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Anthropology: Asking Questions About Human Origins, Diversity, And Glossary Absolute dating (or chronometric dating). Any dating method that Appropriation. e process of taking possession of an object, idea, or determines an age of a fossil, rock, artifact, or archaeological feature relationship. on some specified time scale. Arboreal. Living in the trees. Acephalous society. A society without a governing head, generally Archaeology. e study of past cultures, by excavating sites where with no hierarchial leadership. people lived, worked, farmed, or conducted some other activity. Acheulian tools. A more complex and diverse stone-tool kit than ear- Artifactual landscapes. e idea that landscapes are the product of lier Olduwan tools. e main characteristic was bifacial flaking, a human shaping. process that produced strong, sharp edges. Assemblage. A group or collection of objects found together at an ex- Action theory. An approach in the anthropological study of politics cavation or site. that closely follows the daily activities and decision-making pro- Australopithecines. A word that refers to the genus Australopithecus. cesses of individual political leaders emphasizing that politics is a Balanced reciprocity. A form of reciprocity in which the giver expects dynamic and competitive field of social relations in which people are a fair return at some later time. constantly managing their ability to exercise power over others. Band. A small, nomadic, and self-sufficient group of anywhere from Adaptation. e development of a trait that plays a functional role in 25 to 150 individuals with face-to-face social relationships, usually the ability of a life form to survive and reproduce. egalitarian. Adjudication. e legal process by which an individual or council Behavioral ecology. e study of behavior from ecological and evolu- with socially recognized authority intervenes in a dispute and unilat- tionary perspectives. erally makes a decision. Behavioral system of inheritance. e types of patterned behaviors Affiliation. A relationship between individuals who are frequently in that parents and adults pass to young members of their group by way close association based on tolerance, even friendliness. of learning and imitation. Age-grades. Groupings of age-mates, who are initiated into adulthood Biocultural. A phenomenon that intertwines dynamics of human bi- together. ology with processes of culture AIM (American Indian Movement). e most prominent and one of Biocultural evolution. e interaction of cultural capacity and biol- the earliest Native American activist groups, founded in 1968. ogy to meet selective demands. Alleles. e variants in the DNA sequences for a given gene. Biological anthropology. e study of the biological and biocultural Alluvial soil. Rich, fine-grained soils deposited by rivers and streams. aspects of the human species, past and present, along with those of Altruism. Seemingly “selfless” acts that have a net loss of energy to the our closest relatives, the non-human primates. actor but a net gain in energy to the receiver. Biological determinism. e idea that human behaviors and beliefs Analogous. Similar in appearance or function, not the same due to are primarily, if not solely, the result of biological characteristics and shared ancestry. processes. Animal husbandry. e breeding, care, and use of domesticated herd- Bipedal locomotion. e use of two legs rather than four for movement. ing animals such as cattle, camels, goats, horses, llamas, reindeer, Blood types. Sets of proteins that coat the red blood cells, which serve and yaks. a variety of functions in the human body, including delivering oxygen Animism. An early anthropological theory that primitive peoples be- to tissues and producing antibodies as an immune response. lieved which holds that inanimate objects such as trees, rocks, cliffs, Breccia. A rock composed of broken fragments or minerals cemented hills, and rivers were animated by spiritual forces or beings. together by a fine-grained matrix. Anthropocene. Refers to the geological epoch defined by substantial Bride price. Exchange of gifts or money to compensate another clan human influence over ecosystems. or family for the loss of one of its women along with her productive Anthropoid. A primate superfamily that includes monkeys, apes, and and reproductive abilities in marriage. Sometimes known as “bride humans. wealth.” Anthropological linguistics. e branch of anthropology that stud- Call systems. Patterned sounds or utterances that express meaning. ies human beings through their languages. Canine/Premolar-3 shearing complex. A condition in which the Anthropology. e study of human beings, their biology, their prehis- lower first premolar tooth is somewhat sharpened or flattened from tory and histories, and their changing languages, cultures, and rubbing against the upper canine as the mouth closes. social institutions. Capitalism. An economic system based on private ownership of the Anthropology of development. e field of study within anthropol- means of production, in which prices are set and goods distributed ogy concerned with understanding the cultural conditions for through a market. proper development or, alternatively, the negative impacts of devel- Carbon-14 dating. A dating method that establishes the date or period opment projects. of an organic artifact or feature from the relative proportions of ra- Anthropometry. e measurement of body parameters that assess dioactive carbon to non-radioactive isotopes. physical variation and the relative contributions of particular body Carrying capacity. e population an area can support. parts to overall body shape. Centralized political systems. A political system, such as a chiefdom Applied anthropology. Anthropological research commissioned to or a state, in which certain individuals and institutions hold power serve an organization’s needs. and control over resources. 529 20-Welsch-Glossary.indd 529 10/12/16 5:22 PM 530 GLOSSARY Chiefdom. A political system with a hereditary leader who holds cen- Cultural imperialism. e promotion of one culture over others, tral authority, typically supported by a class of high-ranking elites, through formal policy or less formal means, like the spread of tech- informal laws, and a simple judicial system, often numbering in the nology and material culture. tens of thousands with the beginnings of intensive agriculture and Cultural landscape. e culturally specific images, knowledge, and some specialization. concepts of the physical landscape that help shape human relations Chronometric dating. Any dating method that determines an age of with the landscape. a fossil, rock, artifact, or archaeological feature on some specified Cultural relativism. e moral and intellectual principle that one time scale. should withhold judgment about seemingly strange or exotic beliefs Cities. Relatively large and permanent settlements, usually with popu- and practices. lations of at least several thousand inhabitants. Cultural resource management. Research and planning aimed at City-state. An autonomous political entity that consisted of a city and identifying, interpreting, and protecting sites and artifacts of his- its surrounding countryside. toric or prehistoric significance. Clan. A group of relatives who claim to be descended from a single Culturally constructed concept of race. A set of cultural or ethnic ancestor. factors combined with easily perceived morphological traits (e.g., Clinal. A type of variation in which change is gradual across groups skin reflectance, body shape, cranial structure) in an artificial “biol- and that traits shade and blend into each other. ogized” category. Clinical therapeutic process. e healing process in which medicines Culture-bound syndrome. A mental illness unique to a culture. have some active ingredient that is assumed to address either the Currency. An object used as a medium of exchange. cause or the symptom of a disorder. Customs. Long-established norms that have a codified and law-like Cognate words. Words in two languages that show the same system- aspect. atic sound shifts as other words in the two languages, usually inter- Delayed reciprocity. A form of reciprocity that features a long lag time preted by linguists as evidence for a common linguistic ancestry. between giving and receiving. Collapse. e rapid loss of a social, political, and economic order or Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Spiral-shaped molecule strands that complexity. contains the biological information for the cell. Colonialism. e historical practice of more powerful countries Descriptive linguistics. e systematic analysis and description of a claiming possession of less powerful ones. language’s sound system and grammar. Commodities. Mass-produced and impersonal goods with no mean- Development anthropology. e application of anthropological ing or history apart from themselves. knowledge and research methods to the practical aspects of shaping Comparative method. A research method that derives insights from and implementing development projects. careful comparisons of aspects of two or more cultures or societies. Developmental bias. e idea that not all variations are random, but a Complex societies. Societies in which socioeconomic differentiation, function of the developmental processes organisms undergo during large populations, and centralized political control, are pervasive their lives that tend to generate certain forms more readily than others. and defining features of the society. Developmental systems theory (DST). An approach that combines Constructivist approach. Emphasizes that a core dynamic
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