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How to Form Halocline Water?

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How to Form Halocline Water? How to form halocline water? Atlantic water - cannot form Halocline water simply by mixing (Aagaard, 1981) Surface Water Adapted from Steele and Boyd, 1998 Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate ADVECTIVE HC Temp Fresh Salty Aagaard et al, 1981 ~ 50m ADD COLD, SALTY ~ 100m CONVECTIVE HC Temp Salty Rudels et al, 1996 ADD ~ 50m COLD, FRESH Convect ~ 100m Steele and Boyd, 1998 – source of halocline water differs (advective or convective) Woodgate et al, 2001 – temperature of halocline water differs (convective must be at freezing temperature, advective may or may not be at freezing) Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Halocline formation Convective Advective Woodgate etal, 2001 Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Basin/Shelf FSBW/BSBW origin Black= FSBW Blue = BSBW Red = AW Green = Rivers Orange = Pacific inflow .. but what about change?? Rudels et al, 2004, Polar Research Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Retreat of the Cold Halocline (Steele and Boyd, 1998) In 1995, only Makarov has a cold halocline Use salinity in 40-60m band as an indicator Hi S = NO CHL Lo S = CHL Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Retreat of the Cold Halocline (Steele and Boyd, 1998) Injection point of freshwater (Russian Rivers) has changed Backed up by chemical data, Ekwurzel et al., 2001 PREVIOUS – RW into Eurasian Basin – CHL in Eurasian Basin 1995 – RW along shelf instead – no CHL in Eurasian Basin Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Decadal averages of Russian Data 1950s to 1980s http://nsidc.org/data/g01961.html (see also Swift et al, 2005 annual averages in boxes 1948-1993 - ftp:://odf.ucsd.edu/pub/jswift/arctic_aari_method_B Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate “Levitus” for the Arctic http://psc.apl,washington.edu/Climatology.html Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate The (partial) return of the Cold Halocline (Boyd et al, 2002) Consider (upper 80m) S over Lomo Ridge - 1995 ~ 34 psu – no CHL - 1997 ~ 33.55 psu - 1999 ~ 33 psu - 2000 ~ 33.3 psu – CHL returning What could be causing this?? So far, this is EASTERN Arctic story, what about the Western Arctic Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Western versus Eastern Arctic Halocline WESTERN ARCTIC (PACIFIC) HALOCLINE - greater salinity range - fresher at surface - general Tmax above Tmin - very varied - (rich in nutrients) BSW – Bering Sea Water UHW – Upper Halocline Water LHW – Lower Halocline Water AW – Atlantic Water DW – Deep Water Adapted from Steele and Boyd 1998 EASTERN ARCTIC (ATLANTIC) HALOCLINE - less salinity range - saltier at surface - sharper bend in TS space Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Arctic Intermediate Western versus Eastern ArcticWater Halocline Image from Steele and Boyd 1998 Atlantic Water Polar Water Arctic Surface Water European Speak: e.g. Manley et al, 1992 BSW – Bering Sea Water Polar Water T: < 0 deg C and S: <34.4 psu UHW – Upper Halocline Water Arctic Surface Water T: < 0 deg C and S: 34.4-34.9 psu LHW – Lower Halocline Water Atlantic Intermediate Water T: 0-3 deg C and S: 34.4-34.9 psu AW – Atlantic Water Atlantic Water T: > 3 deg C and S: > 34.9 psu DW – Deep Water Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Shift of Pacific/Atlantic Front JGR, 1996 JGR, 2005 Historic Russian Data - use TS and chemistry to show Pacific - silicate profiles in central Makarov Atlantic Front retreated from Lomo Ridge - Si max disappears in late 1980s to Mendeleev Ridge by 1993 Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Bering Strait and the Chukchi Sea COLDER WARMER Nutrient-rich SALTIER FRESHER Anadyr waters RICHER IN NUTRIENTS LOWER IN NUTRIENTS To first order, Bering Shelf except for waters - cooling - input from Alaskan coastal Coastal Current polynyas, (warm, fresh, Chukchi seasonal) dominated by input through Siberian Bering Strait Coastal Current (cold, fresh, Export to Arctic seasonal) ~ Input through Stagnation Bering Strait Zones over Herald and Hanna Shoals Woodgate et al, DSR, 2005, http://psc.apl.washington.edu/Chukchi.html Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate JGR, 2004 ACW=Alaskan Coastal Water sBSW = summer Bering Sea Water Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Generic Pacific Water circulation Steele et al, 2004 - change in pathway with change in Atmospheric state - shift of Pacific/Atlantic boundary from Lomonosov Ridge BUT - doesn’t always match Fram Strait outflow – is there a better tracer Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate - how get the Pacific Water off from the Chukchi Chukchi Sea Outflow Long = TOPOGRAPHIC CONSTRAINTS Strait (Potential Vorticity Conservation) - Taylor columns in Chukchi - flow ~ along isobaths eastward BUT WE SEE PW GETS AWAY FROM TOPOGRAPHY = FRICTION (TOP or BOTTOM) = DENSITY DIFFERENCES - dense water outflows =Four main outflows = WIND EFFECTS 1. Barrow Canyon 2. Central Gap - upwelling and downwelling 3. Herald Canyon 4. Long Strait?? - undercurrents = Most nutrients in West = EDDIES = Outflows move east & north = INERTIAL and TIDAL = Seasonal & interannual variability OSCILLATIONS AND MIXING in TS (thus density and equilibrium depth) and also in volume Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Dense Water Outflow – e.g. from coastal polynyas (e.g. Martin et al, 2004) X Wind Ice S flux as new ice Dense water on shelf ICE Temperature Dense water flows down shelf as a ICE descending plume, Thickness entraining water. (i.e. down, but not OUT) Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate 2002, JGR ~0.06Sv - can get the salinities, but volume is small Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Wind effects X Wind X Wind isopycnal Upwelling of deeper water If initial stratification enough, - can come up canyon can get undercurrent onto the shelf opposite to the wind - cf Chukchi slope (Yoshida Undercurrent) canyons, Barrow Canyon, - cf Beaufort slope and many others Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Results of a strong westward wind 3rd October 5th October Ship’s ADCP of the Beaufort slope current system (red= towards you) (Andreas Muncheow, UDel) Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Chukchi slope velocity 2002-2003 red=73 20N blue=73 37N Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Chukchi Slope 2002-2003 TS-properties Temperature Maximum is December – March, i.e. advective from the south Intrusions of Atlantic Water in Autumn 73 20N - red 60m/70m water 73 37N - cyan 60m/110m water - navy 100m/110m water Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Upwelling versus polynyas?? Use Silicate to track Pacific Water in the Chukchi Borderland Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Can we get this TS from Bering Strait?? NO ... salinities are only near 34 psu in extreme winters, and then the waters are at freezing, not warmer Bering Strait TS 1990-1991 Woodgate et al, 2005 Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Influence of shelf waters?? Along the Chukchi Shelf, upwelling and diapycnal mixing of lower halocline waters and Pacific waters (Note ventilation by polynya waters couldn’t give this T-S structure) (Woodgate et al, 2005) Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate The Eddy Band-wagon Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Eddies in the Beaufort Sea e.g.,Hunkins and Manley, Plueddemann and MANY others http://www.whoi.edu/science/PO/arcticgroup/projects/eddies.html halocline depth Arctic Rossby Radius Predominantly Anticyclonic Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Eddy Census 1 eddy = (10 km radius, 50m) 10 3 - XBT lines ~ 2 x 10 m Flux through Bering Strait ~ 1 Sv ~ 3 x 1013 m3 per yr If all eddies, makes ~1000 eddies a year. Do we see 1000 eddies??? - no Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate Eddies in the non-Beaufort Arctic (Woodgate et al, 2001) LM2 LM3 LM1 TWO EDDY TYPES Cold (Tf), Fresh, near surface, AC, - likely from shelf polynyas Warm, Salty, ~ 1000m deep, AC - instabilities on upstream front (e.g. St Anna) 40 cm/s; ~ 10km radius, but volume flux ~ 0.1 Sv or less Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate DISSOLVED OXYGEN - High at surface (ventilated from atmosphere) PW - Low Oxygen - Low = OLD water (long time since at surface) or = Evidence of high biological activity THUS – Pacific Water has LOW Dissolved Oxygen Water Pacific NPEO SWYD AW PW FalknerArctic Change et al, 20092005 - WoodgateDSR SILICATE, NITRATE, PHOSPHATE - High from source in Pacific PW - Hi Nutrients BUT – not conservative Redfield-Ketchum-Richards Model (Redfield et al, 1963) (CH20)106(NH)16(H3PO4) + 138 O2 = 106 CO2 + 122 H2O + 16 HNO3 + H3PO4 Biogenic matter + oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water + NUTRIENTS Fixing of nutrients and Carbon Decay of biogenic matter to make biogenic matter using up Oxygen, forming nutrients Try to create a “tracer” that is conservative “Quasi-conservative Tracer” “NO” and “PO” – Broecker, 1974 - cope with growth and decay NO = 9 NO3 + O2 PO = 135 PO4 + O2 N:P ratios NO:PO ratios N* (N star) – Gruber and Sarmiento, 1997 - indicates nitrogen fixation and denitrification N* = 0.87 [N – 16 P + 2.9 µmol kg-1] Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate NITRATE:PHOSPHATE RELATIONSHIP PW versus AW in N:P space different in AW and PW = For a Nitrate value, PW have more Phosphate AW = Slope set by Redfield = Exact lines may change NO3(pw) = 14.828 x PO4(pw) – 12.16 (Falck, 2001) BUT work out % influence of PW and AW (..but certainly no better than 10% .... assumes ice melt, P and runoff same as AW .... denitrification .. and other such processes) PW % PW in upper 30m Jones, Anderson and Swift, GRL, 1998 Distribution of Atlantic and Pacific waters in the upper Arctic Ocean: Implications for circulation Arctic Change 2009 - Woodgate.
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