Gender, Misogyny, and Homophobia in College Choral Methods Texts

Title: Big Boys Don’t Cry (Or Sing): Gender, Misogyny, and Homophobia in College Choral Methods Texts

Author(s): Julia Eklund Koza

Source: Koza, J. E. (1993-1994). Big boys don’t cry (or sing): Gender, misogyny, and homophobia in college choral methods texts. The Quarterly, 4-5(5-1), pp. 48-64. (Reprinted with permission in Visions of Research in Music Education, 16(5), Autumn, 2010). Retrieved from http://www-usr.rider.edu/~vrme/

It is with pleasure that we inaugurate the reprint of the entire seven volumes of The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning. The journal began in 1990 as The Quarterly. In 1992, with volume 3, the name changed to The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning and continued until 1997. The journal contained articles on issues that were timely when they appeared and are now important for their historical relevance. For many authors, it was their first major publication. Visions of Research in Music Education will publish facsimiles of each issue as it originally appeared. Each article will be a separate pdf file. Jason D. Vodicka has accepted my invitation to serve as guest editor for the reprint project and will compose a new editorial to introduce each volume. Chad Keilman is the production manager. I express deepest thanks to Richard Colwell for granting VRME permission to re-publish The Quarterly in online format. He has graciously prepared an introduction to the reprint series. Big Boys Don't Cry (Or Sing): Gender, Misogyny, And HOlI1ophobia In College Choral Methods Texts

By Julia Eklund Koza University of Wisconsin-Madison

horal methods texts, that is to say, than half of the texts contained such refer- books and articles addressing the ences.3 Patterns emerged among those that C multifarious details of directing a cho- did, however, in the topics addressed and in ral ensemble, often playa role in the college the assumptions made about gender; most training of choral educators. These texts rep- texts focused attention on males. In the fol- resent what some scholars have labeled "le- lowing analysis I draw a single strand from gitimate knowledge,"! the expert knowledge my larger investigation and examine discus- recognized as essential to success in choral sions of what some believe is among the directing. Choral texts, like all others, draw most difficult problems facing choral direc- from larger systems of ideas, or discourses. tor/teachers today: missing males, a shortage They can reflect, reinforce, and challenge of males in choral music programs+ From dominant discourses, and they also can bring these discussions, I conclude that the vast new or alternative discourses into wider cir- majority of current texts, and the discourses culation. Prompted by curiosity about from which they draw, are highly problem- whether gender and gender-related issues are atic from a socialist feminist perspective. In being discussed in current choral texts, I re- general, references to gender reflected and cently examined a collection of texts pub- reinforced discourses that are both misogy- lished between 1982 and 19922 I sought to nistic and homophobic; I argue that the rein- establish whether the subject of gender was forcement of dominant gender discourses ever broached, what was said about gender contributes to the perpetuation of unequal when it was addressed, and how gender-re- power relations, which, socialist feminists as- lated issues were explained. I analyzed the sert, are at the heart of the different oppres- references I located, and the discourses from sions of women and gay men. which they drew, from a socialist feminist I begin with a brief discussion of the two perspective. theories that informed my analysis: a social- I examined a substantial number of texts in ist feminist theory of gender, articulated by search of references to males or females as a Alison ]aggar, and a post-structural theory of group and to masculinity or femininity; less gender as performance, formulated by Judith Butler. As part of the discussion, I outline Julia Eklund Koza is Assistant Professor of Mu- some criticisms socialist feminist and post- sic at the University of Wisconsin - Madison. structuralist theorists working in gay and les- Her research interests include issues in music bian studies have leveled at dominant gender and music education that pertain to gender, discourses. Next, I describe the ideas for- race, and social class. warded in the choral methods texts them-

48 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning selves, focusing specifically on explanations mundane way in which genders are appropri- of the missing males problem and proposed ated, theatricalized, worn, and done; it im- solutions. Finally, I critique these explana- plies that all gendering is a kind of imperson- tions and solutions, as well as the discourses ation and approximation. If this is true, it seems, there is no original or primary gender from which they draw. that drag imitates, but gender is a kind of imi- Theoretical Framework tation for which there is no original; ... 8 The many scholars who describe themselves Socialist feminists further claim that con- as feminists do not necessarily hold similar structions of gender contribute to the per- views on the subject of gender. Socialist petuation of various forms of oppression, feminist gender theory, as articulated by Alison male dominance among them. Alison Jaggar Jaggar, may differ markedly from theories ad- explains: vanced by Marxist, liberal, or radical feminists, Socialist feminism claims all of the following: as well as from those implicit that our "inner" lives, as well in dominant gender dis- as our bodies and behavior, courses. I draw my definition [T]he texts are structured by gender; that this gender-structuring is not of gender from Leslie Roman I examined drew innate but is socially imposed; and Linda Christian-Smith, from. and that the specific characteristics who describe gender as the that are imposed are related "rela tiona I categories of femi- reinforced sys- systematically to the histori- ninity and masculinity at a cally prevailing system of or- particular historic juncture."> terns of ideas that ganizing social production; This definition is consistent tend to perpetuate that the gender-structuring of with a major tenet of socialist our "inner" lives occurs when feminist theory, the assump- unequal power we are very young and is reinforced throughout our lives in tion that gender is a social relations and that a variety of different spheres; construct. This assumption foster the and that these relatively rigid stands in opposition to claims masculine and feminine char- that gender-structuring is bio- continued acter structures are a very im- logically determined or is in portant element in maintaining any other respect "natural." oppression of male dominance." Post-structural theorist vvorrieri Oppression is perpetu- Judith Butler expands on the ated, in part, through a concept of social construc- and gay rneri. rigid binary gender system tion by describing gender as that not only associates a form of performancev in a masculinity with males and discussion of gender and drag, she maintains femininity with females, but also ties males that every performance of gender is an ap- and masculinity to power, dominance, and proximation, an imitation lacking an origi- "the good." Traditional definitions of mascu- nal.? She states that belief in a "proper" gen- linity and femininity, which have roots in der for each sex is invariably a by-product of separate-sphere discourses, ascribe different systems of compulsory heterosexuality: sets of interests, behaviors, activities, and Drag is not the putting on of a gender that personality characteristics to each sex. Males belongs properly to some other group, i.e., and masculinity are typically associated with an act of expropriation or appropriation that strength, physical activity (e.g., athletics), assumes that gender is the rightful property power, adventurousness, independence, ag- of sex, that "masculine" belongs to "male" gressiveness, assertiveness, rationality, intelli- and "feminine" belongs to "female." There is no "proper" gender, a gender proper to one gence, and bravery.l" They also are linked sex rather than another, which is in some to public sphere endeavors such as careers sense that sex's cultural property. Where that outside the home and, John Fiske maintains, notion of the "proper" operates, it is always to maturity. Fiske writes, "'Be a man' is a and only improperly installed as the effect of frequent admonition to young boys that re- a compulsory system. Drag constitutes the quires them to behave more maturely than

Volume Iv, Number 4/ Volume V; Number 1 49 There is no question that boys are less likely to participate in choral ensembles than girls. Statistics gathered in 1982 indicate that the ratio of girls to boys in choral programs is about 5:2. What I will question in the following analysis, however, are the explanations and solutions given in the texts Iexarrtined, as well as the understandings of gender upon which the discussions were based. their physical age.'·ll Finally, heterosexual dards, to become equal on male terms, to orientation is assumed to be a component of attain accredited status."18 masculiniry.t- Andrew Ross summarizes a Females are not the only group portrayed popular image of the red-blooded male: as "undesirable others" in traditional gender "competitive, omnipotent, irredeemably sex- discourse. For example, the compulsory het- ist, and emotionally illiterare.vl> erosexuality implicit in the binary system, to- In the traditional binary gender system, gether with homophobia "inherent in 'norms' males are constructed as rational, and fe- of maleness," help construct homosexuality, males are characterized as ernotional.l+ This in this instance, male homosexuality, as the binary fits Fiske's description of masculine undesirable other.l? Diana Fuss explains narratives, in which "sensitivity is seen as a that a discourse of inside/outside is at work, threat to masculinity .... Power is confined to not only in the masculine/feminine couple, the men, sensitivity to the women.t+> His- but also in the hetero/homo binary, 20 In a torically in the United States and England, discussion of homosexuality as the "outside," the rational/emotional binary has contributed Fuss states that "outside" is the contaminated, to the perception that music, constructed as excluded, but necessary, other: an emotional activity, is a feminine, and Homosexuality, in a word, becomes the ex- therefore unsuitable undertaking for rnales.lv cluded; it stands in for, paradoxically, that The binary gender system helps perpetuate which stands without. But the binary structure of sexual orientation, fundamentally a the oppression of women not only by con- structure of exclusion and exteriorization, structing males as strong and powerful, but nonetheless constructs that exclusion by also by assigning values such that the mascu- prominently including the contaminated other line/male becomes "the good" and the not in its oppositional logic. The homo in rela- masculine/not male is deemed the "bad," the tion to the hetero, much like the feminine in undesirable "other." Fiske writes, relation to the masculine, operates as an in- These oppositions are patriarchal ones for dispensable interior exclusion - an outside they carry the connotations derived from their which is inside interiority making the articula- history that the "masculine" characteristics are tion of the latter possible, a transgression of powerful and valued whereas the "feminine" the border which is necessary to constitute ones are weaker and devalued. Our cultural the border as such." development of masculine and feminine iden- Gayle Rubin asserts that ways of organizing tities has built into it notions of male superi- sexuality, what she calls "sex-gender sys- ority. tems," playa central role in the perpetuation These "inferior" and "weak" characteristics of of male dorninance.e- the feminine are repressed in the masculine Of course, socialist feminists do not as- psyche and exscribed from the masculine nar- sume that domination results solely from sex- rative." As K. Overfield notes, the masculine/male gender systems. As Jaggar notes, they recognize that domination is integrally related to becomes the standard in traditional gender means of production, specifically to capital- discourse, the "baseline from which every- ism; they conclude that at this moment in thing else is measured" and is found to be United States history, sweeping structural and wanting - "deviant, prohibited, or an ex- institutional change is needed23 In addition, pression of 'otherness' .... Conversely, it is however, some see links between capitalism seen as an achievement to reach male stan-

50 The Quarterly journal of Music Teaching and Learning and specific constructions of gender. Fiske, minds of the choral methods texts' authors, for example, reveals one of these links in a yet these authors gave considerable attention discussion of why an unattainable masculinity to the absence or shortage of males in sing- is necessary for the continuation of capitalism: ing ensembles and to establishing effective Masculinity becomes almost a definition of methods of recruiting and retaining males. the superhuman, so it becomes that which Four explanations were given for the short- can never be achieved. Capitalism needs this age of males: gap between the material experience of men • The perception that singing is not an ap- and the ideological construction of masculin- propriately masculine activity deflects boys ity to keep men striving for more and more away from choral programs. achievement in order to maintain the "natu- • Choral programs have not catered to male ralness" of the ideological concept of interests and preferences; successful direc- progress, which is so central to capitalism." tor/teachers take male interests into con A feature of socialist feminist theory that sicleration; unsuccessful ones do not." sustains an optimism not engendered by • The voice change sidetracks boys. more biodeterministic views is the possibility • Boys avoid singing because they perceive for change. In theory, whatever is socially it to be unrelated to their future career constructed can be altered or even abolished. plans. Indeed, socialist feminists consider the aboli- The first explanation was a popular one: tion of femininity and masculinity to be a Males stay away from singing because they necessary precursor to ending the oppression perceive it to be "feminine," "sissy," or not of females.s> Further, as Jaggar notes, many "manly."31 Kenneth Phillips explained: feminists believe that elimination of the com- "American culture remains rooted in a fron- pulsory heterosexuality implicit in traditional tier mentality, and singing is not a part of sex-gender systems also "would have an that traditional male image."32 Apparently enormous impact on the system of male the belief that this perception plays a central dominance.t-f role in males' reticence to sing was shared In seeking a path toward transformation or not only by most of the authors making ref- abolition of discourses that perpetuate op- erence to gender, but also by choral directors pression, some feminists turn to Gramscian at large; Phillips quoted a study by Perry A. explanations of how domination is main- Castelli that asked teachers to cite the primary tained. Although Antonio Gramsci's concept reasons why boys leave choral programs. of hegemony was formulated with social- Teachers said that "sex role endorsement (the class relations in mind, it also can be useful attitude that males do not sing) and peer pres- when considering gender relations. Gramsci sure" were the leading factors.33 argued that domination operates with the Contributors who discussed the perception consent of those dominatedr-? according to that music is not manly were united in their Jaggar, such consent results from a dominant cries for change. The answer to the prob- group "projecting its own particular way of lem, the texts claimed, lay in restructuring seeing social reality so successfully that its perceptions about music. Music was to be view is accepted as common sense and as portrayed as a masculine activity; this trans- part of the natural order by those who in fact formation was to be accomplished by linking are subordinated to it."28 Those who take a singing to "manly" males and to interests and Gramscian position emphasize that develop- activities presumed to be masculine. The ing "alternative ways of perceiving reality suggested activities and role models provide and alternative attitudes toward it" is a valu- a sketch of authors' understandings of mas- able means of instigating change.s? culinity. For example, Phillips indicated that The Missing Males Problem: athletic coaches (whom he assumed to be male) are good, masculine role models: Explanations and Solutions Music teachers should stress that singing is a Singing and Masculinity "masculine" activity. Adult male singers need The potential harm resulting from sex-gen- to be introduced as role models: Ask athletic der systems and from compulsory hetero- coaches if they sing and would be willing to sexuality did not appear to have been on the help, or encourage older boys to serve as

Volume IV, Number 4/ Volume V, Number 1 51 models for younger boys. Recordings and taught does not seem grown-up or manly."37 pictures of males choruses also can be used In the second column, Roe indicated that in- to encourage male interest in singing." terest may be aroused by male teachers, and Athleticism and maturity were routinely by thus "emphasizing the manliness of sing- linked to masculinity; Paul Roe, in an argu- ing."38 His points implied that female teach- ment favoring recruitment of athletes to cho- ers, unlike their male counterparts, champion ral programs, added strength to the list of babyish or "unmanly" music and activities, masculine attributes, He argued that the Obviously, serving as a masculine role presence of athletes brings prestige to the model is not an option available to female music program, and he apparently assumed teachers; however, a passing remark by that all athletes are male: Sandra Mancuso on the recruitment of ado- It is very important to the teacher of junior or lescent males inferred that other tactics were senior high students that the choral groups recommended to women. Mancuso wrote, include athletes. Get the coach to back the choral program if you can .... The best male "A wink of an eye and a hug around the singers in these two age groups are almost neck may hypnotize some, but getting boys invariably athletes. The reason for this is ob- involved with music has been an eternal vious: the athletes have the most mature battle for music educators.v-? Although hug- bodies and are the strongest, most vital ging may be a questionable practice for ei- people ... , The other reason for the impor- ther male or female teachers of adolescents, tance of the athlete in the program is the it would probably be more unacceptable prestige it gives to the music department. when initiated by males, Winks, hugs, and Other students are attracted because these hypnotizing are part of a discourse of allure, athletes are in the choir. If music is required through the seventh or eighth grade, use and presumably allure is one of the recruit- some of the athletes in "small ensembles" to ment practices female teachers have available stimulate their involvement and interest in to them. It cannot be said with certainty that choral music. These young men [my empha- Mancuso recommended these practices solely sis] will then be much more likely to remain to female teachers; however, such a recom- in vocal music when it becomes an elective 55 mendation would be consistent with stereo- Leadership was another oft-cited attribute typed perceptions of how women secure of masculine role models. Kenneth Miller power. John Fiske, for example, observed linked masculinity to leadership when he that "women's bodies and sexuality are the wrote, "The problem of convincing boys that main means open to them to achieve power singing is sufficiently masculine may take a in a patriarchy.rw little longer. It will help if student leaders Stressing commonalties between singing sing in the vocal music program, but there and "masculine" characteristics or activities are other ways [Q improve interest."36 What was advocated by some sources. Physicality was not clear from Miller's statement is was among these shared "masculine" charac- whether he believed that female student teristics. Phillips suggested, "Another way to leaders will convince boys of the masculinity help boys view singing as a masculine activ- of music or whether he simply assumed that ity is to stress the physical training required all student leaders are male. by the psychomotor process"; he later elabo- In a variation on the theme of male role rated, "By concentrating on the physical act models, Roe stated that an absence of male of singing, students learn that singing re- teachers contributes to lack of interest among quires the same preparation as do sports.r+l A boys. In a discussion of how to recruit males similar argument was presented by Roe, who to choral programs, Roe presented side-by- established a strong/weak, good/bad binary in side lists, one enumerating causes of a young which strength and virility were deemed nec- man's lack of interest in music, and a second essary prerequisites of good vocal tone: giving ways that a young man's interest It takes strength and virility to produce a might be "aroused," After mentioning "ab- good singing tone. Remember that when sence of male teachers" in the first column, anyone becomes sick, weakness is immedi- Roe added an explanation: "Music that is ately apparent to everyone through a weak, shaky voice. Challenge them [boys] to hold

52 The Quarterly Journal oj Music Teaching and Learning The fact that none of the choral methods texts directly addressed the contributing role homophobia rnay play in the missing-males problem, and that they resorted instead to euphemisms such as "sissy" and "unmanly," is a measure of the oppressive strength of homophobia at this moment in history. As Fuss writes, one 'way that oppression operates is through a "domain of unthinkability and unnameability. "

their ribs out and hiss smoothly for 45 sec- pride in the masculine sound of their emerg- onds or more and hold phrases out to their ing bass clef tones. "45 Miller connected mas- full duration. This kind of approach counter- culinity and adulthood to the changing voice acts any feelings the young men may have when he suggested that teachers should talk that singing is sissy." to adolescent boys in a manner stressing Finally, organizing all-male ensembles, manliness: such as barbershop quartets and male glee ... most boys look forward with great antici- clubs, was sometimes touted as an effective pation to becoming men. The voice change tactic for proving that singing is masculine. is one of the obvious signs that this is hap- Miller placed all-male organizations at the top pening .... Your junior high male singers of his list of helpful junior high choral groups: should always be referred to as "young men," There is only one type of ensemble that ap- not as "boys." Their manliness should be pears to the writer to be particularly helpful stressed at every opportunity. There is no in the junior high situation and that is the place in any choral program for the ridicule Mens' Chorus, Male Glee Club, or Barbershop of any individual. This is particularly impor- Quartet. Anything that can be done to dem- tant as your young men move through the onstrate that singing is not an exclusively early adolescent years." feminine activity will be helpful in encourag- To say that boys are merely looking for- ing male singers to participate actively in ward to adulthood is to underestimate the your program. The institution of an all-male loathing that the texts indicated boys have group helps to instill this idea, and allows the for high voices, a loathing Miller both under- director to select some particularly robust scored and sanctioned in his statement, "No texts for the men to sing.? red-blooded American male wants to sing a In a recommendation to establish all-male 'girl's' part when he is in eighth grade."47 ensembles for young men, Roe added, "A Roe expressed similar views; calling the mixed choir may not interest them [young changed voice "a symbol of manliness," he men], especially if there are many women observed, "Young people tend to be some- and just a handful of men."44 what cruel and unkind by nature. Those A related perception, the belief that high whose voices do not sound manly, or are un- voices are unmasculine and undesirable for manageable, are likely to be ribbed unmerci- males, was sometimes mentioned as a factor fully by both sexes. "48 The pressure not to contributing to boys' reticence to sing. Ac- sing a high part, together with the desire to be cording to the texts, boys often believe that viewed as men, apparently leads some boys the changed voice, symbolizing adult man- with unchanged voices to limit their range or hood, is more masculine than the un- attempt to sing baritone. Roe asserted, "These changed; furthermore, given a choice of fellows are so anxious to become men that it changed-voice ranges, boys prefer low ones. is common for some of them with unchanged Thus, boys regard the male voice range far- voices to sing baritone until the instructor tests thest from the female as the most masculine voices and puts them into the proper sec- and the most desirable. Frederick Swanson tion."49 Sue Fay Allen remarked that boys referred to the link between masculinity and with unchanged voices will try to limit their low voice in his observation that boys "take range to what they believe is "macho."50

Volume Iv, Number 4/ Volume 11;Number 1 53 Also underestimated in the interpretation boys from anything that might be construed that boys are merely looking forward to as feminine, including girls themselves. Roe adulthood is the strength of the negativity argued that the terms "soprano" and "alto" directed at girls and women. To sound like should never be used with boys, even a female was considered the ultimate humili- though they accurately describe boys' ranges: ation: "The boy's unchanged voice will ordinarily The young male desires nothing so much as be soprano, occasionally alto. These words to sound and look like a man; and unless he must not be used, for the young man does can be convinced that he is not detracting not want a feminine name attached to his from his manly status, he will strongly resist voice."55 Miller offered similar advice, sug- any attempts to have him sing falsetto (which gesting that parts be numbered or that desig- sounds, to him, like a girl singing). POinting out the effective use of falsetto ... helps take nations for adult males be used with all boys, away the stigma of sounding like women. regardless of whether the boys' voices have The manly teacher singing for them in falsetto changed: "It may be desirable, for social rea- will also help." sons, to designate all of your men (whether The texts offered various suggestions for they are soprano, alto, tenor, or bass) as ten- dealing with negative perceptions of high ors, baritones, or basses. Only you need to voices. For example, Allen encouraged know that your first tenors are really sopra- teachers to help boys with unchanged voices nos, or that your first basses are altos. In this use and be proud of their high notes 52 way you avoid giving any young man the However, Miller indicated that boys may stigma of singing a 'girl's' part."56 Miller in- need evidence in order to be convinced that dicated that under some circumstances, plac- high voices are masculine; he advocated using a boy with an unchanged voice in a ing "manly" role models, including athletes, changed-voice section - giving him music scholars, and men who have been successful that is too low for him to sing - is prefer- in their careers: able to placing him among girls, even if a It may be difficult to get boys who have tenor high-voice section is where he belongs.>? voices ... to sing tenor parts if they think they Under no circumstances, according to Miller, will be displaying characteristics that are not should adolescent boys with unchanged manly. A teacher can help to counter such voices be seated among girls: an idea by pointing to a graduate or to a In seating the group, arrange things so that all more advanced student who sings tenor and of your men may still sit together, even if who has also excelled academically, in a some of them sing some or all of the time sport, or in a desirable vocation. It may even with the women. It is socially unacceptable be possible to point to a successful profes- for young men at this age to be separated sional singer who sings quite high in the from the rest of the chorus men and placed male vocal range. Basically, boys need to among the women. 58 realize that singing any voice part which is Successful Teaching: The natural to them will be acceptable to other Androcentric Classroom people. They need to be assured that they Some references implied that singing has can use their voice in its best range and enjoy themselves while singing in the choir." come to be perceived as feminine because Although he was less specific in his defini- choral directors' decisions and practices have tion of manliness, Roe also agreed that tenors not taken males into account. For example, need masculine role models: the title of one of the articles, "Changing Many times a young man won't want to sing Voices: Don't Leave Out the Boys," hinted tenor because he feels it is less manly than it that the source of the missing-males problem is to sing bass or baritone. The teacher can may be teachers thernselves.c? Although no effectively remove this idea by citing the text openly blamed teachers for the shortage, names of tenors the class knows. These ten- several indicated that it was not only within ors need to have been extremely good at the power of teachers to solve the problem some sport or have a manliness that everyone but also was their responsibility. These dis- respects." cussions were based on the assumption that Some references advocated disassociating good teachers have many boys in their pro-

54 The Quarterly journal of Music Teaching and Learning grams. Teachers' belief that the presence of Gershwin's "I Got Plenty 0' Nuttin" for boys; boys is a measure of the program's and the he suggested Haydn's "My Mother Bids Me," teacher's success was mentioned by Joy Brahms's "The Vain Serenade," and the Lawrence: "Lullaby" from Menotti's 17.1eConsul for Although all music teachers have different girls.65 The Gershwin piece is an exuberant goals and ideals, each of them wants to be setting of a text championing independence successful. Nowhere is this more evident and self-sufficiency. By contrast, passive, do- than at state and national MENC conventions. mestic fare was proposed for girls. For ex- . As they interact with clinicians, attend lec- ample, "My Mother Bids Me" is a sweet dia- tures, and hear performances, choral teachers often make comments like these .... "I really tonic piece in a gentle compound meter that envy that conductor's success with those plaintively speaks of a young girl's sadness kids!" "I can't get four boys to sing in the and distraction during the absence of her chorus, and we have fifteen hundred students lover. in our school. Why do thirty boys sing in Selecting texts that appealed to junior high that chorus when there are only five hundred males was named as a special challenge. students in their schooli''"? Miller stated, "In teaching junior high music, Good teaching was assumed to ameliorate it is particularly important that the text be or prevent shortages of males. Recipes for appealing to the men."66 He commented good teaching included measures designed that if Renaissance texts mentioning "restless to make the curriculum more male centered nymphs or dying swans" were used with this and thus more interesting for males. One age group, the "men" would need to have frequently discussed topic was selection of the texts explained to them.67 Underlying repertoire. Males were assumed to have dif- this statement is the presumption that adoles- ferent and more "masculine" musical tastes cent boys, unlike girls, would have little ex- than females; catering to male tastes presum- perience or interest in emotional matters, ably would solve the missing males problem. specifically in love. Specific constructions of masculinity were Further evidence of what was or was not reflected in the styles and texts males report- assumed to be masculine was found in Roe's edly prefer. The same adjectives used to de- recommendation that teachers bypass songs scribe "masculine" men, such as "virile" and about birds, daisies, and butterflies. Instead, "strong," were often applied to "masculine" Roe advised directors to select texts "that will music. For example, in a section on select- thrill the redblooded [sic] male."68 A source ing pieces for adolescent boys, Roe wrote, designed for church choir directors indicated "Young men of this age will accept SA music that song texts should help in determining graciously, if the music is virile and interest- how parts are assigned; this reference said ing.,,61 He listed "uninteresting rhythms or that boys will enjoy singing about "fish and melodies" as factors that may contribute to a loaves" while girls will appreciate songs 62 young man's indifference toward singing about "butterflies and flowers.tv? Teachers By contrast, he said, "strong" rhythms and were advised not only to capitalize on differ- "good" melodies will arouse interest.vf Spe- ences in musical preference by sex, but also cific works were sometimes cited. Roe advo- to concentrate on what were constructed as cated "manly music such as 'Stouthearted male preferences, on masculine music, if Men," which was to be sung by an all-male they hoped to attract and retain males. Roe 64 chorus. The piece Roe suggested is a brisk observed that girls are willing to sing boys' march that alludes to war, bravery, strength, preferences, and he implied that boys are not boldness, and comradeship in battle. David inclined to rectprocate.Zi' Finally, Miller re- Tovey, in a discussion of solo repertoire, in- ported that boys tend to like music that can clicated that males and females should not be learned in a short time, an observation sing the same songs because each sex pre- that directors presumably are to keep in fers a different type of music; his suggestions mind as they select repertoire.Z! provided clues about "masculine" and "femi- Not only was enlisting male role models nine" repertoires. He recommended believed effective in convincing boys that

Volume IV, Number 4/ Volume V, Number 1 55 They accepted as conunonsense and natural traditional sex-gender systems, as well as dominant 'vievvs about males, females, masculinity, femininity, and (implicitly) sexual orientation. The texts recognized boys' anxiety about being "normal" and attempted to solve a problem evolving from that anxiety, but they never interrogated "normalcy." The problem vvas presumed to be improper placement of singing at the feminine end of the masculine/ feminine polarity; the polarity itself vvas unquestioned. singing and high voices are masculine, it was class, and boys will accept discipline when also cited as a sound pedagogical practice for they see it is being administered fairly and attracting and retaining males. One passage without hostility. When a boy interrupts, for indicated that combining male role models example, the teacher should correct him in a direct, kind manner, and the teacher must and food was an excellent approach for mak- then see that the same problem does not ing music interesting to adolescent males: happen again." A young man's interest may also be aroused A final element of a recommended male- by inviting outstanding men in any walk of based approach was the showering of special life to tell about the important part music has played in their lives; by visiting male soloists attention and privileges on boys. For ex- or groups (male quartets are excellentljl ample, Miller suggested that all-male groups by attending concerts given by college choirs be given ample opportunity to perform for on tour (or local high school choirs or male other students in the school, including for girls' choruses); and by social gatherings and par- ensembles-v In a passage discussing show- ties for music groups, particularly if there is chorus auditions, Mancuso intimated that spe- food available (undoubtedly one of the real cial attention should be given to boys' feelings; interests of a boy this age)." she implied that a higher standard of sensitiv- Another element in the prescribed male- ity needed to be demanded from girls than centered approach was the presence of spe- from boys if boys were to be retained: "When cific programs or organizations that report- choreographing, the students function as edly would appeal to boys. Usually, all-male couples many times. For that reason, a girl ensembles were recommended; however, making a statement during an interview such Mancuso, in an article entitled "Where the as "Oh, do I have to dance with him?' would Boys Are: Show Chorus," argued that some automatically disqualify her."77 mixed ensembles, the show choir in particu- The Traumatic Voice Change lar, would draw boys in large nurnbers.Z> The third explanation for the missing males Making the choral ensemble experience problem was that the voice change is a trau- more male-centered involved specific peda- matic event that deters boys. Swanson ar- gogical and curricular decisions. For ex- gued that learning to read a new staff and to ample, a skill-and-drill method of teaching sing in a new range were formidable ob- vocal technique was recommended by stacles78 Indeed, in Castelli's study, the Swanson, who reported that this practice voice change was among the explanations would parallel boys' experiences in athlet- for dropping out most frequently given by 4 ics.7 Miller, in a discussion of classroom boys thernselves.Z? management, outlined dynamics that revolved All-male organizations were highly recom- around boys only; girls were never mentioned: mended as a solution to this problem, as was It is always best for the teacher to talk to delicate treatment of boys on the part of di- boys directly. Boys usually prefer brief, clear rectors. Miller warned that if directors do not comments which do not require them to sort out subtle ideas or suggestions. They also attend carefully to matters such as proper expect the teacher to make them behave in voice assignment and selection of repertoire

56 Tbe Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning in a suitable vocal range, boys will be lost.80 are at least ten all-male choruses. In top Although Roe did not state his own opinion symphony orchestras, bands, and jazz en- on the value of segregated organizations, in a sembles, we find many more men than discussion of arguments made by proponents women." Swanson also rejected the notion that Ameri- of segregation, he remarked that the voice cans do not approve of male singers and change is a disconcerting event: Advocates of boys alone-girls alone say the provided a string of well-known names to young man is willing to sing soprano or alto, support his view: but not with young women. It is less embar- Shallwe say that the American public does rassing to the one with the unmanageable not approve of male singers as much as fe- voice to have only men in the class. They male? If so, explain the popularity of Elvis understand his problem and singing seems Presley, Bing Crosby,Frank Sinatra, and Perry more manly, somehow, in a male chorus." Como, not to mention the Beatles and their Males and Their Careers American imitators. Also explain the popular- Finally, Phillips, in his discussion of ity of Luciano Pavarotti and Placido Domingo. Why is it that the Robert Shaw Chorale fea- Castelli's study, reported that irrelevance to tures not only mixed choral singing but large career plans was a reason boys often gave press runs of "The Men of the Robert Shaw 82 for dropping out of choir. Phillips re- Chorale?"> sponded to this explanation by advising Analysis: Incomplete Explana- teachers to emphasize career opportunities for males in music. Although he used the tions and Flawed Solutions gender-neutral term "students" in one portion Incomplete Explanations of the reference, he offered his advice under There is no question that boys are less the heading "Keeping Boys Singing," and likely to participate in choral ensembles than there is little doubt but that he was primarily girls are. Statistics gathered in 1982 indicate concerned with how to combat boys' percep- that the ratio of girls to boys in choral pro- 86 tions of their future career options: grams is about 5:2. What I will question in The issue of occupational relevance is also a the following analysis, however, are the expla- good topic for class discussion. The music nations and solutions given in the texts I ex- industry is a billion-dollarenterprise that em- amined, as well as the understandings of gen- ploys countless numbers of males. Many stu- der upon which the discussions were based. dents are exposed only to those entertainers One shortcoming of all texts contending popularized on MTV,most of whom are that boys avoid music because they perceive males. Students need to learn about opportu- it to be feminine was their failure to fully ex- nities in the music industry, professional per- plore the feared and undesirable feminine formance careers, and the music teaching "other." Absent from the texts' discussions of profession." The Rejected Explanations males' fears, for example, was any indication Swanson unquestionably rejected a few of the multiple and coded meanings evoked possible causes of the missing males prob- when the terms "feminine," "sissy," or "un- lem. First, he said shortages were not due to manly" are applied to males. What is the a lack of musical giftedness in boys. To sup- "undesirable other" boys so clearly fear and port his statement, he reminded readers that wish to avoid? Because femininity is the greatest musicians have almost always stereotypically linked to females, the boys' been male: responses may be grounded in gynophobia. Are we going to offer the excuse that boys Avoidance of "female" activities by males has are not as musicallygifted as girls, that boys been reported in non-music educational re- don't like to sing because they are less tal- search, for example, in work completed by ented, musicallyspeaking? There is no evi- Askew and Ross. In observations of boys dence to support that claim. For every fa- and girls in British primary schools, these re- mous female composer, you can nam~ 20 searchers found that boys shunned activities males. To match every top-level female con- or interactions they associated with females: ductor, you can name a dozen males. For It seemed to us that boys have a greater need any all-femalechoir that tours professionally than girls to identify certain activitiesas male or is heard on commercial recordings, there

Volume IV, Number 4/ Volume V, Number 1 57 Acknowledging the role that homophobia, in addition to misogyny, may play in boys' reticence to sing may shed light on why the missing males problem has been so intractable.

or female. A consequence of this seemed to in history. As Fuss writes, one way that op- be that boys would often not only assume pression operates is through a "domain of dominance over activities they have identified unthinkability and unnameabiliry.w- as "male," but also avoid those identified as Explanations that pointed a finger at teach- "female. "87 ers were incomplete because they displayed However, prevalent stereotypes also asso- a narrowness of vision; they failed to address ciate male homosexuality with femininity. As history and social context. History indicates Fiske notes, "unmanning" typifies "represen- that the missing males problem has deep tations of the [male] homosexual in a hetero- roots, but the current texts ignored this fact. sexual ideology."88 Recognizing that "sissy," One notable exception is a passage by "feminine," and "unmanly" can allude to Swanson that recounts his own experiences male homosexuality leads to the realization as a music teacher in the 1930s: that homophobia, in addition to misogyny, The scandal of few male students in vocal may playa role in boys' reticence to sing. music has been with LIS for at least half a cen- Thus, this reticence may be based on discur- tury. In 1932, I taught my first classes in jun- sive binaries that construct females, feminin- ior high school vocal music. I have been ity, and male homosexuality as the undesir- conscious of the situation ever since. able "other." Craig Owens, cited by Carole- I became aware of it as more than a local Anne Tyler, maintained that homophobia and problem when, in my middle years, I served misogyny, while not identical, are closely as a vocal-choral music adjudicator. Choir linked.89 Askew and Ross noticed such a after choir had many girl singers, bur pitifully few boys. I often spent an entire morning link when they observed boys' behavior in rating female choruses, but all too often there all-male settings; in the absence of girls, boys were only one or two male glee clubs in a heaped the scorn usually directed at girls district. The list of soprano and alto soloists onto the least "manly," the "not real" boys, to be rated was long, the number of tenors who were derisively called "poofters" (male and basses noticeably shorter." homosexuals) and "cissies, "90 Thus, one Ahistoricity furthered the naive, but generally connection between homophobia and mi- endorsed assumption (shared even by sogyny is the assumption that women and Swanson) that teachers can solve this prob- gay men share similar characteristics worthy lem themselves. of a disdain that can be directed interchange- The third explanation, namely that the ably at either group. voice change is a source of the problem, may Acknowledging the role that homophobia, have merit, especially since boys themselves in addition to misogyny, may play in boys' gave voice change as the primary reason reticence to sing may shed light on why the why they drop out. However, contrary to missing males problem has been so intrac- Swanson's assertion, the voice change is table. In Askew and Ross' study, boys exhib- probably neither the sole nor the primary de- ited tremendous anxiety about perceptions of terminant. There were no indications in texts their sexual orientation; boys responded vio- other than Swanson that avoidance and attri- lently and aggressively to insinuations that tion are limited to adolescent and post -ado- they were gay.91 The fact that none of the lescent males. choral methods texts directly addressed the The explanation that boys do not partici- contributing role homophobia may play in pate in singing because they perceive it to be the missing males problem, and that they re- irrelevant to their career plans indirectly al- sorted instead to euphemisms such as "sissy" ludes to stereotypes linking males to public and "unmanly," is a measure of the oppres- sphere activities such as employment outside sive strength of homophobia at this moment the home. That some boys may give this ex-

58 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning planation is not questioned here. What is equitable and lasting solutions to the missing challenged, however, is the acceptance of males problem are based on changes in tra- this explanation as truth. Boys enthusiasti- ditional constructions of gender or on the cally embrace many other school activities abolition of gender altogether. This was not holding little or no realistic promise of con- the tack taken in tile texts, however; instead, tributing to future careers. Athletics is one all texts that explained the problem in terms example, but activities more closely related of gender accepted and reinforced traditional to singing can also be named. For example, binaries in their proposed solutions. In con- there is no shortage of boys in bands, and trast to Butler's concept of gender as perfor- bands presumably are no more or less re- mance, the texts simply assumed there is a lated to careers than choirs are.94 Histori- gender, "which is in some sense that sex's cally, however, bands have been bastions of cultural property." They accepted as masculinity from which, until fairly recently, commonsense and natural traditional sex- females largely have been excluded. Thus, gender systems, as well as dominant views the gendering of musical activities is a more about males, females, masculinity, femininity, plausible explanation of boys' musical and (implicitly) sexual orientation. The texts choices than is music's career potential. recognized boys' anxiety about being "nor- The fact that no attempt was made to ex- mal" and attempted to solve a problem plore why a concern for career relevancy evolving from that anxiety, but they never would not similarly deter girls indicates that interrogated "normalcy." The problem was the author of the reference, like boys them- presumed to be improper placement of sing- selves, accepted as commonsense and natu- ing at the feminine end of the masculine/ ral public/private sphere rhetoric that links feminine polarity; the polarity itself was un- males to the public sphere. However, if we questioned. The proposed solutions involved assume that girls are equally as concerned changes in perceptions about singing or voices about careers as boys, then one may conjec- but not about gender or sexual orientation. ture that girls participate in singing because The key to recruitment and retention lay in they believe prospects in music are brighter identifying what is masculine and then linking for them than for males, an assumption not the "masculine" to singing. Although several supported by statistics from most music-re- references openly argued that singing is mas- lated occupations. culine, and one suggested that it is both mas- Of course, the career relevancy explanation culine and feminine, no text recognized that is related to the highly debatable assumption like mathematics, sports, and needlework, that the primary purpose of education is to singing is not intrinsically gendered. prepare children for future employment. Reinforcement of traditional constructions This assumption was not questioned by the of masculinity was evident in the role mod- text offering this explanation, however. els, activities, and music the references rec- Rather, solutions attempted to demonstrate ommended for recruiting and retaining links between music and careers; advice rein- males. For example, the traditionally "mas- forced rather than challenged the education- culine" characteristics sought in role models for-employment assumption. included maturity, athleticism, leadership, Flawed Solutions and success in career. Approbation of a ste- Explanations of the shortage of boys var- reotypical connection between masculinity ied, but the list of proposed solutions was and maturity was evident not only in discus- short; all of these solutions, to some degree, sions of appropriate role models but also, for drew upon and reinforced discourses that example, in passages emphasizing tile impor- socialist feminists find problematic. For ex- tance of calling boys "men." Masculine mu- ample, problems appeared in discussions of sic bore characteristics typically ascribed to the need to prove that music is a masculine males themselves: It was energetic, strong, activity. Faced with an issue clearly related "robust," bellicose, and even defiant; action to dominant constructions of gender, a so- took precedence over sensitivity. Females cialist feminist might suggest that the most and femininity were stereotyped as domestic,

Volume Iv, Number 4/ Volume V; Number 1 59 From the perspective of a feminist educator, the cries for a more masculine or male-centered curriculurn are ironic and distressing; ample research exists that indicates schooling already is overwhelm- inglymale-centered and tends to pay far too little attention to females. emotional, weak, passive, and soft; this ste- students, male teachers were not only reotyping was especially evident in recom- deemed necessary, but also the best. By ar- mendations concerning suitable repertoire. guing that music not taught by men would By advising teachers who instruct boys to be dismissed by boys as unimportant or avoid delicate, tender, or sensitive music, the childish, Roe reinforced the perception that references sanctioned practices that perpetu- males teach the most important subjects. ate the emotional illiteracy to which Ross, The unexamined assumption that the best quoted earlier, alluded. The advice to imple- choral programs are those that attract many ment an action or skill-based curriculum, and boys led to the endorsement as the suggestion to emphasize the physicality commonsense and good of male-centered of singing, were grounded upon and, in turn, approaches to teaching and of a masculine reinforced dominant constructions of mascu- curriculum. The best choral organizations linity - constructions based on gendered were all-male groups or mixed groups that active/passive and rational/emotional bina- appealed to males. The good curriculum ries. Placing an exhortation to emphasize was skill and drill based because that ap- career opportunities in a section entitled proach reportedly was most effective with "Keeping Boys Singing" reinforced a stereo- boys. Teachers were advised to use good type that constructs careers as a singularly melodies because they would appeal to masculine concern. Given sobering statistics boys, and this suggestion seemed to assume on the underrepresentation of women in that girls are less discriminating in their musi- many music-related occupations, especially cal preferences; however, if girls are social- highly paid and prestigious ones, the deci- ized to define "good" in different ways than sion to aim career exhortations primarily at boys, the "good" school repertoire nonethe- males seems misdirected and anachronistic. less remained that which appeals to boys. Of course, when references reinforced links Females' willingness to accept male prefer- between males and careers, they also rein- ences and male reticence to reciprocate, a forced connections between males and eco- phenomenon discussed in one passage, im- nomic independence, a point worth consid- plies that males and females alike are social- ering when assessing the full impact of ex- ized to equate the masculine with the good. clusionary discussions of careers. The reference making an observation about Not only were traditional constructions of girls' willingness to yield to male preferences masculinity, femininity, males, and females did not challenge the wisdom of this yield- portrayed as commonsense and natural, but ing; rather, it implied that the phenomenon in addition, the masculine, the (heterosexual) will work to a teacher's advantage by mini- male was rendered as the "good"; in particu- mizing conflict over whose preferences will lar, the "red-blooded" male, the "manly" be honored. Of course, this reference raises man, was the standard. Good singing tone the question of the purposes served by such was a product of the "masculine" attributes socialization, a question not addressed in the of strength and virility. The good, the suc- text itself. cessful program was one replete with males, Suggestions to give males special care, and good teaching was equated with that consideration, attention, opportunities, and which attracted and retained males. These privileges were additional means by which a assumptions were evident, for example, in male-centered curriculum was rendered Roe's call for male teachers. Because they commonsense and good. From the perspec- purportedly would attract and retain male tive of a feminist educator, the cries for a

60 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning more masculine or male-centered curriculum Fuss put it, "most of us are both inside and are ironic and distressing; ample research ex- outside at the same time."96 ists that indicates schooling already is over- One final noteworthy feature of the texts' whelmingly male-centered and tends to pay explanations and solutions was their remark- far too little attention to females.95 able similarity to those appearing in music Swanson's argument that boys' lack of par- education materials published during the first ticipation is not due to lack of giftedness, an quarter of the twentieth century. Apparently argument he supported by asserting that the expert knowledge pertaining to the missing world's best composers have been male, not males problem, as embodied in educational only equated males with goodness but also materials for teachers, has changed little in forwarded the exclusionary concept that a this century.P? biological or genetic factor, possessed by Conclusions some but not by others, is a prerequisite for As I have argued, nearly all the texts I ex- success in music. Thus, he rejected the pos- amined drew from and reinforced systems of sibility that males are innately inferior, but he ideas that tend to perpetuate unequal power did not question the assumption that inferior- relations and that foster the continued op- ity or superiority is innate. In his appeal to pression of women and gay men. Although "giftedness," he did not recognize that dis- some people, perhaps those perceiving courses of talent and genius are themselves themselves as having the most to lose and social constructs, which historically have the least to gain, may argue that dominant been used to explain and maintain male discourses are in no need of reconsideration, dominance. socialist feminists join in a growing chorus of Reinforcement of the feminine/female (the voices calling for change, both in and outside not masculine) as the undesirable "other" of schools. Such cries for change may seem was another problematic aspect of many pro- revolutionary; however, a commitment to posed solutions. By catering to boys' aver- creating schools, and a society, where all sions, many of these solutions not only ac- children feel welcome and respected, and knowledged but also reinforced discourses where all can learn, stems from long-held that construct femininity, females, and homo- democratic ideals. If "alternative ways of sexual males as bad. Thus, these proposed perceiving reality" do, indeed, serve as pre- solutions were misogynistic and, due to the cursors to change, then educators who are multiple meanings of "feminine" discussed dedicated to democratic goals must explore earlier, homophobic. For example, when the ways of fostering such alternative perception. texts advised conductors to avoid "feminine" Challenging taken-for-granted assumptions terminology or to seat boys away from girls, and scrutinizing ideas and practices regarded they not only recognized the existence of as commonsense and natural are critical ele- anxieties and stereotypes but also recom- ments of an agenda for change. Equity is- mended capitulating to them. Construction sues need more attention than they currently of the feminine as the "bad" was also evident are being given; problems in music educa- in discussions of repertoire. Sensitivity, tion should be examined within their histori- gentleness, delicacy, and tender emotions, as cal and cultural contexts; most importantly, symbolized by butterflies, flowers, and birds, new ways of thinking about old problems were the culprits. Often the underlying mes- must be explored. sage was that big boys should sing, but they I have no magic solution to the missing still should not cry; tender emotions repeat- males problem, but I suggest that as we edly were deemed feminine and, thus, unde- grapple with this issue and others facing our sirable. Physical, psychological, and discur- field, we constantly need to scrutinize the sive distancing of males from the undesirable larger systems of ideas upon which our un- feminine/female "other" frequently was en- derstandings and solutions are built. We couraged. By accepting as a matter of have reached a moment in history when con- course inside/outside rhetoric, however, structions of gender and representations of these references masked the reality that, as many oppressed groups are being interro-

Volume Iv, Number 4/ Volume V; Number 1 61 gated, contested, and renegotiated; music Press, 1986. education should be involved in this impor- Bass, Lisa P. "In the Swing of Things." Music tant work. Socialist feminists and post-struc- Educators journal 68 no. 6 (February 1982): 49-50, 61-62. tural theorists working in gay/lesbian studies Bennett, Peggy. "A Responsibility to Young speak of alternative ways of thinking about Voices." Music Educators journal 73, no. 1 males, females, gender, and sexual orienta- (September 1986): 33-36. tion. The time has come to listen. Cooper, Morton. "Prescriptions for Vocal Health: Medication and the Voice." Music Acknowledgment Educators journal 69, no. 6 (February 1983) Portions of this article were read at the "Femi- 41-43. nist Theory andMusic II" conference, held at the Cooper, Morton. "Prescriptions for Vocal Eastman School of Music in June 1993. 1 wish Health: Finding the Right Vocal Register." Music Educators journal G), no. 6 (February, to thank Elizabeth Ellsuiortbfor her thoughtful 1983): 40, 57, 59, 61. comments concerning an earlier draft. Cox, Dennis K. "Suzuki, Choral Speaking." Notes Music Educators journal 71, no. 9 (May l. See, for example, Michael Apple, Ideology 1985): 43-45. and Curriculum (London: Routledge & Kegan Cox, James. "Choral Conducting: More Than Paul, 1979),6 A Wave of the Hand" Music Educators jour- 2. Articles, new books, new editions of books. nal 75, no. 9 (May 1989): 26-30. and reprints of books, published between 1982 Dwiggins, Rose Reeves. "One Step At A Time and 1992, were considered. No claim is make for Show Choirs." Music Educators fournal here to have examined every possible source. For 70, no. 6 (February 1984): 41-45 example, the scope of the indexes I searched was Goetze, Mary. "Wanted: Children to Sing such that materials published by the American and Learn." Music Educators journal 75, no. Choral Directors Association were not included. 4 (December 1988): 28-32. The texts examined in this study were located by Heffernan, Charles W. Choral Music: Tech- searching the following reference materials: nique and Artistry. Englewood Cliffs: l. Subject Guide to Books in Print: 1991- Prentice-Hall, 1982. 1992, 5 vols. (New Providence, NJ: R. R. Itkin, David. "Dissolving the Myths of the Bowker, 1991). The following headings were Show Choir." Music Educators fournal 72, no. searched for pertinent titles: choral music; 8 (April 1986): 39-41. choral singing; choirs (music); conducting, Johnson, Ernest 1. and Johnson, Monica Dale. choral; music - instruction and study; and "Planning + Effort = A Year of Success." Mu- music - manuals, textbooks. I did not ex- sic Educators journal 75, no. 6 (February amine anthologies, collections, bibliographies, 1989): 40-43. historical studies, dictionaries, essays about Kaplan, Abraham. Choral Conducting. New choral music, or pronunciation guides ap- York: \Yl. W. Norton, 1985. pearing under those headings. Lynch, Ruth Ann. "Don't Just Teach Singing, 2. ERIC, encompassing the period from 1982 Teach Music." Music Educatorsjournal 69, through September 1992, using relevant terms no. 6 (February 1983): 42-43. and descriptors. Neuen, Donald 1. "The Sound of A Great 3. Arneson, Arne]. The Music Educators Chorus." Music Educatorsjournal 75, no. 4 journal: Cumulative Index 1914-1987: In- (December 1988): 42-45. cluding the Music Supervisors' Bulletin and Phillips, Kenneth. "Training the Child Voice." the Music Supervisors journal. Stevens Point, Music Educators journal 72, no. 4 (December 1985): 19-22, 57-58 \\1I: Index House, 1987. The following headings were searched: Choirs and Chorus Festi- "Point of View: Should Elementary Choruses vals; Choirs and Choruses; Choirs and Cho- Be Select or Non-select?" Music Educators ruses - A Cappella; Choirs and Choruses - journal 72, no. 3 (November 1985): 33-36, Boys; Chorus and Choruses - Women' Cho- 45-48. ral Directors; Choral Music; Glee Clubs: Mad- Smith, Janice P. "Selecting Music for the EI- rigal Singers; Vocal Ensembles; Singing'; Pop ementary School Chorus." Music Educators Music Choirs; Singing - Study and Teaching; journal 73, no. 8 (April 1987): 54-57. Singing - Study and Teaching - Class Toms, John. "Extensity: A Tonal Concept for Choral Conductors." Music Educators Iournal Method. 72, no. 4 (December 1985); 16-18. 3. I found no references to gender in 16 of the Eight articles and five books included qualifying articles and three of the books I located: Armstrong, Kerchal, and Donald Hustad. references, however, not every text that referred to gender specifically discussed the missing-males Choral Musicianship and Voice Training: An Introduction. Carol Stream, Il.: Somerset problem. Some contained general references to gender; some discussed other topics (e.g., the

62 The Quarterly fournal of Music Teaching and Learning changing voice). Only two sources, Allen and tional, 1989. (Publisher did not reply.] Mount, were free of the types of references that Montgomery, Charles. The Choral Director's feminists find problematic, and Mount was the Handbook. Ed. Jane Montgomery. Light only source to devote the majority of space to a Hearted Publishing, 1984. [Publisher did not problem affecting girls: reply.l Allen, Sue Fay. "The Potential of the Junior 4. For example, Kenneth E. Miller, Vocal Music High Voice." Music Educators fournal 73, Education: Teaching in the Secondary School, no. 3 (November 1986): 29-31. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1988), 26. Herman, Sally. "Unlocking the Potential of 5. Leslie G. Roman and Linda K. Christian- Junior High Choirs." Music Educators journal Smith, "Introduction," in Becoming Feminine: The 75, no. 4 (December 1988): 33-36, 41. Politics of Popular Culture, ed. Leslie G. Roman Lamb, Gordon H. Choral Techniques. 3d ed. and Linda K. Christian-Smith (London: Falmer, Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown, 1988. 1988),4. Lawrence, Joy E. "The Right Stuff: Success 6. Judith Butler, "Imitation and Gender Insub- Begins With the Director." Music Educators ordination," in Inside/Out, ed. Diana Fuss (New journal 75, no. 6 (February 1989): 36-39 York: Routledge, 1991), 28. Mancuso, Sandra L. "Where the Boys Are: 7. Butler, 21. Show Chorus." Music Educators fournal 70, 8. Ibid. no. 3 (November 1983): 56-57. 9. Alison M. Jaggar, Feminist Politics and Hu- McRae, Shirley W. Directing the Children's man Nature (Brighton: Harvester, 1983; repr., Choir: A Comprehensive Resource. New Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield, 1988), 127. York: Schirmer, 1991. 10. For discussion, see, for example, Sue Miller, Kenneth E. Vocal Music Educations: Askew and Carol Ross, Boys Don't C1y: Boys and Teaching in the Secondary School. Sexism in Education (Milton Kynes: Open Uni- Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1988. versity, 1988), 2; and John Fiske, Television Cul- Mitchell, Barbara, and Cheryl M. Staats. Mak- ture(Methuen, 1987; repr., London: Routledge, ing Children's Choirs lVork. Cincinnati: Stan- 1989), 186, 220. dard, 1986. 11. Fiske, 200. Mount, Timothy. "Female Tenors ... How to 12. K. Overfield, "The Packaging of Women: Ruin An Alto." Music Educators fournal 69, Science and Our Sexuality," in On tbe Problems of no. 4 (December 1982): 47-48. Men, ed. S. Friedman and E. Sarah (The Women's Phillips, Kenneth H. "Choral Music Comes of Press, 1982),67-70, quoted in Askew and Ross, Age." Music Educators journal 75, no. 4 (De- 107. cember 1988): 22-27. 13. Andrew Ross, "fl,;fiami Vice: Selling In," Roe, Paul F. Choral Music Education. 2nd Communication 2, no. 3-4 (1987): 317. ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1983. 14. See, for example, Overfield cited in Askew Swanson, Fredrick. "Changing Voices: Don't and Ross, 107. Leave Out the Boys." Music Educators jour- 15. Fiske, 220. nal 70, no. 5 (lanuary 1984): 47-50. 16. See, for example, Richard D. Leppert, Music Tovey, David G. "Between the Last Choral and Image: Domesticity, Ideology, and Socio-Cul- Concert and Summer Vacation." Music Edu- tural Formation in Eighteenth-Century England, cators fournal S'), no. 8 (April 1983): 41-42. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), I was unable to locate several books published 22,24, 127, 129; and Julia Eklund Koza, "Music during this time that seemed to qualify for the and the Feminine Sphere: Images of Women as study. When two major university libraries did Musicians in Godey's Lady's Book, 1830-1877," The not own these books, I resorted to writing to the Music Quarterly 75, no. 2 (Summer 1991): 104- publishers asking for review copies: 106. Bartle, Jean A. Lifeline for Children's Choir 17. Fiske, 204. Director'S. Oxford, 1988. (Publisher did not 18. Overfield, quoted in Askew and Ross, 107. reply.] 19. See, for example, Diana Fuss, "Inside/Out," Corbin, Lynn A. Vocal Tecbniques for Choral in Inside/Out: Lesbian Theories, Gay Theories, ed. Ensembles. Schirmer, 1991. (Publisher re- Diana Fuss (New York: Routledge, 1991), 2; and plied that title has been cancelled.l Askew and Ross, x. Garretson, Robert L. Conducting Choral J1IIu- 20. Fuss, 3. sic. 6th ed. Prentice Hall, 1988. [The pub- 21. Ibid. lisher waited until the seventh edition (1993) 22. Gayle Rubin, "The Traffic in Women: came out and sent a complimentary copy. Notes on the 'Political Economy' of Sex," in To- However, the study was completed by the ward an Anthropology of Women, ed. Rayna R. time the text arrived, and the new edition Reiter (New York: Monthly Review, 1975), espe- publication date disqualified the text from cially 159 and 165-166. consideration.] 23. Jaggar, 147. Gordon, L. Choral Directors Rehearsal and 24. Piske, 210. Performance Guide. Prentice Hall Interna-

Volume IV; Number 4/ Volume V, Number 1 63 25. Jaggar,317. 62. Roe, 176. 26. Jaggar, 323. 63. Ibid. 27. Antonio Grarnsci, Selections from the Prison 64. Roe, 177. Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci, ed. and trans. 65. David G. Tovey, "Between the Last Choral Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith (New Concert and Summer Vacation," Music Educators York: International, 1971), 12. journal 69, no. 8 (April 1983): 42. 28. jaggar, 15l. 66. Miller, 88. 29. jaggar, 333. 67. Ibid. 30. For simplicity, I will usually use the term 68. Roe, 176. "teacher," even though teacher/director may be a 69. Barbara Mitchell, and Cheryl M. Staats, more accurate term because some of the texts Making Children's Choirs Work, (Cincinnati: Stan- were expressly designed for directors in educa- dard, 1986), 4l. tional settings. 70. Roe, 183. 31. See, for example, Miller, 28; and Paul F. 71. Miller, 29. Roe, Choral Music Education, 2nd ed. 72. Roe, 176. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1983), 176, 177. 73. Mancuso, 56. 32. Kenneth H. Ph.illips, "Choral Music Comes 74. Swanson, 50. of Age," Music Educators journal 75, no. 4 (De- 75. Miller, 28-29. cember 1988): 24. 76. Miller, 28. 33. Perry A Castelli, "Attitudes of Vocal Music 77. Mancuso, 57. Educators and Public Secondary School Students 78. Swanson, 47, 48. on Selected Factors Which Influence Decline in 79. Castelli, quoted in Phillips, 25. Male Enrollment Occurring Between Elementary 80. Miller, 76. and Secondary Public School Vocal Music Pro- 81. Roe, 183. grams" (Ph. D. diss. University of Maryland, Col- 82. Castelli, quoted in Phillips, 25. lege Park, 1986), cited in Phillips, 25. 83. Phillips, 25. 34. Phillips, 25 84. Swanson, 47. 35 Roe, 176-177. 85. Ibid. 36. Miller, 28. 86. ]. Terry Gates, "A Historical Comparison of 37. Roe, 176. Public Singing by American Men and Women," 38. Ibid. journal of Research in Music Education 37, no. 1 39. Sandra L. Mancuso, "Where the Boys Are: (Spring 1989): 37-38 cites statistics gathered from Show Chorus," Music Educators journal 70, no. 3 the National Association of Secondary School Prin- ( ovember 1983): 56. cipals, 17JeMood of American Youth (Washington, 40. Fiske, 188. D.C.: National Association of Secondary School 41. Phillips, 25. Principals, 1984), 17. 42. Roe, 177. 87. Askew and Ross, 23. 43 Miller, 88-89. 88. Fiske, 213. 44. Roe, 177. 89. Craig Owens, "Outlaws: Gay Men in Femi- 45. Swanson, 50. nism," in Men in Feminism, ed. Alice Jardine and 46. Miller, 83. Paul Smith (New York and London: Methuen, 47. Miller, 86. 1987), 220, 219 cited in Carole-Anne Tyler, "Boys 48. Roe, 179. Will Be Girls: The Politics of Gay Drag," in In- 49. Roe, 180. Side/Out, ed. Diana Fuss (New York: Routledge, 50. Sue Fay Allen, "The Potential of the Junior 1991), 37 High Voice," Music Educators journal 73, no. 3 90. Askew and Ross, 32. (November 1986): 29. 91. Askew and Ross, 37. 5l. Roe, 177. 92. Fuss, 20. 52. Allen, 29-30 93. Swanson, 47. 53. Miller, 26. 94. NASSP, cited in Gates, 37-38. 54. Roe,l77. 95. See, for example, How Schools Sbortcbange 55 Roe, 180. Girls: A Study of Major Findings on Girls and 56. Miller, 87, 84-85. Education, (Washington, D.C.: American Associa- 57 Miller, 105. tion of University Women, 1992). 58. Miller, 84. 96. Fuss,5. 59. Frederick Swanson, "Changing Voices: 97. To compare, see Julia Eklund Koza, "The Don't Leave Out the Boys," Music Educators four- 'Missing Males' and Other Gender-Related Issues nal 70, no. 5 (January 1984): 47. in Music Education: A Critical Analysis of Evi- 60. Joy E. Lawrence, "The Right Stuff: Success dence from the Music Supervisors 'journal, 1914- Begins With the Director," Music Educators four- 1924," journal of Research in Music Education, 41, nal 75, no. 6 (February 1989): 37. no. 3 (Fall, 1993): 212-232 ~ 6l. Roe, 180.

64 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning