UTILI"ATION OF BLAC"LOCUST

B y "O H N B . ( Dru m

Associ a te W ood Tech n o l o i st For est P r od u cts L a bor a tor Br a n ch o Res g , y, f ea r ch , For est S er vi ce

CO NT ENT S

o ) o t 9 c O Int r oduct io n H Utiliz ati on Th e t r ee M Insul at or pins Range M W agon hubs H a b it s an d gr owt h M T r eenails Repr oduction W Fence post s Annual cu t an d pr esent supply Q M ine t i mber s ‘ Cut ting an d mar keting O Poles Th e wood Q M inor uses Appear ance Q Summar y St r uct ur e G A ppendix Pr o per ties N Specifi cat i ons for insul at or pins Specifi cations for t r eenails

I N T R O D UC T I O N

Ro bi 'n i a seu d oacaci a " The wood of black locust , p , is used chie y for insulator pins , wagon hubs , treenails , fence posts , and mine F r . o timbers these uses it is admirable because of its hardness , A i s strength , and durability . valuable characteristic of the tree its rapid growth on many types of soils during the first 20 to 30 years of its life . This rapid growth and the extensive network of roots developed by black locust make it well suited fo r planting t o check erosion . The greatest obstacle to more extensive cultivati on and utilization c s O l l en e r o bi n a e a n of black lo ust i the locust borer , y , black or brow - - b eetl e and yellow striped , long horned that attacks small trees r and riddles the wood . The numerous holes that it makes may rende the wood valueless and often so weaken the trees that they are n ot easily broken by the wind . The damage from the borer has been nearly so serious in the West as in the East . 1 Under some conditions , plantations of black locust may be at least partly protected from the borer if the locusts are planted in thick stands or so mixed with other trees as to produc e dense shade . So grown they are more apt to be free from locust attacks and W i ll . i early drop o ff their lower branches and develop clean , stra ght poles during the first 10 to 15 years of growth .

i P R TE TI O N FRO M TH E L O CU S T f A A F . O C t h e o o i l a t i o : CR I G H E D . see ll w ng pub ic n , C ,

1 9 1 . R A 1 2 . s . 9 BO ER . U . S t . r . 7 87 . Dep g . Bul , p , illu

2 95 1 ° —3 0 -1 R AR 1 3 1 . s . D EP M E N O F G UR E 2 CI CUL , U ART T A RICULT

T H E TRE E

‘ Seven or eight species of the genus Robinia grow in the -United an d e o d s States M xico , and three are f und in the Unite State in i s N e t . w ree form Of these black locust the most valuable , Mexi - c an (R o bi r ti a n e o m eaei car t a ) i n i . locust second mportance , and R o v i scosa . w clammy l cust ( . )third N e Mexican locust grows in

N e . m w Mexico , Arizona , Utah , and Colorado Cla my locust was originally confined to the mountains of N orth Carolina and South

Carolina . It has , however , been planted extensively and has spread N ew from plantations . The wood of Mexican locust and of clammy locust i s quite similar to that of black locust . Black locust is p c pu l ar l c fi y known as yellow locust under certain onditions , speci cally when it is found on slopes and mountain coves in large r groups than n in the bottom lands , where the trunks are characteristically lo g and

straiéht . Thb wood of black locust is sometimes c onfused with that of w at er l o cu st honeylocust , , and Texas honeylocust . These three

‘ species , whose wood is quite similar , belong to the genus G leditsia an entirely different group from the genus Robinia H oneylocust G l ed i tsi a t r i a car t t h o s )is not the equal of black locust in strength - properties or durability . It is somewhat used for planing mill p rod l a i s u ct s e . at r o cu i t t o and box s and crates W e st ( G . ag n )and Texa t occ r t ' honeylocust ( G . a a )have but slight use . Black locust trees ordinarily reach a height of’ 40 to 80 feet and a 1 2 e diameter of to feet , with comparatively long , straight st ms and n s . 1 a d mall crowns in dense forest growth (pl , B )and longer more 1 O . spreading crowns in the pen (pl , A)

RAN G E

s fi 1 The natural range of black locu t ( g . )is believed to have been restricted originally to the Appalachian Mount ains from P en n syl

vania to G eorgia , and to certain portions of Arkansas and eastern e Oklahoma . The tr e reaches its best development on the western a slopes of th e Appalachian Mountains in West Virgini . It has been widely planted and is found in p ractically every State in the Union i s in plantations , fence rows , or in the forest . While black locust

much more common in the East than in the West , it has , however an d been grown successfully in the irrigated valleys of Utah , Idaho ,

eastern Oregon and Washington . Plantations in Utah and Wash

i n gt o n h ave been among t h e most successful in the United States .

H ABIT S AN D G RO W TH

- Black locust grows best in a deep , well drained fertile loam , but n will grow in almost a y soil except one that is very sandy or wet ,

heavy , and acid . On limestone soils it usually attains an excellent o development . In its natural range black locust is found al ng sl e es streams or singly and in groups on the p , and in the coves of

. the mountains , and often on the borders of forests On slopes and

in coves its principal associates are black , red , and chestnut oaks ,

c . chestnut , pignut hi kory , and maple Along streams locust grows - with ash , maple , black walnut, and other trees . On burned over

forest land it often grows in pure stands .

UTILI"ATION OF B LAC" L OCUST 3

50 a An examination of black locust trees in v rious locations , the 83 oldest years of age , showed that the rate of growth increased ,

25 3 0 . rapidly up to or years of age , after which it decreased The fastest gro wth noted was at the rate of about 1% inches in diameter 1 w 25 . per year , hile the slowest was only inch in years The rings of average merchantable timber ranged in width from one -tenth to - f . n r d w en er al l one ourth of an inch The sapwood was a r r g y less than - one half inch in width , and contained on the average four annual rings .

0 -0

M I L ES 0 2 0 0 1

m N AT URA L RAN G E

G RCATES T comM ERCIAL PRODU

FI G RE 1 — N a r n m r i r a s f a k o s U . t u a l a d c o me c a l ng e o bl c l cu t

REPR O D U CTI O N Bl ack locust ordinarily reproduces itself abundantly by seeds and by stump and root sprouts . Where it is desired to set out a planta tion 1 -year -old seedlings are recommended as the most economical and ordinarily t h e most successful . These seedlings the planter can either grow for himself or purchase from State and private nurseries . Where seedlings are grown , the seed , gathered locally or °

160 F . purchased , should be soaked in warm water not over from 8 to 12 hours and then should be sowed immediately and to a depth of inch . Spring sowing is preferable . 1 —E sti m a t an n a l n ABLE . e d u ou t o b l ack l s t tn t h e i t e t a t es 1926 T f ocu U d S ,

Pr oduct Q uant it y 1

Fence post s Insul at or pins an d cob s M ine t imber s W ago n hub s Poles

T t 42 075 o al ,

1 Deal er s gener ally fig u r e 400 b oar d feet t o th e cor d for black l o cust b olt s alt hough a cor d ofwood or di nar ily i t t 500 t s consider ed o con ain boar d fee .

1 AB 2 —E s tt a te d st a n com m er ci a l l i m ort an t b l a k l o u st ti m b er LE . 4n o c c T d f y p ,

Ap p r oxi Ap p r ox i mat e p er mat e p er cent age of cent age o f Estim at ed t o t al st and Estimat ed t ot al st and st and o f black st and of black l o cust in lo cust in v ar ious var ious St ates S t at es

P er cen t 22 0 G a . eor gi 20 0 O . hio 1 O Al l t t at 6 . o her S es 14 . O

8. O Tot al 100. 0

1 t t 1926 t h W l W C or r ec ed o fr om an infor mal su r vey made dur ing e or d ar . The stand of black l ocust so vari es on different forest areas that it e fi b u t is not practicabl to assign a de nite average amount per acre , an idea of the stand may be appro ximated by saying that

i a i n l l n ai 2 or On e a cr e m gh t o cc s o a y co t n 0 c d s . Ten a cr es t ha t con t a i n a n a ve r ag e of 1 0 co r d s p er a cr e wou l d b e con si d er ed t r o i el o ha ve a v e y g o d y d . On e hu n d r ed a cr es t ha t con t a i n a n a ver a g e of 5 co r d s p er a cr e wo u l d b e i ex cep t on al . On e t hou san d a cr es t ha t con t a i n an a ver ag e of 1 co r d p er a cr e wou l d b e r v e y u n u su al . A tract of 50 acres in the western part of Virginia in 1926 yielded

450 cords of locust or 9 cords per acre . This was an exceptionally 200 . Va . good stand Another tract of acres in Botetourt County , , was a yielded 270 cords of black locust . This a he vy yield for so large an area . UTILI"ATIO N o r B LA C" L O CUS T 5

CUTT I N G AN D M AR"E T I N G

c The value of black lo ust stumpage varies considerably , depending i upon the character of the stand , whether dense or scatter ng , the

t a ccess b l i t . quan ity and i y of the timber , and its size and quality i cu t Where a large quant ty of timber can be in one locality , the logs or bolts can generally be purchased for less than where the trees are scattered over a large area . 1 7 Stumpage values range from $ per cord to as high as $ per cord , fi c the average being around $4 . These gures represent a tual out right purchases o f standing timber . R o n ound black locust is purchased by e of three common methods . fi Under the rst method it is bought by the manufacturer fro’m near h u e by farmers who cut and a l it dir ct to the manufacturer s plant .

2 . . (Pl . , A )This method is simple and direct Under the second method users of lo cust send their buyers t hrough out the sections where black locust may be found in quantity and have them arr’ange for the purchase of bolts either delivered to the manufacturer s plant or hauled to a railroad siding from which ship ment to the plant i s made in box and cattle cars . The buyers are generally paid on a commission basis for the amount of locust the) purchase , or are paid a salary and a commission .

The third method , that of purchasing stumpage and hiring local m at er i al labor to cut , haul , and load the , although requiring con si d er ab l e i overhead expense , has the advantage of Insur ng a more constant supply of material , and material that is generally better in quality than that hauled to mills by farmers or that purchased by i commi ss on men because the cu tting c an be more closely su pervised . 1s If the locust found In considerable quantity over a fair sized area , t i s c his method quite satisfa tory , since crews of experienced men can be steadily employed and the work can be conducted much as an ordinary logging job . 2 a Two men can fell and buck to cords day . One and one half cords per man per day is a good average for experienced chop pers worki ng In better than average locust . A cord per man per day fi 1 s more nearly a general average for the whole eld . The w age paid 1926 2 2 5 to chopper s 1n Virginia in was generally from $ to $ . 7 per da

er al t 4: In a , locust bolts are bought In leng hs not less than feet 4 2 8 . inches , and seldom more than feet inches Occasionally good e bolts 8 feet or 10 feet in length will be taken . Choppers are xpected to cut such lengt hs to eliminate the worst crooks In the trees . Al Bolts from large trees are preferred to those from small trees . 128 though cubic feet to a cord Is the prevailing measure , cords of locust oft en average 180 cubic feet to allow for loss from slant buck o ff ing and waste from cut saws . Cordwood is paid for on the basis of 128 cubic feet to the cord of bolts as piled on the ground or loaded on a wagon . ( Table D f eductions are made for crooked or irregular pieces , for dif erent Pi f 2 . lengths in the same pile , and for defective wood . (Pl . , B teen dollars per cord was the average price delivered at the man u s i s fact u r i n g plant in 1926 for black locust bolts . Where purcha e i di made on a p ece basis , the length and the ameter of each stick at

t o . the p , inside the bark , are measured R R 1 3 1 . s . D EP AR M EN or G R E 6 CI CULA , U T T A ICULTUR

L - r e a d n i r i n r l l on o - u a l t TAB E 3 . P i c s p i i V g i a fo b o t s 8 feet 4 i n ch es g of g o d q i y m a t er i a l , 1 926

a t r 1 s Pr a t r 1 s Pr a t r 1 s Pr Di me e , inche ice Di me e , inche ice Di me e , inche ice

1 a t r s ar e for s a of l o s ar Di me e m ll end g in ide b k .

The high percentage of defective wood , the small diameters , and the short lengths usually cut preclude the purchase of locust on the basis of log scale . The weight of a locust delivery is often used as a

c . rough heck upon its volume , especially in car shipments A weight of pounds per cord in an unseasoned condition is considered a

fair average .

AB L 4 —I t em s m a ki n u o s o a o r o b l a ck: l ocu st d el i v er ed a t m a n u T E . g p c t f c d f a ct u r i n l a n t s Vi r i ni a 1 926 f g p , g ,

H ig h Aver age

St umpag e Cut ti ng an d bucki ng l an d a t o r a r oa Bunching , pi ing , h uling il d L oad ing on car s Railr oad fr eight

r T ot al , delive ed at mill

The claim is made by most manufacturers that it is unprofitable to m anufacture insulator pins under present conditions if the raw material costs more than $15 per cord . ( Table

T H E W O O D

AP PEARA N CE

The sapwood an d heartwood in mature black locust trees present

a striking contrast . The sapwood is creamy white and forms a thin band around the darker heartwood , from which it is sharply dis

tinct . The heartwood when freshly cut varies from a greenish o yellow to a dark brown and is very seld m alike in any two places .

After exposure to the air it becomes russet brown . The wood of black locust is often confused with that of Osage -orange ( Tomyl on

om i er u m . p f )The two woods can , however , be distinguished by using a wet cloth . When applied to black locust the cloth wi l l not - discolor appreciably , but when applied to Osage orange it will turn - n o yellow . Osage orange also often has reddish streaks t found in black locust . STRU CT URE

- a . . 3 . Black locust is ring porous wood ( Pl , A )In other words , the pores are comparatively large in the inner portion or spring

wood of each annual ring . In the heartwood the pores have become P L AT E 2 f A r l t r e 5 . e t . o Cir cular l 3l U. D p g icu u

F2 0 4 2 14

a h o n t a s an d a r t t o th e " , y A A load of black l o cust gr own in t e m u in h uled di ec mill B m n , o s a l for r ofi t a a u fa t r of t hese black lo cust bolt s cu t for i nsul at or pins ar e t o m l p ble m n c u e

2951 ° - 30— 2 3 r l ar I 3] U. . e t . o f A r i l t r e P LAT E Ci cu , S D p g cu u UTI LI"ATION OF BLA C " L O CU ST 7 plugged with a growth k nown as tylosis which causes them to appear on a cross section as a light -colored band rather than as a

' seen t h at porous ring . Under a hand lens it can be this band is the

O f O f . width two or three rows pores In the summer wood , that is , n v the wood in the outer portion of each an ual ring , the indi idual l pores are very sma l . PR O P ERTIES

Black locust is one of the heaviest and hardest O f our native c - woods . It ranks very high in sho k resisting ability and strengt h

. and has a moderately small shrinkage . It is mostly straight grained and without a distinct O dor or taste . The actual and comparative properties O f black locust are given below :

’ Act u al a n d c o m p a r a t i v e p r op er t i es o f b l ack l ocu st i coo d

r en n s ee L ocal i t y wh er e g own " T e s

W ei g ht p er cu b i c foo t . G r een A i r -d r y "i l n eci fi c r a i o en -d r b a se on ol u m e en r ee n Sp g v t y , v y , d v wh g Shr i n ka g e fr om g r een t o oven -dr y con di t i on : I n l m 1 r n v o u e ( ) p e ce t " " R a d i a l ( 2 ) T an g en t i al ( 3 ) Co m p a r a t i ve shr i n k a g e ( t wi ce v o l u m e p l u s r a d i a l p l u s t an g en t i al i n d vi d e d b y p er ce t " " St r en gt h i n b en d i n g a t 1 2 p er cen t m oi st u r e : ( 4 ) M l r n i o d u of r u u ou r u r n " " 1 u s p t e p d s p e sq a e ch 9 , 400 R el at i ve st r en gt h com p ar e d wi t h whi t e o ak ( whi t e Str en gt h i n com p r essi on p a r al l el t o g r ai n a t 1 2 p er cen t m oi st u r e : ( 5 ) M x i m m n n r r 1 a u cr u i n r e t ou d s e s u a e i n c " " 0 250 sh g st g h p p q h , R l i n r i i = e a t ve st r e gth com p a ed wi t h wh t e o ak ( wh t e o ak 100 )" 138 C om p o si t e v a l u es St r en g th a s a b eam or p o st = Com p a r ed wi th whi te o ak ( whi t e o ak 100 )

C om p a r e d wi t h whi t e o ak ( whi t e Sho ck-r esi st i n a b i l i t g y = C om p ar e d wi t h whi t e o ak ( whi t e o ak 1 00 ) i f e St f n ss " = C om p a r ed wi t h whi t e o ak ( whi t e o ak 1 00 ) , — N OTE Ea ch o f t h e c omp o si t e val ue s gi ven i n t hi s t abl e i s a weig h t ed a ve r a g e o f s ev r a a r r t F st a t r t s a e l v lue s de ived fr om di ff e r ent ki nd s o f st eng t h t e s s . o r in nce , s eng h a a o r o s i s t o a r m t st a t i i a t be m p t a c ombin a i n of v lu e s der ived f o t e s s i n i c bend ng , mp c i a n r s a r a r bend ng , d c omp e s i o n p llel t o g ai n .

= i n vol ume "2 = r a di al "3 = t an g enti a l "4 = st r en gt h i n bendi ng "5 = st r en gt h in c o mp r es si o n pa r al lel t o gr a in

The heartwood is extremely durable in the ground . The sapwood l decays rapidl y . Fortun ately the sapwood is thi n and forms on y a small part. O f the usefu l volume of the I R L AR. 1 3 1 . 5 D EPA M EN P C L RE 8 C CU , U . RT T O AG RI U TU

c c n The defe ts common in bla k locust are wormholes k ots , splits , s cay s s l eek . ek t h e cro s grain , de , and bird p Bird p e mar wood on y b y c i c the dis olorat on that follows . but the other defe ts may weaken s it and are the cause for the reject ion of con iderable material . Checki ng and splitt ing in black locus t generall y occur in onl y a o r m derate deg ee . UTI L I "AT I O N

I N S ULAT O R P I N S

The largest i ndus trial u s e in the United States for the black locust i n s is for mak g in ulator pins . Approx im ately cords O f the highest quality timbe r avail able 15 cut ea ch year for th is purpose " hi 25 000 00 i r . . 0 a e from t s approximately p ns manufactured , largely ll m i l l I i by sma s , for both domestic and foreign use . nsulator p ns are t o f an d exported Europe , South America Australia , A rica , the

H awaii an Islands . l 3 B A wooden insu ator pin (pl . , and C )is a turned product , one end of whi ch is taper ed and thre a ded and the ot her end very slightly s h tapered an d turned smooth . The pin are inserted i n t e cross arms O f telephone and transm i s si on li n es to support the glass or porcelai n s t hi s ul I s in ulators o w ch the wires are fastened . The in ator screwed r c s hl to the th eaded end of the pin , and the ross arm receive the smoot y t t h e O f i n g turned or lower par of the pin , shoulder the p restin on

. h e h r O f the top O f t e cross arm . A nail driv n t ough the side the cross a r m at the center li ne i nto t h e shan k O f the. pin holds it and prevents it from tur n i n g or pul l i ng out . The most com m on i nsulator p i n is the one manufactured fOr 3 an d i s 8 i n n t c signaling lines (pl . , B ) inches le g h and in hes w hi s u r in diameter at the idest place . T is the pin most widely p chased by t h e telephone compani es O f the United States a n d ot her i l i fif m i l i 8-i c ountries . Some fourteen m l on to teen l on nch telephone s pin are manufactur ed fr om black locust each year . The next most comm on insulator pin is - 9 i nches i n length and 134 inches in diameter at the widest pla ce . It is u sed by electric light m i m i l i c . a r e c companies Seven llion to ei cght l on su h pins produ ed A r t l an n ually in th e United States . p p o x i m a e y 000 i nsulator s - i n u se O f pin , larger than the electric light p , are produced for the n i s m i i electri c railr oad and power compa es in tra n tt ng power . Sm al l quantit ies of especially turned and threaded products call ed

' s l 4 . or . t h e cobs tops (p , A)are made of black locu t The larger of s n m i n i s two which is u ed on electric light li es of or importance , m 2 1 4 m a de from locust blocks approxi ately / by by % inches . l l r i n s a s l l The sma cob the standard for teleg aph l e , lthough u ua y of oak is sometimes made from locu st left over from the manu fa cture of larger products . Both ty pe s of cobs are holl ow and are fitted on the ends O f metal fit bolts . When so ted on a metal bolt the combination is termed a. st eel insulator pin as contrasted with t h e wooden insulator pin whi ch has no metal in its make up . s i s fi i s O f Black locu t well tted for nsulator pins becau e its strength , l i y f e r durabi t . and r edom f om excessive swelling and shr inking . D urable pi ns obviate the necessity of replacement at frequent inter vals a costly process i n view of the difficulty of r em o v m g the wires UTI LI"ATI O N OF BLAC " LOCUS T 9 a n R d insulators high up on the poles . esisting swelling and shrink a e i n c g as they do with changes the weather , lo ust pins tend to stay tight in the cross arms . The estimated production O f black locust insulator pins in 1925 represents an increase O f approximately 91 per cent above t 9 9 N O h e locust pins reported purchased in 1 0 . statistics for the intervening years are available . 1 909 O f In , the insulator pins rep orted pur - chased were elm , and were Osage orange . The elm and Osage -orange together represented 17 per cent O f the pins for that O f year . At present there is only a negligible quantity elm and - O f c Osage orange used . The wood of one the eu alypts , blue gum Eu ca l t u s l o b u l u s ( yp g ), trees grown in California is now used for —fiv c O f approximately pins ann ually . Eighty e per ent O f 8 9 15 c these pins are the standard and inch sizes , and per ent are l n of special sizes . A though blue gum shrinks and swells more tha c c bla k locust and is not so durable , it appears to be satisfa tory for pins under the conditions i n which it has been used in California . The average cost of locust insulator pins reported purchased by telephone and telegraph companies in 1909 was $12 per thousand . 1926 20 23 In the spring of , telephone companies were paying $ to $ per thousand for the very best grade of locust insulator pins , an increase of approximately 80 per cent . Both bolts and fii t ch es O f black locust are purchased for the manu O f facture insulator pins . When bolts are used , one of two common methods O f cutting them up to make squares for the pins may be fi fii t ch es employed . The rst method consists in sawing the bolts into - fii t ch es on a short log or bolter mill , and then running the through a ripsaw to get squares of the required sizes . These long squares are 8 crosscut to the desired length of the pin , inches for the telephone 9 - O pin and inches for the electric light pin , the bviously defective squares being thrown out . The short squares are put on automatic lathes , turned in the green state to the dimensions required , and the thread is either cut simultaneously on the same lathe or later on a s eparate lathe . O f fii t ch es In the second method , instead cutting , the bolts are f F crosscut into sections the required length O the pins . rom time to time a wedge -shaped piece may be ou t when bolts are crooked to keep the sections right angled or square ended . A maximum of - straight grained material is said to be thus secured . The sections are sawed into pieces , and these in turn are ripped into squares . Th e process of turning and threading the pins is the same as in the fi rst method . O f 8- Insulator pins inch length , the standard for most signaling CO lines , are given the following grades by the Western Electric

o r m i m i n r e ect o l o d a t h t r en t an d d u r ab i l i 1 . N . 1 ( p e t s o d f s s ca t e t h t e s g h t y h r of t e p i n a e n ot affect e d ). a m m r i l el e r m i n o 2 . St a n d r d co e c a or N O . 2 ( s ct ed f o p s n o t g o d en o u g h m h r i r m t f O t o eet t e eq u e en s o N . l l er m i r m l 3 . Cu s ( p t s wo ho e s , d eca y , o r d efect i ve m an u fa ct u r e , b u t n ot su ch a m k h i n o r l e s t o a e t e p w t h ss .

Ordinarily to O f the 8-inch telephone pins can be O 9- btained from a cord of good wood , from to of the inch A —R el a-ti o i el b r a d e - el e h on i n s r om l a r e a n d T BLE 5 . e y d y g s of 8 i n ch t p e p f g sm a l l b o l t s

Siz e of bolt G r ade 2 G r ade 3

P er cen t P er cen t 20 10 35 15

‘ O f o 1 t h e The lower yield N . pins from smaller and more defective f Fo r O f O . . wood is , course , to be expected pin purposes the quality ‘ wood in the average stand O f black locust in coves an d O n lower moist slopes is higher than in stands on comparatively dry upper slopes o r in the very wet bottom lands .

Insulator pins are u sually shipped in burlap bags . Small bags which can be handled by one man are more convenient than the l a larger bags which requi re two men . The ordinary small b u r p bag will hold the following numbers O f the vari ous t ypes O f insula tor pi ns and cobs :

- n i n " b y 8 i n ch t el ep ho e p s " 250 b y 9 -i n ch el ect r i c-l i g ht p i n s 200 - 1 b y 1 2 i n ch d u p l ex p i n s " 50 14 b y -i n ch cob s Manufacturers are ordinarily ab l e t o O btain only 1 car of finished locust insulator pins from every 6 cars of locust bolts . In other i s words , considering the stacked bolts and loosely bagged p n have 20 er the same waste space , less than p cent of the volume of the i n r wood appears the form of accepted insulato pins , the remainder t being lost as bark , sapwood , sawdust , turnings , or defective hear m wa i s u i s wood . So e of the used at the mill for f el , some burned 1 i n . the refuse pile , and some is sold locally for fuel " Man ufacturers state that they about break even in m an u fa c turing pins from bolts 5 to 7 inches In diameter and begin to profit O f 5 on material 8 inches and up in diameter . Much the and 7 inch material is Obtained for trees of that diameter . The practice of cut ting 5 to 7 inch trees for insulator pins is not o nly an expensive and a wasteful one in itself , but it destroys great deal of young timber which , if left standing a few years longer , would reach a satisfactory i n si ze for pins . The most progressive p manufacturer s are refusing O f n ot to accept bolts the smaller diameters , thereby only avoiding much w a ste in cutting up the material but discouraging farmers and wood lot owners from cutting trees which have n ot reached the proper siz e for insulator pins . Much O f the waste at mills manufacturing locust insulator pins i s O f t o o l s c s suitable for the handles small such as Chisels , s rewdriver , and gouges for which much less desirable woods are O ften employed . ' The strength and hardness O f locust and its resistance to brooming make it able to withstand the rough treatment to which tool handles l are O ften necessarily subjected . In Europe b ack locust is used with f an l s ent ire satisfaction for a wide variety o tool h d e .

Ci r l 3 . i u ar I I U. e t . o f A r l t r e c , S D p g cu u P L AT E 5

o 4 2 17 B4 O4 8 A

T R E E N A I L S S T l L L F I N D A U S E I N W O O D E N S H I P S

- A F s t r a s o t i n st or a r an d ar t r t r l , ini hed een il (l ng leng h) ge"B , d iven p ly d iven eenai s in t h e hul l of a oo s w den ve sel . UTI LI"ATI O N OF B LAC" L OCU S T 11

W A G O N H U BS

About cords O f black locust are used in the United States c 9 ea h year for wagon hubs . Bolts inches and over in diameter of b est f u a l i t q y wood are required , and the supply is not equal to the ’ O f demand . Black locust makes excellent hubs because its strength ,

n . durability , and moderately small swelling and shri kage The free dom from severe swelling and shrinking makes locust hubs suitable for such varying moisture conditions as are found in the Mississippi River bottom lands and swamps where log wagons are used to r e L move the timber . ocust hubs also give satisfaction in dry climates c O f su h as those Mexico and southwestern United States . O f f The process making wagon hubs is simple . Bolts in lengths O 4 to 8 feet and in diameters 9 inches or above at the small end inside O f the bark are crosscut into sections the length the desired hub . A hole is bored through the section , and the bored section is turned on

'

t o . 4 a . s a l the the rough shape of the hub (Pl , B )Slots for pokes are then mortised in the hub , and the mortised hub is allowed to sea n son i an open shed from six months to a year . In order to reduce 12 15 the moisture content below to per cent , it is necessary to dry fi c . r c the hubs arti ially When the p oper moisture content is rea hed , c d the spokes are inserted , metal hub bands are atta he , and the wheel is ready to be completed . Occasionally manufacturers will cut into spokes locust bolts not L c suitable for hubs . o ust is very satisfactory for spokes and is em c a c ployed in Europe for this purpose . A lo ust spoke , however , cording to wheelwrights , will not grip as tightly in a locust hub as H it will in a hub of another species . ickory or oak spokes in a locust hub make a very tight j oint that does not cry if the manu f a ct u r i n g is correct and the moisture condi tions are not unusual . The hub industry is a good illustration O f the very com mon Amer ican practice O f substituting a less desirable wood bec ause O f the f - c c an s c arcity O the more desirable wood . More high grade lo ust and should be grown in order to satisfy the needs of the hub manu facturer , who , incidentally , is quite willing to pay well for good material . T RE E N AI L S As early as 1716 black locust from Virginia was in demand for ’ i v en t o ships . In treenails or trunnels , the name g long , O f slender , round pieces hardwoods used for pinning ship timbers 5 together (pl . , B ), were cut in Pennsylvania and shipped to Eng i n O f 1812 land . American frigates the War not only contained s n black locust treenail but black locust pla king , stanchions , martin

s . gales , braces , post , ribs , knees , and tillers

Although very few wooden ships are being built at present , there is occasional demand for treenails . Prior to the World War there were produced in the United States f 750 c O . less than treenails a year , requiring about ords wood D O f uring the war , when the construction wooden ships expanded so O f greatly , an annual production treenails was planned but 1 o f t o probably not reached . This was on the bas s O f treenails for each wooden ship . The production of treenails ,

O ff . course , fell greatly after the war Present annual production t e i ( 1926 )is estimated roughly at not more than re na ls . I R UL AR 1 3 1 I 7 . s . D EP AR M EN OP AG R U URE 12 C C , T T IC LT

The makin g O f t I een ai l s is a very simple process requiri ng little u i b u L 0 1 t ar e t . e s eq pment , some skill and judgment g bol s cut on a b o l t eI saw i nto fii t ch es inches thi ck or fii t ch es of thi s thi ck ar e i n i fii t ch es r u n ness purchased f om lumber compa es . The are w OI saw s o 1 1 through a ripsa gang , that pieces 75, inches square are pr oduced The squares ar e then cut to the requ i r ed lengt h ( 22 t ? i a n d t u i n ed t o i r 1 i PL O nches) a d amete of A nches . ( A )The squares are ordinari ly t u rned on lathes while the wood is fr esh and

. c c i ffi l green as bla k lo ust turns with d cu ty when seasoned . i fii t ch es t Somet mes the are crosscut before hey are ripped , the O bject being to eli mi nate un m erchantable mat erial befor e cuttin g

s u ai . i s O the q es If th peration is performed by an experienced man , i t i s p r obably the best practi ce but with the avei age wo rkm an i t I s

t u l . of doubtful advantagtD e , as much was e may res t Th e small a moun t o f sh i i nk a g e and exp ans ion i n black locust its hi e t t n c i durability and gh degre of s ren EgD h and tough ess omb ned with abi l i ty to endure di i v i n g m ake it a very sui table wood for - g t r . O a l i l l c on s i d ei ed eenails Osago e r n e and ve oak are genera y to t I t i s o s e c rank nex . p s ible that other Am ri an woods if creosoted i u l e s a to in sure durabil ty wo d prov sati f ctory . A study was made during t h e World W a i to determ i ne the vol ume Of treenail squares that coul d be Obtained from an average O f n i cord bolts . It was fou d that the average sol d volume in 3 fin i shed treenail squares for each cord of bolts was 2 6 cubi c feet . After fin al i nspection at t h e shipyards the averag e cord prob ably 2 s m t h e represented not mu ch over 0 cubic feet . By as u ing that

average actual volume O f a. cord O f black locust was 75 Cubic feet m ay i 90 (large strai cght bolts y eld cubic feet , and small crooked bolts as l ow as 60 cubic feet)a loss O f about 69 per cent occurred r 5 an d 10 O f hi i n cutti ng the squa es . Between per cent t s loss was

8 c e n s l . i n squares in hes long , a length suitabl for i u ator pins An average of 1 5 0 pin s coul d probably be Obtained from a cor d of i n di 620 l s e t bla ck lo cust ad tion to the treenai , whose averag leng h is inches . FEN CE P O S T S

Th e di stribution of bl ack lo cust is so wi d esp i ea d and its loc al use fo i posts so un iver sal that onl y a I o u gh estimate O f the num c m e t h e m ber used 15 possible . Su h an esti at places nu ber O f black t n at 00 0 i m y locu s t p os s used an ually , equivalent to approx atel

2 0 000 cords . u n -O e i s ri Probably no native wood , less it be OsaDge rang , supe or e ce t s e e O f to black locust for f n pos b caus its lasting qualities ,

t an d l s . streng h , ability to hold nai s and staple D at a on the durabili ty of black locu st fence post s were collected hi A r i cu l t u i al r i m i by the O o g Expe ent Station , Wooster , Oh o , and

. 10 I n a t h e t I n "n e 19 . published bulletin of sta ion u , The maj ority I of t h e fences examined were lo cated i n Ohi o . A few were in n h a a l l i n " . T 6 di an , I ois ansas , and Texas T ese d ta are shown In able whi ch i s a r earrangement of the OI i gi n al t able in t h e ex p ei i m en t e 60 er O f s station bulletin . In no cas were less than p cent the po ts n i n e c c i y hi sou d . and most cases the p r entage was ons derabl gher

' I Y P S I M RS A r E t REL ATI TB D C I LLB L I T PO T B . . x . B M LEY . TH E O C U ". O T E o S " hi g p a . — 1 1 u l 2 1 9 6 0 4 0 i l l 9 . B . , p . 5 6 , u s. 0 ‘ UTILI "ATIO N OF B LAC " L O CU S T 13 than this even though some of the posts had been in the ground 42 years . Although t h e figur es in the table appear to be h igh for the coun O f try as a whole , the large number posts and fence lines examined in this experiment show rather definitely the lasting qualities O f locust in Ohio and neighboring States .

— 1 TABL E (i r D u r ab i l i ty of b l a ck l ocu st fen ce p ost s

N u m b er 0 f y ear s D i am et er Of Tot al num ound post s l n t h e post s b er of post s S gr ound

1 D at a for t hi s t able wer e t aken fr om t ests of post s as r ecor ded in O hio Ag r icultur al Ex per iment t t o t 219 S a i n Bulle in .

The followi ng statement about a cornfield in Ohio which was a 1893 W t h O f ab ndoned In , and on black locust grew up itself , is O f Interest °

Th n n o r n fi el wa i l n d r 22 r h l u s i e a b a d o ed c d s cl ay so , a a ft e yea s t e oc t w t h I I O x n f l i t i on wa s u i n en ce o n m a r ke i n 1 e p e ses O cu t v a c t t o f p sts a d t e d 19 6 . At t ha t i m i s n t c t u l n t h s s n h n t e t co t 6 ce t s o u , ha , a d p u t e p o t o t e car , o n e a d o n e ha l f

m i l e s r om th e r o e . Th e r i ce r ecei ed fo r t h e o st s wa 1 cen t s a i f g v p v p s 7 p ece , o n r O 1 n r e ou sa n d o n u n r a n i r a et r et u n f 1 ce t s . Th e t h e h d ed d e ght y p o st s er a cr er a r st i t a r et u r n of 850 or 1 er a r e r r r p e w e h ve ed w h $ $ 6 p c p e yea , a ve y oo d r ofi for l a kn ol l t i l g p t a c y o y e d .

This is not given as an average for Ohio , but shows the possibili ties O f black locust when it grows under favorable conditio ns . There were numerous other acres on this farm just as favorable to the O f 22 e growth locust that produced nothing in the y ars , simply because neither man nor nature planted anything of value on them .

The forestry department O f the Ohio experiment. station has nu m er o u s records of locust groves in different localities in the State R R 1 3 1 U . s D EPAR M EN T O F AG R RE 14 CI CULA , . T ICULTU

h o from w i ch posts were cut and marketed . M o st of these rec rds show that in 1915 and 1916 when p o sts sold in quantity at 10 c ents fi 6 c 8 for rsts and ents for seconds , an annual income of from " $ to

$15 per acre was derived . L arge quantities of black locust were cu t in Pen n syl v an l a as early as P osts were shipped do wn the Susquehann a River to Chesa peake B ay from where they were sent to mo re southern sections . O n e record shows that posts fro m Pennsylvania sold in B altimore r A at $4: p er hundred o 4 cents apiece at that time . t present black lo cust fence p o sts cost as high as apiece or $75 a hundred in B the city of altimore . M INE T I M B ERS

M ine o perators in the United States reported" th e use of cubic feet (approx imately cords )of round l o cust timber dur 1 23 s -t o f 1 c ing the year 9 . This is les than two hirds per ent of the e fo r I t se t o tal consumption of all speci s mine timbers . was for u i - r . underg ound , largely n bituminous coal mines M e x i e any min owners have e tensive land and timber hold ngs , larg parts of which are not producing timber and in which' erosi o n is I n o e o . , often g ing on view of the demand for str ng and durabl mine c m timbers , these nonprodu ing areas wou ld serve a much ore useful z purpose if utili ed for growing black locust .

P O L ES O f the poles reported purchased in the " United States " - i 1923 o o e 1 . n , were black l cust , ab ut one tw ntieth of per cent O f the wo o den poles of all species repo rted pur chased in - 1909 1 . M , were black locust , about one third of per cent ost of t h e black locust poles purchased in both 1923 and 1909 were small 0 o f 20 s 3 . poles , les than feet in length The average cost poles to 2 i 1909 1923 9 feet in length reported n was apiece , and in , — - almost two and one half times as great . Th e o t s o h few black l cus pole used by electric railr ads , and lig t , o e p wer , telephon , and telegraph companies are purchased near the o e ar n o t point of installati n . Th y e shipped long distances as are

s e o o . cedar , che tnut , y ll w pine , and cypress p les o i A black locust p le , although strong and durable , s heavy and o fic c i i theref re dif ult to ere t , and the wood s so hard that climbing s o difficult even with sharp spikes . Owners of l cust timber of suitable siz e located near pole lines may fin d it profitable to deal in the z o o smaller si es of p les , but black l cust plays only a very small part L z i in this industry . ocust timber of pole si e s generally more valu able for insulator pins or wagon hubs .

M INO R USES i I n addition to nsulator pins , wagon hubs , treenails , fence posts , o mine timbers , and poles , black locust is used in this c untry locally to some ex tent for crossties o n small branch railroads where timber of H z . proper si e is available ere , again , durability and resistance to c o mechani al wear make it a satisfact ry wood , but the driving of t Spikes into lo cust i s difficult . Th e chief drawback to i s u se for ties U TIL I"ATIO N o r BL AC" L O CU ST 15

Lo is its high cost . cust timber large enough and of good enough quality for crossties is generally mo re valuable for insu l ator p i n s or fo r i wagon hubs . Small quantities of black locust a’re used m ne sprags and wood screws , such as those in carpenter s clamps . I n E i N A i 163 5 urope , where it was ntroduced from orth merica n , f a fi locust suf ers little dam ge from the locust borer , and the wood nds commercial use n o t only for the products common in the Uni ted

States but for spokes , shafts , and other parts of carriages and light vehicles as a substitute for ash , handles for agricultural implements h O such as plows and cultivators , ladder rungs , vine stakes , and p I t E ax o poles . is also used in urope for , pick, and other similar to l - handles , fence pickets , screw plugs for railway tie spikes , rake and harrow teeth , lath , toys , stopcocks, table legs , chair rungs and other t . W urnery , gear teeth , tiller arms , stanchions , and pulleys here the timber is large enough it is occasionally used for clapboards . B x E lack locust handles for a es , picks , and such tools in urope are a dmittedly not as strong as hickory handles used in similar tools i n i o this country . The wood does not withstand shock as does h ck ry, b u t i E n t o n the hands of the average uropean laborer , who is incli ed o A be more careful with his to ls than is the average merican laborer , good service is secured from black locust .

S U M M ARY

" Black locust trees of high quality an d large siz e are becoming Al scarcer in the United States each year . though there is no danger of the supply of black locust giving out at the present rate of con i sumpt on users of the wood , particularly for insulator pins , are being forced to buy smaller and more defective material than in the f r past . Considerable waste of ef ort and mate ial in cutting small

i . and defect ve trees is the result The cost of cutting , hauling , and handling small material both in t h e woods an d at the mill is higher e than for large material , and a gr ater percentage of the volume of t h e i log s lost in sawing up bolts from small trees . The ideal method of cutting black locust in the forest is to take the largest and the most available wood for insulator pins and wagon i I e . t hubs , and the defect ve material for fenc posts is false forest

economy to cut small material for pins and hub s . The more pro

' g r essi v e pin manufacturers are refusing to accept material less than 7 and 8 inches at the small end and are advising the farmers fr o m whom they purchase the bolts to leave the small material standing i n i t until above 7 inches d ame er . The price per piece for large l clear materia is considerably higher than that for small material . The wood put on b y th e tree after it has reached fence -post siz e and

freed itself of lower limbs generally contains fewer defects , and the d anger from the locust borer after trees have reached a diameter of 5 6 or inches is greatly lessened . At the insulator -pin mills there is room for improvement in cut u i n ting p the material , n stori g locust bolts , and in stacking locust fii t ch es . The loss through checking of locust bolts and fii t ch es an d the warpi ng and twisting of fii t ch es through improper storage while . l i M wa t ng to be cut up is large . uch loss from checking can b e avoided by coating the ends of locust bolts with a paint or other e mat rial that will prevent the rapid loss of moisture . RE I R L R 1 3 1 U . s . D EPAR M EN or AG 16 C CU A , T T RICULTU

i n The h gh degree of strength , tough ess , hardness , and durability of bla ck locust and i ts moderate shrinkage and swelling gi ve the

a fo r u t . wood hibgh rank special ses where such proper ies are needed I t s ab i l i ty to grow vigorously and rapidly when young under a wide and c i n r e range of soil climatic conditions , ombined w th abu dant o b r pr duction by seeds and y stump and root sp outs , makes the tree i n o i valuable fo r check g er s on on denuded slopes . The locust borer is the most se rious drawback to a wider u se o f both the tree and the wood . APPE N D I"

S P E CI FI CAT I O NS FO R INS U L AT O R PINS

- b Specifications for the 8 inch wooden insulator pin ( fig . 2 )prepared y the C o 1 926 l : American Telephone Telegraph . and in use in , are as fo lows 8 - for h - l o - i The inch pin is intended use wit toll line insu at rs , exchange l ne o insulators , and d uble petticoated insulators . or m h l e — i W o s . Pins otherwise sound may conta n a few wormholes or ch an d nels , provide that the diameters of the holes or channels are not greater than t hree-sixteenths of an inch "th at the distances between t h e centers of holes of maximum diameter or groups of holes of eq uivalent area to a hole of maxi ‘ mum di ameter is not less than 3 inches measured along the surface of the e m pin "that when hol s are located above the plane of A , they do not aterially decrease the resistance of t h e screw thread to the pulling off of a standard a n d h an C D l insulator " that when oles are located between pl es and , they wil not interfere with t h e secur e attachment of the pin to a standard cross arm the attachment being made by a nail driven through the side of the cross arm and the shank of the pin . ck — Ch e s . Pins may contain checks not over 2 inches in length provided that t when they intersec either end surface , their depth measured on that surface - shall not exceed one eighth of an inch , and not more than one check shall appear on the same or nearly the same line of grain . a i — l S e son n g Pins shall be t horough y air seasoned . Pins seasoned by steam i n g or by boiling in water shall not be accepted .

M ATERI AL

— - G en er a l Th e h l b e h i y o b pins s al m’ade of sound straig t gra ned ell w or lack l O - e B s d Ar c n o s ocust, or sage orang ( oi )free from k ts , check , sap wood . worm - d s r . holes , brashy woo , cracks , and other defect except as hereinafte specified — G r a zi a The angle between the grai n and the axi s of the pin shall n ot exceed except that irregularities i n the grain which are wholly con fined to the section of the pin below the horiz ontal plane shown at D on the d rawing i ( fig . and local deviations in the direction of the gra n due to the presence

. in the pins of knots hereinafter classed as acceptable , are permitted . o — S amm d . Sapwood is allowable on the shoulder of the pins provided it h does n o t extend into t e shank . — " t s s . n o . Pins shall be free from loose or unsound knot S ound knots not exceeding the li mits given in the followi ng table for the section of pins in which they occur are permissib le

Section of pin : B etween top of pin a n d bottom of shoulder B etween bottom of shoulder and horiz ontal plane at C B etween horiz ontal planes at C and D B etween horiz ontal plane at D and bottom of pin

n b r W hen more th an one knot herei efore pe mitted appears in a pin , the distance between the centers of the knots measured on t h e surface of the p m shall not be less than inches .

The thread shall be smoo th, of unifo rm pitch and of the shape shown on the a dr wing . — " S h ap e an d fin i sh The following deviations from the drawing shall be per m i t t ed provided that they do not appear on more than 20 p er cent of the pins d : 1 F t t h e furnishe ( ) lat surfaces on the shoulder , provided tha wood is not cut away t o such a depth as to eli minate the bottom surface of the shoulder at any point on the circumference "and ( 2 )any irregularity in shap e between the horiz ontal plane at D and the bottom of the pin which does n o t involve the removal of more than one-third of the cross section of the pin called for i n the drawing . S P E C I F I CAT I O NS F O R T R EENA I L S

At the beginning of the war only small q uantities of treenails were b eing produced by a few manufacturers . The construction of large numbers of wooden vessels during the w ar caused a sudden demand for treenails greatly i n M d excess of the capacity of existing plants . any people un ertook the manu facture of tree na ls who were unfamili a r with the properties of bl ack locust I n and found considerable difficulty in turning out an acceptable product . " 1 91 8 d i une , , a treenail association was forme at Ph ladelphia , which , in coop c E F C F S ration with the mergency leet orporation and the orest ervice , was F able to stab il z e the suddenly expanded industry . The orest Service prepared for the E mergency Fleet Corporation a set of specifications for treenails which were widely used . The specifications prepared at th at time and at present applicable for ‘ tree L O - nail sq uares and turned treenails are as follows . ive oak and sage orange b as well as black locust were allowed , but by far the greater num er of treenails

were made from black locust .

TREEN AI L S Q UARES

M a t er i a l

' b e b ll R o b i m a seu d oa cac i a u er cu s To lack or ye ow locust ( p ), live oak ( Q v i r i n/M d O - To x l n b e g u ), or sage orange ( y o All squares to entirely

free of spike knots , knots in clusters , and to be sound ( sound material excludes ' co n t a i n n s squares g wormhole which can not be removed in turning , any form

of rot or decay , powder post , and encased bark ), except for the following h defects , w ich are allowed 1 S -h ( ) ound knots , the aggregate diameter of which does not exceed one alf 12 inch in each and every inches of length , provided no knot is larger than - - one fourth of an inch in average diameter and no yi inch knot is closer than

2 inches to any othe r knot . ( 2 )Cross or spiral gra i n not exceeding in slope more th an 1 inch in a 2 length of 0 inches .

( 3 )S k , S i i th e eason chec s plits , and shakes extend ng nto treenail for a dis

tance not exceeding 1 inch on each end . ( 4 )S ap on one end not exceeding one-fourth of an inch in thickne ss o n any face or three-eighths of an inch on any corner for a distance of not m ore - h than one fourt of an inch of the length of the piece . ‘ S a t o t h a t 4 ( p , in addition allowed in item , wane , surface wormholes , or w m similar defects hich , in the "udg ent of the inspector , can be removed in W i I e turning the treenail ll also be allowed . ron streaks will not b consid ered

defects ).

S z - h h q uares to be cut to si es specified , allowing one sixteent of an inc varia - tion in thickness and width and one h alf inch in length .

All squar es to be rough sawn . U TI L I"ATIO N o r BLAC" L o CU ST 19

TURN ED TREE N AI L S

M a t er i a l

To b e th orough ly seasoned ( approximately 1 5 per cent moisture)bla ck or ’ R o b i m a seu d o a ca ci a u er c u s t i r i n i a n a O yellow locust ( p ), live oak ( Q g ), or sage ' i r To a l o a om fe u m ). e t o orange ( y p All tr enails be entirely free of spike knots , knots in clusters , and to be sound . All treenails to be entirely of heartwood , except as allowed below . The following defects are allowed : 1 S a d - ( ) ound knots , the ggregate diameter of which oes not exceed one half 1 2 inch in each and every inches of length , provided no knot is larger than one-fourth of an inch in average diameter and no -inch knot is closer than

2 inches to any other knot . ( 2 )Cross or spiral grai n with a slope not exceeding 1 inch in a lengt h of 2 i 0 nches . 3 S a e ( ) e son checks , splits , and shakes extending into the tr enail for a t distance n o exceeding 1 inch on each end . ( 4 )S a p not exceeding one-eighth of an inch in thickness nor more than — one fourth the leng th of the treenail on the pointed end only . D I . ( ron streaks will not be considered a defect ips in the grain , which at

m Sl ll . the maximu ope do not exceed the a owable cross grain , will be permitted )

z - n Treenails to be turned to si es specified , allowing one half i ch variation in length . S h ap e

W r n Treenails to be tapered or drift turned . hen d ift tur ed , each drift to occupy one-half the length of the treenail with one-sixteenth of an inch difference in diameter between drifts . W hen tapered the difference in diameter - between the small and large end to be one sixteenth of an inch .

Fi n i sh

Treenails to be smoothly turned and to have poi nts tapered for a lengt h of ° — N o about three sixteenths of an inch to about a 3 0 bevel a t the pointed end . treenails with "a t faces will be accepted .