Glossary

Absolute dating (or chronometric dating). Any dating method that Appropriation. e process of taking possession of an object, idea, or determines an age of a fossil, rock, artifact, or archaeological feature relationship. on some specified time scale. Arboreal. Living in the trees. Acephalous society. A society without a governing head, generally Archaeology. e study of past cultures, by excavating sites where with no hierarchial leadership. people lived, worked, farmed, or conducted some other activity. Acheulian tools. A more complex and diverse stone-tool kit than ear- Artifactual landscapes. e idea that landscapes are the product of lier Olduwan tools. e main characteristic was bifacial flaking, a human shaping. process that produced strong, sharp edges. Assemblage. A group or collection of objects found together at an ex- Action theory. An approach in the anthropological study of politics cavation or site. that closely follows the daily activities and decision-making pro- Australopithecines. A word that refers to the genus Australopithecus. cesses of individual political leaders emphasizing that politics is a Balanced reciprocity. A form of reciprocity in which the giver expects dynamic and competitive field of social relations in which people are a fair return at some later time. constantly managing their ability to exercise power over others. Band. A small, nomadic, and self-sufficient group of anywhere from Adaptation. e development of a trait that plays a functional role in 25 to 150 individuals with face-to-face social relationships, usually the ability of a life form to survive and reproduce. egalitarian. Adjudication. e legal process by which an individual or council Behavioral ecology. e study of behavior from ecological and evolu- with socially recognized authority intervenes in a dispute and unilat- tionary perspectives. erally makes a decision. Behavioral system of inheritance. e types of patterned behaviors Affiliation. A relationship between individuals who are frequently in that parents and adults pass to young members of their group by way close association based on tolerance, even friendliness. of learning and imitation. Age-grades. Groupings of age-mates, who are initiated into adulthood Biocultural. A phenomenon that intertwines dynamics of human bi- together. ology with processes of culture AIM (American Indian Movement). e most prominent and one of Biocultural evolution. e interaction of cultural capacity and biol- the earliest Native American activist groups, founded in 1968. ogy to meet selective demands. Alleles. e variants in the DNA sequences for a given gene. Biological . e study of the biological and biocultural Alluvial soil. Rich, fine-grained soils deposited by rivers and streams. aspects of the human species, past and present, along with those of Altruism. Seemingly “selfless” acts that have a net loss of energy to the our closest relatives, the non-human primates. actor but a net gain in energy to the receiver. Biological determinism. e idea that human behaviors and beliefs Analogous. Similar in appearance or function, not the same due to are primarily, if not solely, the result of biological characteristics and shared ancestry. processes. Animal husbandry. e breeding, care, and use of domesticated herd- Bipedal locomotion. e use of two legs rather than four for movement. ing animals such as cattle, camels, goats, horses, llamas, reindeer, Blood types. Sets of proteins that coat the red blood cells, which serve and yaks. a variety of functions in the human body, including delivering oxygen Animism. An early anthropological theory that primitive peoples be- to tissues and producing antibodies as an immune response. lieved which holds that inanimate objects such as trees, rocks, cliffs, Breccia. A rock composed of broken fragments or minerals cemented hills, and rivers were animated by spiritual forces or beings. together by a fine-grained matrix. Anthropocene. Refers to the geological epoch defined by substantial Bride price. Exchange of gifts or money to compensate another clan human influence over ecosystems. or family for the loss of one of its women along with her productive Anthropoid. A primate superfamily that includes monkeys, apes, and and reproductive abilities in marriage. Sometimes known as “bride humans. wealth.” Anthropological linguistics. e branch of anthropology that stud- Call systems. Patterned sounds or utterances that express meaning. ies human beings through their languages. Canine/Premolar-3 shearing complex. A condition in which the Anthropology. e study of human beings, their biology, their prehis- lower first premolar tooth is somewhat sharpened or flattened from tory and histories, and their changing languages, cultures, and rubbing against the upper canine as the mouth closes. social institutions. Capitalism. An economic system based on private ownership of the Anthropology of development. e field of study within anthropol- means of production, in which prices are set and goods distributed ogy concerned with understanding the cultural conditions for through a market. proper development or, alternatively, the negative impacts of devel- Carbon-14 dating. A dating method that establishes the date or period opment projects. of an organic artifact or feature from the relative proportions of ra- Anthropometry. e measurement of body parameters that assess dioactive carbon to non-radioactive isotopes. physical variation and the relative contributions of particular body Carrying capacity. e population an area can support. parts to overall body shape. Centralized political systems. A political system, such as a chiefdom . Anthropological research commissioned to or a state, in which certain individuals and institutions hold power serve an organization’s needs. and control over resources.

529

20-Welsch-Glossary.indd 529 10/12/16 5:22 PM 530 GLOSSARY

Chiefdom. A political system with a hereditary leader who holds cen- Cultural imperialism. e promotion of one culture over others, tral authority, typically supported by a class of high-ranking elites, through formal policy or less formal means, like the spread of tech- informal laws, and a simple judicial system, often numbering in the nology and material culture. tens of thousands with the beginnings of intensive agriculture and Cultural landscape. e culturally specific images, knowledge, and some specialization. concepts of the physical landscape that help shape human relations Chronometric dating. Any dating method that determines an age of with the landscape. a fossil, rock, artifact, or archaeological feature on some specified Cultural relativism. e moral and intellectual principle that one time scale. should withhold judgment about seemingly strange or exotic beliefs Cities. Relatively large and permanent settlements, usually with popu- and practices. lations of at least several thousand inhabitants. Cultural resource management. Research and planning aimed at City-state. An autonomous political entity that consisted of a city and identifying, interpreting, and protecting sites and artifacts of his- its surrounding countryside. toric or prehistoric significance. Clan. A group of relatives who claim to be descended from a single Culturally constructed concept of race. A set of cultural or ethnic ancestor. factors combined with easily perceived morphological traits (e.g., Clinal. A type of variation in which change is gradual across groups skin reflectance, body shape, cranial structure) in an artificial “biol- and that traits shade and blend into each other. ogized” category. Clinical therapeutic process. e healing process in which medicines Culture-bound syndrome. A mental illness unique to a culture. have some active ingredient that is assumed to address either the Currency. An object used as a medium of exchange. cause or the symptom of a disorder. Customs. Long-established norms that have a codified and law-like Cognate words. Words in two languages that show the same system- aspect. atic sound shifts as other words in the two languages, usually inter- Delayed reciprocity. A form of reciprocity that features a long lag time preted by linguists as evidence for a common linguistic ancestry. between giving and receiving. Collapse. e rapid loss of a social, political, and economic order or Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Spiral-shaped molecule strands that complexity. contains the biological information for the cell. Colonialism. e historical practice of more powerful countries Descriptive linguistics. e systematic analysis and description of a claiming possession of less powerful ones. language’s sound system and grammar. Commodities. Mass-produced and impersonal goods with no mean- . e application of anthropological ing or history apart from themselves. knowledge and research methods to the practical aspects of shaping Comparative method. A research method that derives insights from and implementing development projects. careful comparisons of aspects of two or more cultures or societies. Developmental bias. e idea that not all variations are random, but a Complex societies. Societies in which socioeconomic differentiation, function of the developmental processes organisms undergo during large populations, and centralized political control, are pervasive their lives that tend to generate certain forms more readily than others. and defining features of the society. Developmental systems theory (DST). An approach that combines Constructivist approach. Emphasizes that a core dynamic of human multiple dimensions and interactants toward understanding the de- biology and culture is processes of construction: the construction of velopment of organisms and systems and their evolutionary impact. meanings, social relationships, ecological niches, and developing bodies. Diffusionists. Early twentieth-century Boasian anthropologists who held Consumers. People who rely on goods and services not produced by that cultural characteristics result from either internal historical dyna- their own labor. mism or a spread (diffusion) of cultural attributes from other societies. Consumption. e act of using and assigning meaning to a good, ser- Discrimination. e negative or unfair treatment of an individual be- vice, or relationship. cause of his or her membership in a particular social group or category. Cormic index. Standing height divided by sitting height. Disease. e purely physiological condition of being sick, usually de- Corporate groups. Groups of real people who work together toward termined by a physician. common ends, much like a corporation does. Dispersal. A pattern of one sex leaving the group they were born into Costs and benefits. An analytical approach that considers the caloric about the time of reproductive maturity. cost of obtaining food and the calories obtained. Diversity. e sheer variety of ways of being human around the world. Creole language. A language of mixed origin that has developed from Division of labor. e cooperative organization of work into special- a complex blending of two parent languages that exists as a mother ized tasks and roles. tongue for some part of the population. Domestication. e converting of wild plants and animals to human uses Cross-cultural perspective. Analyzing human social phenomenon by by taming animals or turning them into herds that can be raised for comparing that phenomenon in different cultures. meat or milk or making plants able to be grown for food or other uses. Cultigen. Any plant that is intentionally grown for human use. Dominance hierarchy. e ranking of access to desired resources by . e study of the social lives of living different individuals relative to one another. communities. Dowry. A large sum of money or in-kind gifts given to a daughter to Cultural appropriation. e unilateral decision of one social group to ensure her well-being in her husband’s family. take control over the symbols, practices, or objects of another. Dreaming or the dreamtime. e mythological period when the an- Cultural construction. e meanings, concepts, and practices that cestors created the natural features of their world as well as the people build out of their shared and collective experiences. plants and animals that inhabit it. Cultural determinism. e idea that all human actions are the product Dual-inheritance theory (DIT). e perspective that culture is evo- of culture, which denies the influence of other factors like physical lutionarily important, that culture evolves in a Darwinian fashion, environment and human biology on human behavior. and that understanding gene-culture coevolution is the key to un- Cultural economics. An anthropological approach to economics that derstanding human behavior. focuses on how symbols and morals help shape a community’s Ecological footprint. A quantitative tool that measures what people economy. consume and the waste they produce. It also calculates the amount

20-Welsch-Glossary.indd 530 10/12/16 5:22 PM GLOSSARY 531

of biologically productive land and water area needed to support Explanatory model of illness. An explanation of what is happening those people. to a patient’s body, by the patient, by his family, or by a healthcare . e branch of anthropology concerned practitioner, each of which may have a different model of what is with how people make, share, and buy things and services. happening. Economic system. e structured patterns and relationships through Extended evolutionary synthesis. e view of evolution that accepts which people exchange goods and services. the existence of not just genetically based, but also non-genetically Embodiment. A concept that refers to how people literally incorpo- based, processes of evolution: developmental bias, plasticity, niche rate, biologically, the material and social worlds in which they live, construction, and extra-genetic inheritance. from conception to death. Extended families. Larger groups of relatives beyond the nuclear Emergence. Refers to important processes and events that arise from family, often living in the same household. interactions of wholes that are not explainable by the action of their Extra-genetic inheritance. e socially transmitted and epigenetic parts. factors that can aid in the adaptive success of organisms. Empirical. Verifiable through observation rather than through logic Fieldnotes. Any information that the anthropologist writes down or or theory. transcribes during fieldwork. Enculturation. e process of learning the social rules and cultural Fieldwork. Long-term immersion in a community, normally involving logic of a society. firsthand research in a specific study community or research setting Environmental anthropologists. Practitioners of the branch of an- where people’s behavior can be observed and the researcher can have thropology that studies how different societies understand, interact conversations or interviews with members of the community. with, and make changes to nature and natural ecosystems. Food security. Access to sufficient nutritious food to sustain an active Environmental justice. A social movement addressing the linkages and healthy life. between racial discrimination and injustice, social equity, and envi- Foodways. Structured beliefs and behaviors surrounding the produc- ronmental quality. tion, distribution, and consumption of food. Epigenetic system of inheritance. e biological aspects of bodies that Foraging. Obtaining food by searching for it, as opposed to growing work in combination with the genes and their protein products, such or raising the plants and animals people eat. as the machinery of the cells, the chemical interactions between cells, Foramen magnum. e opening at the base of the skull (cranium) and reactions between types of tissue and organs in the body. where the spinal column enters and connects to the brain Essentialism. e philosophical position that dictates that each or- Forensic analysis. e identification and description of dead people. ganism has a true, ideal form, and that all living representatives of Formal economics. e branch of economics that studies the under- that organism are slight deviations from the ideal type. lying logic of economic thought and action. Ethics. Moral questions about right and wrong and standards of ap- Fossilization. e process by which hard tissues like bone and teeth propriate behavior. slowly turn to stone as molecule by molecule the hard tissues turn to Ethnobiology. e branch of ethnoscience that studies how people in rock keeping the shape of the original bone. non-Western societies name and codify living things. Founder effect. A form of genetic drift that is the result of a dramatic Ethnocentrism. e assumption that one’s own way of doing things is reduction in population numbers so that descendent populations are correct, while dismissing other people’s practices or views as wrong descended from a small number of “founders.” or ignorant. Functionalism. A perspective that assumes that cultural practices and Ethnographic method. A prolonged and intensive observation of and beliefs serve social purposes in any society. participation in the life of a community. Fundamentalism. Conservative religious movements that advocate a Ethnography of speaking. An anthropological approach to language return to fundamental or traditional principles. that distinguished the ways that people actually speak from the ideal Fundamentalist. A person belonging to a religious movement that ad- ways that people in any culture are supposed to speak. vocates a return to fundamental or traditional principles. Ethnopoetics. A method of recording oral poetry, stories, ritual lan- Gender. Cultural expectations of how males and females should guage, and nearly any narrative speech act, as verses and stanzas behave. rather than as prose paragraphs in order to capture the format and Gender/sex systems. e ideas and social patterns a society uses to other performative elements that might be lost in written texts. organize males, females, and those who do not fit either category. Ethnoprimatology. e study of the interface between human and Gender variance. Expressions of sex and gender that diverge from the ape communities. male and female norms that dominate in most societies. Ethnoscience. e study of how people classify things in the world, Gene. A segment of DNA that contains the code for a protein. usually by considering some range or set of meanings. Gene flow. e movement of genetic material within and between Eugenics. e study of genetics with the notion of improving human populations. biology and biological potential; often associated with simplistic, Genealogical amnesia. Structural process of forgetting whole groups of erroneous assumptions about the relationship of behavior or cultural relatives, usually because they are not currently significant in social life. traits with simple genetic systems. General purpose money. Money that is used to buy nearly any good Evolution. e adaptive changes in populations of organisms across or service. generations. Generalized foraging model. A model which asserts that hunter- Evolutionary psychology (EP). A perspective focused on understand- gatherer societies have five basic characteristics. ing the evolution of psychological mechanisms resulting in human Generalized reciprocity. A form of reciprocity in which gifts are given behavior. freely without the expectation of return. Exchange. e transfer of objects and services between social actors. Genetic drift. A change in genetic variation across generations due to Exiles. People who are expelled by the authorities of their home countries. random factors. Exogamous. A social pattern in which members of a clan must marry Geneticization. e use of genetics to explain health and social problems someone from another clan, which has the effect of building politi- rather than other possible causes. cal, economic, and social ties with other clans. Genome. e complete set of an organism’s DNA.

20-Welsch-Glossary.indd 531 10/12/16 5:22 PM 532 GLOSSARY

Genotype. An organism’s genetic component. Incest taboo. e prohibition on sexual relations between close family Geographical information system (GIS). A computerized methodol- members. ogy that brings together data from several sources and integrates Industrial agriculture. e application of industrial principles and them with a geographic reference map. methods to farming. Geomorphologists. Geologists who study the formation and structure Industrialization. e economic process of shifting from an agricul- of the earth’s surface. tural economy to a factory-based one. Glaciation. A condition when the land surface is covered with sheets Informant. Any person an anthropologist gets data from in the study of glacial ice. community, especially people interviewed or who provide informa- Globalization. e widening scale of cross-cultural interactions tion about what he or she has observed or heard. caused by the rapid movement of money, people, goods, images, and Intensification. Processes that increase yields. ideas within nations and across national boundaries. Interglacials. Warm periods between ice ages, usually referring to Government. A separate legal and constitutional domain that is the warm periods during the Pleistocene. source of law, order, and legitimate force. Intermembral index. e ratio of arm length to leg length. Gracile. A body of slender build. Interpretive approach. A kind of analysis that interprets the underly- Green Revolution. e transformation of agriculture in the developing ing symbolic and cultural interconnections within a society. world that began in the 1940s, through agricultural research, tech- Interpretive theory of culture. A theory that culture is embodied and nology transfer, and infrastructure development. transmitted through symbols. Grooming. Touching another individual to remove dirt, insects, and Intersex. Individuals who exhibit sexual organs and functions somewhere debris, usually as a way for individuals to bond. between male and female elements, often including elements of both. Habitation sites. Places where people lived at some time in the past. Intersubjectivity. e realization that knowledge about other people Haplogroups. Lineages that share certain haplotypes. emerges out of relationships and perceptions individuals have with Haplorrhini. e infrorder of primates including monkeys, apes, and each other. humans. Interview. Any systematic conversation with an informant to collect Haplotype. A group of distinctive inherited genes. field research data, ranging from a highly structured set of questions Headnotes. e mental notes an anthropologist makes while in the to the most open-ended ones. field, which may or may not end up in formal fieldnotes or journals. Kin selection. e behavioral favoring of your close genetic relatives Holism. Efforts to synthesize distinct approaches and findings into a Kinship chart. A visual representation of family relationships. single comprehensive interpretation. Kinship. e social system that organizes people in families based on Holistic perspective. A perspective that aims to identify and understand descent and marriage. the whole—that is, the systematic connections between individual Language. A system of communication consisting of sounds, words, cultural beliefs and practices—rather than the individual parts. and grammar. Holy struggle. A conflict—often political or social—that believers see Language ideology. Widespread assumptions that people make about the as justified by doing God’s work. relative sophistication and status of particular dialects and languages. Hominidae. A family of primates that includes the Hominids, namely Laws. Sets of rules established by some formal authority. humans and their ancestors. Levallois technique. Stone tool-making technique that involves com- Homininae. e African subfamily of the Family Hominidae, which plex preparation of the stone and provides a higher quality toolkit includes humans, chimpanzees and gorillas. than previous types with more uses. Hominine. e division (called a tribe) in the superfamily Homi- Limited purpose money. Objects that can be exchanged only for cer- noidea that includes humans and our recent ancestors. tain things. Hominini. e tribe to which humans and our direct human ances- Lineage. A group composed of relatives who are directly descended tors belong, who are referred to as hominins. from known ancestors. Hominoid. e primate superfamily Hominoidea that includes all the Linguistic anthropology. e study of how people communicate apes and the humans. with one another through language and how language use shapes Homologous. Similar due to shared ancestry. group membership and identity. Horticulture. e cultivation of gardens or small fields to meet the Linguistic relativity. e idea that people speaking different languages basic needs of a household. perceive or interpret the world differently because of differences in Human behavioral ecology (HBE). A perspective that focuses on their languages. how ecological and social factors affect behavior through natural Localization. e creation and assertion of highly particular, often selection. place-based, identities and communities. Human biodiversity. e similarities and differences within and Macaca. e genus of macaque monkeys. across human groups that have biological dimensions. Magic. An explanatory system of causation that does not follow natu- Human Genome Project. An international scientific research project ralistic explanations, often working at a distance without direct between 1990 and 2003 whose goal was to identify all the genetic physical contact. material in humans. Maize. e indigenous species of corn that was first domesticated in Human leukocyte antigen system (HLA). A series of proteins on the Mexico—the term is often used for any variety of corn, since all surface of white blood cells that recognize foreign particles or infec- current varieties are thought to have been derived from this early tious agents. version of so-called Indian corn. Hybridization. Persistent cultural mixing that has no predetermined Mana. A belief that sacred power inheres in certain high-ranking direction or end-point. people, sacred spaces, and objects. Hydraulic despotism. Denotes empires built around the control of Market. A social institution in which people come together to ex- water resources by despotic, or all-powerful, leaders. change goods and services. Illness. e psychological and social experience a patient has of a disease. Masculinity. e ideas and practices of manhood. Immigrants. People who enter a foreign country with no expectation Material culture. e objects made and used in any society; tradition- of ever returning to their home country. ally the term referred to technologically simple objects made in

20-Welsch-Glossary.indd 532 10/12/16 5:22 PM GLOSSARY 533

preindustrial societies, but material culture may refer to all of the Negative reciprocity. A form of reciprocity in which the giver at- objects or commodities of modern life as well. tempts to get something for nothing, to haggle one’s way into a fa- Materiality. Having the quality of being physical or material. vorable personal outcome. Matrifocal unit. A cluster of individuals generally made up of related Negotiation. A form of dispute management in which parties them- females. selves reach a decision jointly. Means of production. e machines and infrastructure required to Neoclassical economics. Economic theories and approaches that produce goods. studies how people make decisions to allocate resources like time, Mediation. e use of a third party who intervenes in a dispute to help labor, and money in order to maximize their personal benefit. the parties reach an agreement and restore harmony. Neolithic. e “new” stone age when humans had begun growing Medicalization. e process of viewing or treating as a medical concern crops and raising animals for food, using a stone-tool technology. conditions that were not previously understood as medical problems. Niche construction. When organisms play an active role in their evo- Megadontia. e characteristic of having large molar teeth relative to lution by reshaping the environment to suit their own needs. body size. Nocturnal. Active during the nighttime. Meiosis. e process of gamete production. Non-centralized political systems. A political system, such as a band Melanin. A complex polymer that is the main pigment in human skin, or a tribe, in which power and control over resources are dispersed occurring in two colors, black and brown. among members of the society. Mesolithic. e period from the end of the last ice age until the begin- Norms. Typical patterns of actual behavior as well as the rules about ning of agriculture, when a number of hunter-gatherer-forager how things should be done. groups established lakeside or seaside settlements that seem to have Nuclear family. e family formed by a married couple and their children. been year-round sites during this period. Olduwan tools. Rocks that were modified to produce sharp flakes and Microgravimetry survey. Measuring the gravitational pull of differ- edged choppers. ent parts of the stone structure or pyramid to uncover formerly Optical stimulated luminescence (OSL). A dating method that hollow sections that were filled with less dense stone. measures electrons trapped within the crystalline structure found in Migrants. People who leave their homes to work for a time in other quartz and feldspar after being buried in the earth. Crystals in these regions or countries. grains absorb energy from trace amounts of radioactive material in Mind. Emergent qualities of consciousness and intellect that mani- the soil and rock. When exposed to light, the electrons are released fest themselves through thought, emotion, perception, will, and and can be measured to estimate the date they were buried. imagination. Paleoanthropologists. Physical anthropologists and archaeologists Mitosis. e process of cell division and replication. who study the fossilized remains of ancient primates and humans to Modern synthesis. e view of evolution that accepts the existence of understand their biological and behavioral evolution. four genetically based processes of evolution: mutation, natural se- Paleoethnobotany. e study of ancient plant remains in order to re- lection, gene flow, and genetic drift. construct a picture of prehistoric environments and human–plant Modes of subsistence. e social relationships and practices necessary interactions. for procuring, producing, and distributing food. Paleolithic. Literally “old stone,” refers to a long epoch in human pre- Money. An object or substance that serves as a payment for a good or history from about 2.5 mya to 10,000 years ago, and roughly corre- service. sponds with the Pleistocene geological epoch. Monotheism. e belief in a single god. Pan. e genus of chimpanzees. Morphology. e structure of words and word formation in a language. Participant observation. e standard research method used by socio- Mousterian industry. A disk-core technique of stone tool making that cultural anthropologists that requires the researcher to live in the com- allowed the tool makers to produce many good flakes with little munity he or she is studying to observe and participate in day-to-day effort and then turn those flakes into a wide variety of fine tools. activities. Associated with the Neanderthals. . e practice of animal husbandry, which is the breeding, Multiple dispersals model (MD). Incorporates complexities in ge- care, and use of domesticated herding animals such as cattle, camels, netic datasets to argue that humans left Africa in multiple waves. goats, horses, llamas, reindeer, and yaks. Multiregional evolution model (MRE). Modern humans are only Pastoralist societies. Groups of people who live by animal husbandry, the most recent version of a single species, Homo sapiens, that had which is the breeding, care, and use of domesticated herding ani- been in Africa, Asia, and Europe for nearly two million years. mals such as cattle, camels, goats, horses, llamas, reindeer, and yaks. Multisited ethnography. An ethnographic research strategy of fol- Patrilocal bands. Small groups where men controlled resources and lowing connections, associations, and putative relationships from hunting territories. place to place. Phenotype. e observable and measurable traits of an organism. Mutation. Change at the level of the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Philology. Comparative study of ancient texts and documents. Mya. Abbreviation for million years ago. Phonology. e systematic pattern of sounds in a language, also NAGPRA (Native American Graves and Repatriation Act). In the known as the language’s sound system. United States, the 1990 law that established the ownership of human Phylogeny. A graphic representation that traces the evolutionary rela- remains, grave goods, and important cultural objects as belonging to tionships and identifies points when an evolutionary event or change the Native Americans, whose ancestors once owned them. occurred, such as the creation of a new species. Natal family. e family into which a person is born and (usually) raised. Pidgin language. A mixed language with a simplified grammar, typi- Nation-states. Independent states recognized by other states, com- cally borrowing its vocabulary from one language but its grammar posed of people who share a single national identity. from another. Natural selection. e process through which certain heritable traits Placebo effect. A healing process that works on persuading a patient become more or less common in a population related to the repro- he or she has been given a powerful medicine, even though the ductive success of organisms interacting with their environments. “medicine” has no active medical ingredient. Naturalized. Made part of the natural order of things through the Plasticity. A particular form of developmental bias in which an organ- production of scientific theories, schemes, and typologies. ism responds to its environment by changing during its lifetime.

20-Welsch-Glossary.indd 533 10/12/16 5:22 PM 534 GLOSSARY

Pleistocene. A geologic period in which much of the land in the Reciprocity. e give and take that builds and confirms relationships. Northern Hemisphere was covered by glaciers. ese ice sheets re- Redistribution. e collection of goods in a community and then the treated about 12,000 years ago. further dispersal of those goods among members. Political ecology. e field of study that focuses on the linkages be- Refugees. People who migrate because of political oppression or war, tween political-economic power, social inequality, and ecological usually with legal permission to stay in a different country. destruction. Relative dating. Any dating techniques provide us with rough assess- Political power. e process by which people create, compete, and use ments of the age of a fossil, artifact, or archaeological feature relative power to attain goals that are presumed to be for the good of a to other fossils, rocks, artifacts, or features. community. Religion. A symbolic system that is socially enacted through rituals Politics. ose relationships and processes of cooperation, conflict, and other aspects of social life. and power that are fundamental aspects of human life. Repatriation. e return of human remains or cultural artifacts to the Polyandry. When a woman has two or more husbands at one time. communities of descendants of the people to whom they originally Polygamy. Any form of plural marriage. belonged. Polygyny. When a man is simultaneously married to more than one Replication. e process by which DNA makes copies of itself. woman. Reproductive success. How many surviving offspring an organism has. Polytheism. A type of religion with many gods. Residue analysis. Microscopic analysis of the residues of plant and Ponginae. e Asian derived subfamily of Hominidae to which the animal foods, especially starches, on pottery or tools. Orangutan belongs Resilience. e ability of a social system to absorb changes and still Population. A cluster of individuals of the same species who shares a retain certain basic cultural processes and structures, albeit in al- common geographical area and find their mates more often in their tered form. own cluster than in others. Rite of passage. Any life-cycle rite that marks a person’s or group’s Postcolonialism. e field that studies the cultural legacies of colo- transition from one social state to another. nialism and imperialism. Rituals. Stylized performances involving symbols that are associated Postorbital constriction. An indention of the sides of the cranium with social, political, and religious activities. behind the eyes. Ruralization. Process in which the countryside was configured as a Potassium-argon dating. A dating method that measures the decay of contested no-man’s land lying between competing city-states. an isotope of potassium into argon, used to date minerals, clays, and Sagittal crest. A ridge running along the top of the cranium, usually sediments over 100,000 years old in igneous rock that was laid down representing increased bone area for the attachment of chewing as volcanic ash. muscles. . Opulent ceremonial feasts intended to display wealth and Sagittal keel. A raised area in the midcranium. social status by giving away or destroying valuable possessions like Salvage paradigm. e paradigm which held that it was important to carved copper plates, button blankets, and baskets of food. ese observe indigenous ways of life, interview elders, and assemble col- were characteristic of the communities on the northwestern coast of lections of objects made and used by indigenous peoples. North America. Scientific concept of race. A population or group of populations Practicing anthropology. Anthropological work involving research as within a species that has measurable, defining biological characteris- well as involvement in the design, implementation, and manage- tics and low statistical measures of similarity. ment of some organization, process, or product. Scientific method. e standard methodology of science that begins Prehensile. e ability to grasp things, usually referring to hands or tails. from observable facts, generates hypotheses from these facts, and Prejudice. Preformed, usually unfavorable opinions that people hold then tests these hypotheses. about people from groups, who are different from their own. Secular worldview. A worldview that does not accept the supernatural Prestige economies. Economies in which people seek high social as influencing current people’s lives. rank, prestige, and power instead of money and material wealth. . Year-round settlement in a particular place. Protein synthesis. How DNA assists in the creation of the molecules Seriation. A relative dating method that analyzes changing styles of that make up organisms (proteins). pottery or other artifacts over time to situate any particular assem- Proto-language. A hypothetical common ancestral language of two blage of artifacts into a time series of styles and designs. or more living languages. Sex. e reproductive forms and functions of the body. Psychological modules. Adaptive clusters of cognitive function or in- Sexual dimorphism. A difference between the sexes of a species in formation-processing mechanisms situated in human minds. body size or shape. Qualitative method. A research strategy producing an in-depth and Sexuality. Sexual preferences, desires, and practices. detailed description of social activities and beliefs. Sexually dimorphic. A characteristic of a species, in which males and Quantitative method. A methodology that classifies features of a phe- females have different sexual forms. nomenon, counting or measuring them, and constructing mathe- Shaman. A religious leader who communicates the needs of the living matical and statistical models to explain what is observed. with the spirit world, usually through some form of ritual trance or Race. A system that organizes people into hierarchical groups based on other altered state of consciousness. specific physical traits that are thought to reflect fundamental and Sick role. e culturally defined agreement between patients and innate differences that are rooted in genetic and biological differences. family members to acknowledge that a patient is legitimately Racialization. e social, economic, and political processes of trans- sick. forming populations into races and creating racial meanings. Sites. Any location that shows evidence of human activity including Racism. e repressive practices, structures, beliefs, and representa- those with monuments and buildings. tions that uphold racial categories and social inequality. Social complexity. A society that have many different parts organized Recent African origin model (RAO). Modern humans arose as a into a single social system. new species in Africa about 150,000 years ago, during the late Social institutions. Organized sets of social relationships that link Pleistocene. individuals to each other in a structured way in a particular society.

20-Welsch-Glossary.indd 534 10/12/16 5:22 PM GLOSSARY 535

Social sanction. A reaction or measure intended to enforce norms and Syntax. Pattern of word order used to form sentences and longer utter- punish their violation. ances in a language. Social support therapeutic process. A healing process that involves a Taste. A concept that refers to the sense that give humans the ability to patient’s social networks, especially close family members and detect flavors; taste can also refer to the social distinction and pres- friends, who typically surround the patient during an illness. tige associated with certain foodstuffs. Sociobiology. An approach that uses principles drawn from the biologi- Taxonomy. A system of naming and classifying organisms. cal sciences to explain human social behavior and social institutions. Teknonymy. A system of naming parents by the names of their Sociolinguistics. e study of how sociocultural context and norms children. shape language use and the effects of language use on society. Terrestrial. Living on the ground. Speaking in tongues. e phenomenon of speaking in an apparently Test pit. A preliminary excavation, usually of a single 1 meter by 1 unknown language, often in an energetic and fast-paced way. meter square (or half meter square) to see if artifactual material Speciation. e process by which new species arise. exists at the site and to assess the character of the stratigraphy. Spheres of exchange. Bounded orders of value in which certain goods eory. A tested and repeatedly supported hypothesis. can be exchanged only for others. ermoluminescence dating. A dating method for estimating dates Spirit familiar. A spirit that has developed a close bond with a shaman. of pottery that has been fired. State. e most complex form of political organization, associated Totemism. A system of thought that associates particular social with societies that have intensive agriculture, high levels of social groups with specific animal or plant species called “totems” as an stratification, and centralized authority. emblem. States. Societies with forms of political and economic control over a Trace fossils. Soft tissues such as organs, skin, and feathers that do not particular territory and the inhabitants of that territory. fossilize, but sometimes leave impressions, or traces on the sedimen- Stelae. Carved limestone slabs. tary rock that forms around them. Stops. Sounds that are formed by closing off and reopening the oral Tradition. Practices and customs that have become most ritualized cavity so that it stops the flow of air through the mouth, such as the and enduring. consonants p, b, t, d, k, and g. Traditional ecological knowledge. Indigenous ecological knowledge Strategy. A set of behaviors that has become prominent in a popula- and its relationship with resource management strategies. tion as a result of natural selection Trance. A semiconscious state typically brought on by hypnosis, ritual Stratigraphy. e study of layers of soil or rock and how they were drumming, and singing, or hallucinogenic drugs like mescaline or deposited. peyote. Strepsirrhini. e infraorder of primates including lemurs, galagos, Transactional orders. Realms of transactions a community uses, each and lorises. with its own set of symbolic meanings and moral assumptions. Structural power. Power that not only operates within settings, but Transhumance. e practice of moving herds to different fields or pas- that also organizes those and orchestrates the settings in which tures with the changing seasons. social and individual actions take place. Transnational. Relationships that extend beyond nation-state bound- Structural-functionalism. An anthropological theory that the differ- aries without assuming they cover the whole world. ent structures or institutions of a society (religion, politics, kinship, Tree-ring dating (or dendrochronology). A dating technique that etc.) function to maintain social order and equilibrium. counts years by establishing a standard pattern of thick and thin tree Subspecies. A population that meets the criteria defined within the rings and matching the ring pattern in a wooden artifact to a point scientific concept of race. on this sequence. Substantive economics. A branch of economics, inspired by the work Tribe. A type of pastoral or horticultural society with populations usu- of , that studies the daily transactions people engage in ally numbering in the hundreds or thousands in which leadership is to get what they need or desire. more stable than that of a band, but usually egalitarian, with social Surface collection. A collection of pottery and stone artifacts made relations based on reciprocal exchange. from the surface of the soil around a possible site. Urbanization. Process by which towns grew as residential centers as Surplus value. e difference between what people produce and what opposed to being trading centers. they need to survive. Use-wear. Patterns of wear and tear on an artifact that is presumed to Sustainable development. Development that meets the needs of the be due to use. present without compromising the ability of future generations to Value. e relative worth of an object or service that makes it meet their own needs (WCED 1987). desirable. Swidden agriculture. A farming method in tropical regions in which Values. Symbolic expressions of intrinsically desirable principles or the farmer slashes (cuts down trees) and burns small patches of forest qualities. to release plant nutrients into the soil. As soil fertility declines, the Violence. e use of force to harm someone or something. farmer allows the plot to regenerate the forest over a period of years. World culture. Norms and values that extend across national Symbol. Something—an object, idea, image, figure, or character— boundaries. that represents something else. World Heritage Site program. Provides financial support to maintain Symbolic system of inheritance. e linguistic system through which sites of importance to humanity. humans store and communicate their knowledge and conventional World religions. Religions that claim to be universally significant to understandings using symbols. all people. Symbolic therapeutic process. A healing process that restructures the World systems theory. e theory that capitalism has expanded on meanings of the symbols surrounding the illness, particularly during the basis of unequal exchange throughout the world, creating a a ritual. global market and global division of labor, dividing the world be- Sympathetic magic. Any magical rite that relied on the supernatural tween a dominant “core” and a dependent “periphery.” to produce its outcome without working through some supernatural Worldview. A general approach to or set of shared unquestioned as- being such as a spirit, demon, or deity. sumptions about the world and how it works.

20-Welsch-Glossary.indd 535 10/12/16 5:22 PM