to develop a good understanding of the food fish aquaculture supply chain. The study sampling has been done to incorporate all the stake holders in the study and hence helps to produce a complete picture of the fishery value chain.

The “fishbone diagram” is an analysis tool that provides a systematic way of looking at effects and the causes that create or contribute to those effects. Because of the function of the fishbone diagram, it may be referred to as a cause-and-effect diagram. The value of the “fishbone diagram” is to assist teams in categorizing the many potential causes of problems or issues in an orderly way and in identifying root the causes.

The process of construction of fish bone diagram consists of following steps (NCDENR, 2002).

1. Draw the fishbone diagram

2. List the problem/issue to be studied in the “head of the fish”.

3. Label each “”bone” of the “fish”. The major categories typically utilized are:

- The 4 M’s: Methods, Machines, Materials, Manpower

- The 4 P’s: Place, Procedure, People, Policies

- The 4 S’s: Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills

4. Use an idea-generating technique (e.g., brainstorming) to identify the factors within each category that may be affecting the problem/issue and/or effect being studied. The team should ask, “What are the issues affecting/ causing...”

5. Repeat this procedure with each factor under the category to produce sub-factors. Continue asking, “Why is this happening?” and put additional segments for each factor and subsequently under each sub-factor.

6. Continue until you no longer get useful information as you ask, “Why is that happening?”

S.P.M. Jayantha and D.A.M. De Silva 150 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 147-169

Figure 1: Map of the major inland fish and aquaculture landing sites and research locations; (Source: Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources)

S.P.M. Jayantha and D.A.M. De Silva 152 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 147-169

Market and product segmentation Segregation of product and market into district segments provide insight to compare the value chain, keeping in focus the product and market characteristics and find out uniqueness. Segmentation classifies people into groups based on shared characteristics (Sanyal and McLaughlin, 1993). Market segmentation is a selection of groups of people who are most receptive to a product. The segmentation of the market is done on demographic variables such as age, sex, race, income, occupation, education, household status and geographic location and psychographic variables such as lifestyle, activities, interestsand opinions, product use patterns, product benefits. The segmentation of the aquaculture species has been done on the basis of the demand of the various species in different markets. Market segregation is an indicative categorization based on the cumulation of price, availability, demand of the specific species in the market. Table 2 gives the market segmentation of important aquaculture species.

Table 2: Preferential Ranking of Species – Market Wise

Name of the fish Local Regional Market Export Market Species Market Prawn *** *** *** Mud crab *** *** ** Tilapia *** *** *** Common carp ** * * Cat fish (local) *** *** Nil Big head carp ** ** Nil Silver carp * * Nil Rohu * * Nil Hirikanaya * * Nil

Local market Local markets are essentially the markets near the landing centers (in the periphery of 25 – 30 Km accessible by foot cycles and motor cycles), which include villages, sub divisions and nearby towns. The demand in these markets

S.P.M. Jayantha and D.A.M. De Silva 154 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 147-169

Product segmentation Product segmentation is the process through which products having similar affinity and nature cluster together and follows almost the same line of growth, cater to the similar kind of market and behave in a similar way under the forces of demand and supply. In this study the value of the product can be distinctly classified in four value slabs, i.e. export value product, high value product, av. value product and low value product. Table 3 presents the inland fish catch by major species and Table 4 brings average fish prices of various product segments.

Table 3: Inland fish catch by major species (Mt)

Species 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Thilapiya 23150 17870 22190 21620 19320 22510

Carps1 9190 9050 5420 6130 9560 7630

Local2 *** *** 3190 3210 3930 4660

Cultured 4360 3360 2380 1870 2480 3580 prawns Total 36700 30280 33180 32830 35290 38380

Source: Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Development

Table 4: average prices for various product segments

Product segment Product Av. Price/Kg/LKR

Export value product Prawn 600.00 – 700.00

High value product Prawn 500.00 – 600.00 Tilapia 150.00 – 170.00 Carps 130.00 – 140.00 Average value product Prawn 400.00 – 500.00 Tilapia 110.00 – 140.00 Carps 110.00 – 130.00 Low value product Prawn 350.00 – 400.00 Tilapia 100.00 – 120.00 Carps 100.00 – 110.00

Source: Field survey-February 2009.

S.P.M. Jayantha and D.A.M. De Silva 156 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 147-169 highly species oriented. The supply chain followed in this segment starts from the landing center where procurement is made the collection point in this case is the middlemen followed by the agents and the wholesaler at the regional market which then feeds it to the distribution channel comprising of the retailers. The product of this segment undergoes minimal processing. The sorting of the product is taken up by the middlemen who further also takes up temporary freezing arrangements and arrangement for the transportation to the regional market. The profit margins for this segment is moderate to high depending upon the species of catch, quality of the catch, size of the catch, present market demand.

Average value product The products of this segment are consumed in the local market or the regional market. Apart from local consumption, these products also meet the industrial requirement for poultry feed and other ancillary units. The profit margin in this segment is lower compared to high value market.

Low value product This product segment caters to the small fishers of very low economic value. The prices of the products are determined the local players. As it is a product of low value, the chain is a diffused chain and is dominated by the fishermen. The direct buyers/ retail agents are the important players in this segment. The profit margin is very low. The general supply chain of this product segment initiates at the landing center and directly ends up with the final consumers.

Figure 4 and 5 describe the value chain of the product (fish) from landing centers (except the case of culture of fish) to the final consumer taking into consideration the entire gamut of service providers at various levels of the chain, the value addition done, the service provided or the subsequent value added to the product before consumption in lieu of the profit, from the operations undertaken by them (OXFAM, 2005).

Fishing sector constitutes a value chain composed of two different phases forming a system ; the capture (food fish)/culture (prawn and shrimp) is the primary phase and the industrial or secondary phase. The industrial phase of food fish aquaculture composed of three cycles; first cycle is freezing the second cycle involves physical processing that makes it possible to obtain a standard frozen product and third cycle is production of processed foods.

S.P.M. Jayantha and D.A.M. De Silva 158 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 147-169 Figure 5: Supply Chain Management for Prawn for Management Chain Supply 5: Figure

S.P.M. Jayantha and D.A.M. De Silva 160 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 147-169 process and procedures in the chain is highly male dominated. Typically women are entrusted with the role of fish handling and processing.

Stakeholders

The important stakeholders who are associated with the value chain can be divided into 3 categories (Table 5).

Table 5: Stakeholders existing in value chain Subsistence Livelihood Economic Conservation

Traditional fishermen Middlemen and wholesalers Government

Laborers Exporters and processing units Non Governmental Organizations and other

Farmers Craft owners Individuals

Ancillary service provider Other service providers

Vendors

Source: field survey, February 2009 People included into subsistence category comprises of poor fishermen whose entire livelihood comes from aquaculture. In the fishery value chain the industry/ processors are on the top. The scale of operation cost of capital employed and competition at the global level is very high. This segment caters both to the domestic retail market as well as to the requirement of the processing plants and exporters. The institutions belongs to conservation category promotes conservation ideology and is against destructive practices that are not in harmony with and create ecological imbalance.

BCG Matrix

The cash cows of the fishery industry are high value products meant for the domestic market. They show the attribute of yielding a constant profit over the period of years. The contribution of the product line of this segment has been more or less regular. Cash cows are the stable products with an established value chain and a stable return pattern. The players of the value chain are certain about the profit margin and the sharing ratios are normally fixed and acceptable. Prawn and Tilapia belongs to this category (Table 6). Stars on the inland fishery are the export value products as the product line produces exemplary profit. Yet, the international markets for theses product

S.P.M. Jayantha and D.A.M. De Silva 162 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 147-169 prevalent in food fish aquaculture by the other dominant actors of the supply chain. The oligopoly of the few middlemen has distorted the profitability balance in their favor. Poor market awareness is common and fishers have to depend on the price set by the middlemen. Poor bargaining power of the fishermen leads to lower the profit margins. (2002) Ishikawa (2002) diagram) NCDENR, Figure Figure 6: Fish analysis bone (

S.P.M. Jayantha and D.A.M. De Silva 164 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 147-169 to the extent of the final price realized by end consumers. Only about 25-30 % goes to the first leg of the supply chain. Notable exception observed being for high value products like prawns and shrimps where intermediaries are less in number and fishermen fetched between 70-75 % of the consumer price.

The logistical infrastructure is week except for prawn aquaculture. Prawn and shrimp farming facilities are built up with private sector investments and designed to meet international requirements. Efforts being made by the National Aquaculture Development Authority together with Asian Development Bank to improve the logistical facilities including strengthening fish breeding and research centers, marketing facilities, chilling centers, processing centers and training centers. There is complete absence of insulated vehicles except those owned by the exporters, which have an adverse effect on the keeping quality. The same is true for timely availability of transportation vehicles though few individual traders are resorting to use their own vehicles. Supply chain is handled by the few hands belong to the landing centers and which leads to create entry barriers to others.

The research findings point out to the presence of patron-client relationship through out the supply chain. The absence of clear policy on the rights of fishing grounds and natural resources from livelihood perspective and well laid out guidelines and regulations for its enforcement is essential. This is very important to strengthen and perpetuate the patron-client relationship. The supply of financial resources for the further investment is highly dependent on informal financial sources such as village money lenders, boat owners (patron-client) and agents. There is prevalence of “Advance mortgaging of the catch”. The fishermen are loaned money by the traders / exporters who in turn have absolute right over the catch in essence the fishermen lose right over their catch even before venturing into the sea. The regional markets are governed by the local demand. Preference for fish species in the rural markets depends on availability in rural markets. Majority of the wholesale and regional markets function as commission agents on behalf of the suppliers from the landing centers with a few exceptions. The payment system adopted at the regional market is cash intermingled with credit. Regular mechanisms adopted at the regional market is cash intermingled with credit. Regular mechanisms were found weak, reasons being manifold from the absence of adequate infrastructural facilities and unstable political power. Legal procedures for the international market and it’s implementation are comparably well functioning. Community managed fishery rules and regulations are helping to utilize the resources even among the participants.

S.P.M. Jayantha and D.A.M. De Silva 166 Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 147-169

Long term strengthening the existing supply chain Government or NAQDA’s attention has paid to the incipient development of new fishery activities. Direct investment and or transfer of technology, technical assistance, equipment and input supply for breeding of high yielding species and other species, taking advantage of the environmental conditions of the water bodies, especially reservoirs and seasonal tanks. Transfer of technology, technical assistance and equipment and input supply for aquaculture activities in the coastal and inland waters. Huge potentials do exist in coastal aquaculture plus the brackish water fish farming around the island.

Transfer of technology, technical assistance and equipment and input supply for fish producing for both domestic and international markets are very important needs. Market demand is high for fish and fishery products processed using traditional food preservation methods and ethnic markets should widely open. The important areas to focused on international market are target for more value added products rather then raw material supply, re-processing of the products from neighbors such as Maldives, India, Vietnam and Bangladesh and export to higher value markets, searching for new niche markets and cater to ethnic Sri Lankan markets and research on new product development.

References Haputanthri, S., Perera, P.A.J.C. and Vidanage, S.P. (2001) Development of ornamental fish production and culture for increased export earnings and employment opportunities. Unpublished report of NARA, Colombo 15, Sri Lanka. pp. 49. Ishikawa, K. (1990) (Translator: J. H. Loftus); Introduction to Quality Control; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishikawa_diagram, Accessed on 20th January 2009, pp. 448. Mercer, D.A. (1993) Two Decade Test of Product Life Cycle Theory pp 269-274, British Journal of Management, v. 4, pp. 269-274. National Aquaculture Development Authority of Sri Lanka (2009) Annual report, National Aquaculture Development Authority of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources (NCDENR) (2002) Fish bone diagram: A problem analysis tool, , http:/ /quality.enr.state.nc.us/tools/fishbone.htm, Accessed on 3rd November 2008.

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