Earths and Super-Earths Science Enabled by Direct Imaging Technology
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The Planetary Systems Imager for TMT Astro2020 APC White Paper Optical and Infrared Observations from the Ground Corresponding Author: Michael P
The Planetary Systems Imager for TMT Astro2020 APC White Paper Optical and Infrared Observations from the Ground Corresponding Author: Michael P. Fitzgerald (University of California, Los Angeles; mpfi[email protected]) Co-authors: Diego) Vanessa Bailey (Jet Propulsion Laboratory) Takayuki Kotani (Astrobiology Center/NAOJ) Christoph Baranec (University of Hawaii) David Lafreniere` (Universite´ de Montreal)´ Natasha Batalha (University of California Santa Michael Liu (University of Hawaii) Cruz) Julien Lozi (Subaru) Bjorn¨ Benneke (Universite´ de Montreal)´ Jessica R. Lu (University of California, Berkeley) Charles Beichman (California Institute of Jared Males (University of Arizona) Technology) Mark Marley (NASA Ames Research Center) Timothy Brandt (University of California, Santa Christian Marois (NRC Canada) Barbara) Dimitri Mawet (California Institute of Jeffrey Chilcote (Notre Dame) Technology/JPL) Mark Chun (University of Hawaii) Benjamin Mazin (University of California Santa Ian Crossfield (MIT) Barbara) Thayne Currie (NASA Ames Research Center) Maxwell Millar-Blanchaer (Jet Propulsion Kristina Davis (University of California Santa Laboratory) Barbara) Soumen Mondal (SN Bose National Centre for Richard Dekany (California Institute of Technology) Basic Sciences) Jacques-Robert Delorme (California Institute of Naoshi Murakami (Hokkaido University) Technology) Ruth Murray-Clay (University of California, Santa Ruobing Dong (University of Victoria) Cruz) Rene Doyon (Universite´ de Montreal)´ Norio Narita (Astrobiology Center) Courtney Dressing -
Lurking in the Shadows: Wide-Separation Gas Giants As Tracers of Planet Formation
Lurking in the Shadows: Wide-Separation Gas Giants as Tracers of Planet Formation Thesis by Marta Levesque Bryan In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Pasadena, California 2018 Defended May 1, 2018 ii © 2018 Marta Levesque Bryan ORCID: [0000-0002-6076-5967] All rights reserved iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost I would like to thank Heather Knutson, who I had the great privilege of working with as my thesis advisor. Her encouragement, guidance, and perspective helped me navigate many a challenging problem, and my conversations with her were a consistent source of positivity and learning throughout my time at Caltech. I leave graduate school a better scientist and person for having her as a role model. Heather fostered a wonderfully positive and supportive environment for her students, giving us the space to explore and grow - I could not have asked for a better advisor or research experience. I would also like to thank Konstantin Batygin for enthusiastic and illuminating discussions that always left me more excited to explore the result at hand. Thank you as well to Dimitri Mawet for providing both expertise and contagious optimism for some of my latest direct imaging endeavors. Thank you to the rest of my thesis committee, namely Geoff Blake, Evan Kirby, and Chuck Steidel for their support, helpful conversations, and insightful questions. I am grateful to have had the opportunity to collaborate with Brendan Bowler. His talk at Caltech my second year of graduate school introduced me to an unexpected population of massive wide-separation planetary-mass companions, and lead to a long-running collaboration from which several of my thesis projects were born. -
A First Reconnaissance of the Atmospheres of Terrestrial Exoplanets Using Ground-Based Optical Transits and Space-Based UV Spectra
A First Reconnaissance of the Atmospheres of Terrestrial Exoplanets Using Ground-Based Optical Transits and Space-Based UV Spectra The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Diamond-Lowe, Hannah Zoe. 2020. A First Reconnaissance of the Atmospheres of Terrestrial Exoplanets Using Ground-Based Optical Transits and Space-Based UV Spectra. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences. Citable link https://nrs.harvard.edu/URN-3:HUL.INSTREPOS:37365825 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA A first reconnaissance of the atmospheres of terrestrial exoplanets using ground-based optical transits and space-based UV spectra A DISSERTATION PRESENTED BY HANNAH ZOE DIAMOND-LOWE TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ASTRONOMY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE SUBJECT OF ASTRONOMY HARVARD UNIVERSITY CAMBRIDGE,MASSACHUSETTS MAY 2020 c 2020 HANNAH ZOE DIAMOND-LOWE.ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. ii Dissertation Advisor: David Charbonneau Hannah Zoe Diamond-Lowe A first reconnaissance of the atmospheres of terrestrial exoplanets using ground-based optical transits and space-based UV spectra ABSTRACT Decades of ground-based, space-based, and in some cases in situ measurements of the Solar System terrestrial planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars have provided in- depth insight into their atmospheres, yet we know almost nothing about the atmospheres of terrestrial planets orbiting other stars. -
Exoplanet.Eu Catalog Page 1 # Name Mass Star Name
exoplanet.eu_catalog # name mass star_name star_distance star_mass OGLE-2016-BLG-1469L b 13.6 OGLE-2016-BLG-1469L 4500.0 0.048 11 Com b 19.4 11 Com 110.6 2.7 11 Oph b 21 11 Oph 145.0 0.0162 11 UMi b 10.5 11 UMi 119.5 1.8 14 And b 5.33 14 And 76.4 2.2 14 Her b 4.64 14 Her 18.1 0.9 16 Cyg B b 1.68 16 Cyg B 21.4 1.01 18 Del b 10.3 18 Del 73.1 2.3 1RXS 1609 b 14 1RXS1609 145.0 0.73 1SWASP J1407 b 20 1SWASP J1407 133.0 0.9 24 Sex b 1.99 24 Sex 74.8 1.54 24 Sex c 0.86 24 Sex 74.8 1.54 2M 0103-55 (AB) b 13 2M 0103-55 (AB) 47.2 0.4 2M 0122-24 b 20 2M 0122-24 36.0 0.4 2M 0219-39 b 13.9 2M 0219-39 39.4 0.11 2M 0441+23 b 7.5 2M 0441+23 140.0 0.02 2M 0746+20 b 30 2M 0746+20 12.2 0.12 2M 1207-39 24 2M 1207-39 52.4 0.025 2M 1207-39 b 4 2M 1207-39 52.4 0.025 2M 1938+46 b 1.9 2M 1938+46 0.6 2M 2140+16 b 20 2M 2140+16 25.0 0.08 2M 2206-20 b 30 2M 2206-20 26.7 0.13 2M 2236+4751 b 12.5 2M 2236+4751 63.0 0.6 2M J2126-81 b 13.3 TYC 9486-927-1 24.8 0.4 2MASS J11193254 AB 3.7 2MASS J11193254 AB 2MASS J1450-7841 A 40 2MASS J1450-7841 A 75.0 0.04 2MASS J1450-7841 B 40 2MASS J1450-7841 B 75.0 0.04 2MASS J2250+2325 b 30 2MASS J2250+2325 41.5 30 Ari B b 9.88 30 Ari B 39.4 1.22 38 Vir b 4.51 38 Vir 1.18 4 Uma b 7.1 4 Uma 78.5 1.234 42 Dra b 3.88 42 Dra 97.3 0.98 47 Uma b 2.53 47 Uma 14.0 1.03 47 Uma c 0.54 47 Uma 14.0 1.03 47 Uma d 1.64 47 Uma 14.0 1.03 51 Eri b 9.1 51 Eri 29.4 1.75 51 Peg b 0.47 51 Peg 14.7 1.11 55 Cnc b 0.84 55 Cnc 12.3 0.905 55 Cnc c 0.1784 55 Cnc 12.3 0.905 55 Cnc d 3.86 55 Cnc 12.3 0.905 55 Cnc e 0.02547 55 Cnc 12.3 0.905 55 Cnc f 0.1479 55 -
Open Batalha-Dissertation.Pdf
The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School Eberly College of Science A SYNERGISTIC APPROACH TO INTERPRETING PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES A Dissertation in Astronomy and Astrophysics by Natasha E. Batalha © 2017 Natasha E. Batalha Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2017 The dissertation of Natasha E. Batalha was reviewed and approved∗ by the following: Steinn Sigurdsson Professor of Astronomy and Astrophysics Dissertation Co-Advisor, Co-Chair of Committee James Kasting Professor of Geosciences Dissertation Co-Advisor, Co-Chair of Committee Jason Wright Professor of Astronomy and Astrophysics Eric Ford Professor of Astronomy and Astrophysics Chris Forest Professor of Meteorology Avi Mandell NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Research Scientist Special Signatory Michael Eracleous Professor of Astronomy and Astrophysics Graduate Program Chair ∗Signatures are on file in the Graduate School. ii Abstract We will soon have the technological capability to measure the atmospheric compo- sition of temperate Earth-sized planets orbiting nearby stars. Interpreting these atmospheric signals poses a new challenge to planetary science. In contrast to jovian-like atmospheres, whose bulk compositions consist of hydrogen and helium, terrestrial planet atmospheres are likely comprised of high mean molecular weight secondary atmospheres, which have gone through a high degree of evolution. For example, present-day Mars has a frozen surface with a thin tenuous atmosphere, but 4 billion years ago it may have been warmed by a thick greenhouse atmosphere. Several processes contribute to a planet’s atmospheric evolution: stellar evolution, geological processes, atmospheric escape, biology, etc. Each of these individual processes affects the planetary system as a whole and therefore they all must be considered in the modeling of terrestrial planets. -
Jason A. Dittmann 51 Pegasi B Postdoctoral Fellow
Jason A. Dittmann 51 Pegasi b Postdoctoral Fellow Contact Massachusetts Institute of Technology MIT Kavli Institute: 37-438f 617-258-5928 (office) 70 Vassar St. 520-820-0928 (cell) Cambridge, MA 02139 [email protected] Education Harvard University, Cambridge, MA PhD, Astronomy and Astrophysics, May 2016 Advisor: David Charbonneau, PhD • University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ BS, Astronomy, Physics, May 2010 Advisor: Laird Close, PhD • Recent 51 Pegasi b Postdoctoral Fellow July 2017 – Present Research Earth and Planetary Science Department, MIT Positions Faculty Contact: Sara Seager Postdoctoral Researcher Feb 2017 – June 2017 Kavli Institute, MIT Supervisor: Sarah Ballard Postdoctoral Researcher July 2016 – Jan 2017 Center for Astrophysics, Harvard University Supervisor: David Charbonneau Research Assistant Sep 2010 – May 2016 Center for Astrophysics, Harvard University Advisors: David Charbonneau Publication 16 first and second authored publications Summary 22 additional co-authored publications 1 first-authored publication in Nature 1 co-authored publication in Nature Selected 51 Pegasi b Postdoctoral Fellowship 2017 – Present Awards and Pierce Fellowship 2010 – 2013 Honors Certificate of Distinction in Teaching 2012 Best Project Award, Physics Ugrd. Research Symp. 2009 Best Undergraduate Research (Steward Observatory) 2009 – 2010 Grants Principal Investigator, Hubble Space Telescope 2017, 10 orbits Awarded “Initial Reconaissance of a Transiting Rocky (maximum award) Planet in a Nearby M-Dwarf’s Habitable Zone” Principal Investigator, -
Download This Article in PDF Format
A&A 631, A7 (2019) https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201935922 Astronomy & © ESO 2019 Astrophysics Pebbles versus planetesimals: the case of Trappist-1 G. A. L. Coleman, A. Leleu?, Y. Alibert, and W. Benz Physikalisches Institut, Universität Bern, Gesellschaftsstr. 6, 3012 Bern, Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] Received 20 May 2019 / Accepted 11 August 2019 ABSTRACT We present a study into the formation of planetary systems around low mass stars similar to Trappist-1, through the accretion of either planetesimals or pebbles. The aim is to determine if the currently observed systems around low mass stars could favour one scenario over the other. To determine these differences, we ran numerous N-body simulations, coupled to a thermally evolving viscous 1D disc model, and including prescriptions for planet migration, photoevaporation, and pebble and planetesimal dynamics. We mainly examine the differences between the pebble and planetesimal accretion scenarios, but we also look at the influences of disc mass, size of planetesimals, and the percentage of solids locked up within pebbles. When comparing the resulting planetary systems to Trappist-1, we find that a wide range of initial conditions for both the pebble and planetesimal accretion scenarios can form planetary systems similar to Trappist-1, in terms of planet mass, periods, and resonant configurations. Typically these planets formed exterior to the water iceline and migrated in resonant convoys into the inner region close to the central star. When comparing the planetary systems formed through pebble accretion to those formed through planetesimal accretion, we find a large number of similarities, including average planet masses, eccentricities, inclinations, and period ratios. -
Exoplanet.Eu Catalog Page 1 Star Distance Star Name Star Mass
exoplanet.eu_catalog star_distance star_name star_mass Planet name mass 1.3 Proxima Centauri 0.120 Proxima Cen b 0.004 1.3 alpha Cen B 0.934 alf Cen B b 0.004 2.3 WISE 0855-0714 WISE 0855-0714 6.000 2.6 Lalande 21185 0.460 Lalande 21185 b 0.012 3.2 eps Eridani 0.830 eps Eridani b 3.090 3.4 Ross 128 0.168 Ross 128 b 0.004 3.6 GJ 15 A 0.375 GJ 15 A b 0.017 3.6 YZ Cet 0.130 YZ Cet d 0.004 3.6 YZ Cet 0.130 YZ Cet c 0.003 3.6 YZ Cet 0.130 YZ Cet b 0.002 3.6 eps Ind A 0.762 eps Ind A b 2.710 3.7 tau Cet 0.783 tau Cet e 0.012 3.7 tau Cet 0.783 tau Cet f 0.012 3.7 tau Cet 0.783 tau Cet h 0.006 3.7 tau Cet 0.783 tau Cet g 0.006 3.8 GJ 273 0.290 GJ 273 b 0.009 3.8 GJ 273 0.290 GJ 273 c 0.004 3.9 Kapteyn's 0.281 Kapteyn's c 0.022 3.9 Kapteyn's 0.281 Kapteyn's b 0.015 4.3 Wolf 1061 0.250 Wolf 1061 d 0.024 4.3 Wolf 1061 0.250 Wolf 1061 c 0.011 4.3 Wolf 1061 0.250 Wolf 1061 b 0.006 4.5 GJ 687 0.413 GJ 687 b 0.058 4.5 GJ 674 0.350 GJ 674 b 0.040 4.7 GJ 876 0.334 GJ 876 b 1.938 4.7 GJ 876 0.334 GJ 876 c 0.856 4.7 GJ 876 0.334 GJ 876 e 0.045 4.7 GJ 876 0.334 GJ 876 d 0.022 4.9 GJ 832 0.450 GJ 832 b 0.689 4.9 GJ 832 0.450 GJ 832 c 0.016 5.9 GJ 570 ABC 0.802 GJ 570 D 42.500 6.0 SIMP0136+0933 SIMP0136+0933 12.700 6.1 HD 20794 0.813 HD 20794 e 0.015 6.1 HD 20794 0.813 HD 20794 d 0.011 6.1 HD 20794 0.813 HD 20794 b 0.009 6.2 GJ 581 0.310 GJ 581 b 0.050 6.2 GJ 581 0.310 GJ 581 c 0.017 6.2 GJ 581 0.310 GJ 581 e 0.006 6.5 GJ 625 0.300 GJ 625 b 0.010 6.6 HD 219134 HD 219134 h 0.280 6.6 HD 219134 HD 219134 e 0.200 6.6 HD 219134 HD 219134 d 0.067 6.6 HD 219134 HD -
Tidal Evolution of Exoplanetary Systems Hosting Potentially Habitable Exoplanets
MNRAS 494, 5082–5090 (2020) doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1110 Advance Access publication 2020 April 26 Tidal evolution of exoplanetary systems hosting potentially habitable exoplanets. The cases of LHS-1140 b-c and K2-18 b-c G. O. Gomes 1,2‹ and S. Ferraz-Mello1 1 Instituto de Astronomia, Geof´ısica e Cienciasˆ Atmosfericas,´ IAG-USP, Rua do Matao˜ 1226, 05508-900 Sao˜ Paulo, Brazil Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/494/4/5082/5825369 by Universidade de S�o Paulo user on 26 August 2020 2Observatoire de Geneve,` UniversitedeGen´ eve,` 51 Chemin des Maillettes, CH-1290 Sauverny, Switzerland Accepted 2020 April 19. Received 2020 April 19; in original form 2020 March 4 ABSTRACT We present a model to study secularly and tidally evolving three-body systems composed by two low-mass planets orbiting a star, in the case where the bodies rotation axes are always perpendicular to the orbital plane. The tidal theory allows us to study the spin and orbit evolution of both stiff Earth-like planets and predominantly gaseous Neptune-like planets. The model is applied to study two recently discovered exoplanetary systems containing potentially habitable exoplanets (PHE): LHS-1140 b-c and K2-18 b-c. For the former system, we show that both LHS-1140 b and c must be in nearly circular orbits. For K2-18 b-c, the combined analysis of orbital evolution time-scales with the current eccentricity estimation of K2-18 b allows us to conclude that the inner planet (K2-18 c) must be a Neptune-like gaseous body. -
Detectability of Atmospheric Features of Earth-Like Planets in the Habitable
Astronomy & Astrophysics manuscript no. Wunderlich_etal_2019_arxiv c ESO 2019 May 8, 2019 Detectability of atmospheric features of Earth-like planets in the habitable zone around M dwarfs Fabian Wunderlich1, Mareike Godolt1, John Lee Grenfell2, Steffen Städt3, Alexis M. S. Smith2, Stefanie Gebauer2, Franz Schreier3, Pascal Hedelt3, and Heike Rauer1; 2; 4 1 Zentrum für Astronomie und Astrophysik, Technische Universität Berlin, Hardenbergstraße 36, 10623 Berlin, Germany e-mail: [email protected] 2 Institut für Planetenforschung, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, Rutherfordstraße 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany 3 Institut für Methodik der Fernerkundung, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, 82234 Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany 4 Institut für Geologische Wissenschaften, Freie Universität Berlin, Malteserstr. 74-100, 12249 Berlin, Germany ABSTRACT Context. The characterisation of the atmosphere of exoplanets is one of the main goals of exoplanet science in the coming decades. Aims. We investigate the detectability of atmospheric spectral features of Earth-like planets in the habitable zone (HZ) around M dwarfs with the future James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). Methods. We used a coupled 1D climate-chemistry-model to simulate the influence of a range of observed and modelled M-dwarf spectra on Earth-like planets. The simulated atmospheres served as input for the calculation of the transmission spectra of the hy- pothetical planets, using a line-by-line spectral radiative transfer model. To investigate the spectroscopic detectability of absorption bands with JWST we further developed a signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) model and applied it to our transmission spectra. Results. High abundances of methane (CH4) and water (H2O) in the atmosphere of Earth-like planets around mid to late M dwarfs increase the detectability of the corresponding spectral features compared to early M-dwarf planets. -
A Second Terrestrial Planet Orbiting the Nearby M Dwarf LHS 1140 Kristo Ment,1 Jason A
Draft version November 26, 2018 Typeset using LATEX preprint style in AASTeX62 A second terrestrial planet orbiting the nearby M dwarf LHS 1140 Kristo Ment,1 Jason A. Dittmann,2 Nicola Astudillo-Defru,3 David Charbonneau,1 Jonathan Irwin,1 Xavier Bonfils,4 Felipe Murgas,5 Jose-Manuel Almenara,4 Thierry Forveille,4 Eric Agol,6 Sarah Ballard,7 Zachory K. Berta-Thompson,8 Franc¸ois Bouchy,9 Ryan Cloutier,10, 11, 12 Xavier Delfosse,4 Rene´ Doyon,12 Courtney D. Dressing,13 Gilbert A. Esquerdo,1 Raphaelle¨ D. Haywood,1 David M. Kipping,14 David W. Latham,1 Christophe Lovis,9 Elisabeth R. Newton,7 Francesco Pepe,9 Joseph E. Rodriguez,1 Nuno C. Santos,15, 16 Thiam-Guan Tan,17 Stephane Udry,9 Jennifer G. Winters,1 and Anael¨ Wunsche¨ 4 1Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA 251 Pegasi b Postdoctoral Fellow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA 3Departamento de Astronom´ıa,Universidad de Concepci´on,Casilla 160-C, Concepci´on,Chile 4Universit´eGrenoble Alpes, CNRS, IPAG, F-38000 Grenoble, France 5Instituto de Astrof´ısica de Canarias (IAC), E-38200 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain 6Astronomy Department, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA 7Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA 8Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA 9Observatoire de l'Universit´ede Gen`eve,51 chemin des Maillettes, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland 10Dept. of Astronomy & Astrophysics, University of Toronto, 50 St. George Street, M5S 3H4, Toronto, ON, Canada 11Centre for Planetary Sciences, Dept. -
Planetary System LHS 1140 Revisited with ESPRESSO and TESS? J
A&A 642, A121 (2020) Astronomy https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202038922 & © ESO 2020 Astrophysics Planetary system LHS 1140 revisited with ESPRESSO and TESS? J. Lillo-Box1, P. Figueira2,3, A. Leleu4, L. Acuña5, J. P. Faria3,6, N. Hara7, N. C. Santos3,6, A. C. M. Correia8,9, P. Robutel9, M. Deleuil5, D. Barrado1, S. Sousa3, X. Bonfils10, O. Mousis5, J. M. Almenara10, N. Astudillo-Defru11, E. Marcq12, S. Udry7, C. Lovis7, and F. Pepe7 1 Centro de Astrobiología (CAB, CSIC-INTA), Departamento de Astrofísica, ESAC campus 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain e-mail: [email protected] 2 European Southern Observatory, Alonso de Cordova 3107, Vitacura, Region Metropolitana, Chile 3 Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Rua das Estrelas, 4150-762 Porto, Portugal 4 Physics Institute, Space Research and Planetary Sciences, Center for Space and Habitability – NCCR PlanetS, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland 5 Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, CNES, LAM, Marseille, France 6 Departamento de Física e Astronomia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal 7 Geneva Observatory, University of Geneva, Chemin des Mailettes 51, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland 8 CFisUC, Department of Physics, University of Coimbra, 3004-516 Coimbra, Portugal 9 IMCCE, Observatoire de Paris, PSL University, CNRS, Sorbonne Universiteé, 77 avenue Denfert-Rochereau, 75014 Paris, France 10 CNRS, IPAG, Université Grenoble Alpes, 38000 Grenoble, France 11 Departamento de Matemática y Física Aplicadas, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Alonso de Rivera 2850, Concepción, Chile 12 LATMOS/CNRS/Sorbonne Université/UVSQ, 11 boulevard d’Alembert, Guyancourt 78280, France Received 14 July 2020 / Accepted 24 September 2020 ABSTRACT Context.