Evaluation of Some Imported Foods (Spices, and Snacks) In Relation to The Codex Specifications

By

HUDA AWAD ABBAS HASSEN

B.Sc. Agric. University of Khartoum (1996)

Supervisor: Professor. Elfadil Elfadl Babiker

A thesis submitted to The University of Khartoum in the Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science

Department of Food Science and Technology Faculty of Agriculture University of Khartoum

October 2008

DEDICATION affectionately dedicated to: My parents Brothers Sisters husband and my daughter (Raghad) with love

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank my supervisor professor. Elfadil Elfadl Babiker for suggesting this research subject and for his perpetual help and support. My great thanks go to the Sudanese Standard and Metrology Organization (SSMO) for giving me the chance and funding. My thanks are deeply extended to the staff of the faculty of Agriculture– university of Khartoum for providing research facilities. I am grateful and really indebted to my uncle Dr. Mohammed Elamin Ahmed for his useful advices and valuable help. All thanks go to my colleges and friends for their support during the research period.

LIST OF CONTENT

TTILE Page DEIDICATION ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii LIST OF CONTENTS iv LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF FIGURES viii ABSTRACT IN ENGLISH ix ABSTRACT IN ARABIC xi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER TWO: LITRATURE REVIEW 3 2.1 Seasoning products 3 2.1.1 and 3 2.1.2 4 2.1.3 Pasta 5 2.1.4 Macaroni 6 2.1.5 Curry powder 7 2.2 Heavy metals 8 2.2.1 Cadmium – Cd 9 2.2.1.1 Health effects of cadmium 9 2.2.1.2 Environmental effects of cadmium 10 2.2.2 Nickel 12 2.2.2.1 Effects of nickel on the environment 13 2.2.3 Lead 14 2.3 Minerals 14 2.3.1 Calcium 14 2.4 Anti nutritional factors 15

2.4.1 Tannin 15 CHAPTER THREE: MATREIAL AND METHODS 16 3.1 Materials 16 3.2 Methods 16 3.2.1 Determination of moisture content 16 3.2.2 Determination of total ash content 17 3.2.3 Determination of fat content 18 3.2.4 Determination of protein content 19 3.2.5 Determination of crude fiber Content 20 3.2.6 Determination of calorific value of foods 21 3.2.7 Determination of minerals in foods 22 3.2.8 Determination of heavy metal contaminants in foods 23 3.2.9 Determination of Tannins content 25 3.2.10 Determination of phytic acid content 26 3.2.11 Determination of Polyphenol 27 3.2.12 Determination of food colours 28 3.2.13 Determination of pH 30 3.2.14 Determination of titerable acidity 30 CAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 31 4.1 Chemical Analysis 31 4.1.1 Proximate composition 31 4.1.2 Minerals composition 33 4.1.3 Anti nutritional factors 35 4.2 Physical properties 35 4.2.1 pH and acidity as acetic acid 35 4.2.2 Colour 35 CAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 42 5.1 Conclusion 42

5.2 Recommendations 42

REFRENCES 44

APPENDICES 48

LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page 4.1 The proximate composition of samples 36 4.2 Minerals composition(Mg/100g)of samples 37 4.3. Anti nutritional factors of samples. 38 4.4 Colours in samples. 39

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page 4.1. pH of samples 40 4.2. Acidity as acetic acid of samples 41

Evaluation of Some Imported Foods Spices, Condiments and Snacks In Relation to the Codex Specifications (M.Sc. Thesis) Huda Awad Abbas Hassen

Abstract: This study was conducted to evaluate the quality of some imported foods and food additives physiochemically in relation to the codex specifications. Eight imported food items including sauces ( ketchup , HP , pasta sauce , picallili sauce ) , condiments ( curry and mustard powder) , snacks ( andomi noodles and potato chips ) were subjected to the following physiochemical studies , dry matter content, food compositions , protein , fat ash and fiber contents . The anti nutritional factors studied were polyphenols including tannin and phytic acid contents . The minerals studied were phosphorous and calcium. The contaminants studied included lead, cadmium and nickel. The study revealed that the protein content of all the imported sauces were lower than that specified by codex while their fat content were in the range specified by codex . Ash content of all the imported sauces was in the range proposed by the codex standards (4% maximum). The fiber contents of sauces ranged between 1.05-2.11%. Phytic acid content of sauces ranged 0.15-0.73%. Tannins of sauces ranged 0.037- 0.348, while polyphenols of sauces ranged 0.624-0.742%. Calcium content of sauces ranged 0.624-0.742 mg/100g while phosphorus range was 0.19-0.97 mg/100g. Lead and cadmium of all the imported sauces within the range specified by codex standards. Nickel content of all sauces ranged 0.127-0.173 mg/100g .The pH of all sauces ranged 3.5-5.7 and the acidity calculated as acetic acid ranged 0.5-2.0% were in accordance with pH and acidity specified by the codex for food items . The condiments, curry and mustard powders dry matter content were 96.39 and 96.42 % respectively, the values obtained were higher than that specified by codex standards (90% maximum). The fat content were in the range specified by codex (32% maximum ) , while the protein content were 31.97-33.67% respectively .Ash content of curry powder 30.8%was higher than that proposed by Arab Industrial and Mining Development Organization(6%-12%) while the ash content of mustard powder was 4.3% within the range specified by codex standards (3.7-4.5%) .The fiber content of curry and mustard powder were 9.7 and 10.6% respectively. Phytic acid

was 0.174 and 0.788% respectively. Tannin content was 0.237 and 0.34% respectively, whereas the polyphynol were 0.82 and 0.73% respectively. Calcium content was 0.82 and 0.873 mg/100g respectively, whereas the phosphorus were 0.505 and 12.9 mg/100g respectively. The contaminants of tested condiments were in the range specified by codex standards. The snacks, potato chips and andomi noodles dry matter content were 97.2 and 96.0% respectively. Fat content of potato chips and andomi noodles were 9.54%and 7.15 % respectively which were in the range that proposed by codex standards. Ash content of potato chips and andomi noodles were 4.54 and 1.0% respectively while the crude fiber content were 5.43and 2.01% respectively. Phytic acid of the tested snacks was 0.323,0.492% respectively. The tannin content was 0.269-0.239% respectively, whereas the polyphenol were 0.873- 0.364% respectively. The calcium content were o.873-0.364mg/100g respectively, whereas the phosphorus contents were 4.273and 0.397mg/100g respectively. The contaminants of tested snacks were in the range specified by codex. The colours of tested samples were natural colours permitted by the codex .

ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻟﻐﺬاﺋﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮردة اﻟﺼﻮص، اﻟﻤﻘﺒﻼت واﻟﻮﺟﺒﺎت اﻟﺴﺮﻳﻌﺔ وذﻟﻚ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻘﺎرﻧﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻣﻮاﺻﻔﺎت دﺳﺘﻮر اﻟﻐﺬاء اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ اﻟﻜﻮدآﺲ

(أﻃﺮوﺣﺔ ﻣﺎﺟﺴﺘﻴﺮ)

هﺪى ﻋﻮض ﻋﺒﺎس ﺣﺴﻦ

اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﻠﺺ: ﺗﻢ إﺟﺮاء هﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﻟﺘﻘﻴﻴﻢ ﺟﻮدة ﺑﻌﺾ اﻻﻏﺬﻳﺔ واﻟﻤﻀﺎﻓﺎت اﻟﻐﺬاﺋﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮردة وذﻟﻚ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ

اﻹﺧﺘﺒﺎرات اﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﻮآﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻘﺎرﻧﺔ ﻣﻊ اﻟﺤﺪود اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻟﺠﻨﺔ دﺳﺘﻮر اﻟﻐﺬاء اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ (آﻮدآﺲ).

ﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺛﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ اﻧﻮاع ﻣﻦ اﻻﻏﺬﻳﺔ واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻀﻢ ( آﺘﺸﺎب اﻟﻄﻤﺎﻃﻢ , ﺻﻮص ﻣﺘﺒﻞ HP، ﺻﻮص ﻣﺘﺒﻞ

piccalili، ﺻﻮص اﻟﻤﻜﺮوﻧﺔ) واﻟﻤﻘﺒﻼت (ﺑﺪرة اﻟﻜﺎري وﺑﺪرة اﻟﺨﺮدل) واﻟﻮﺟﺒﺎت اﻟﺴﺮﻳﻌﺔ (رﻗﺎﺋﻖ اﻟﺒﻄﺎﻃﺲ

واﻟﻤﻜﺮوﻧﺔ ﺳﺮﻳﻌﺔ اﻟﻄﻬﻮ andomi)، واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻢ إﺧﻀﺎﻋﻬﺎ ﻹﺧﺘﺒﺎرات ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﻤﺎدة اﻟﺠﺎﻓﺔ، اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻴﻦ، اﻟﺪهﻮن،

اﻟﺮﻣﺎد واﻻﻟﻴﺎف.وآﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ اﻟﻌﻮاﻣﻞ اﻟﻤﻀﺎدة ﻟﻼﻏﺬﻳﺔ (اﻟﺘﺎﻧﻴﻦ واﻟﻔﺎﻳﺘﻴﺖ). وﻗﺪ اﺷﺘﻤﻠﺖ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ا ﻳ ﻀ ﺎً ﻋﻠﻰ

ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪاﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮم واﻟﻔﺴﻔﻮر ﺑﺎﻻﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎدن اﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﺔ (اﻟﺮﺻﺎص، اﻟﻜﺎدﻣﻴﻮم واﻟﻨﻴﻜﻞ).

ﻟﻘﺪ اوﺿﺤﺖ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ان ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻴﻦ ﻟﻜﻞ اﻧﻮاع اﻟﺼﻮص أﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﺪود اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮاﺻﻔﺎت

دﺳﺘﻮر اﻟﻐﺬاء اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ آﺎن ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﺪهﻮن واﻟﺮﻣﺎد ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺪود اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ (اﻟﺤﺪ اﻻﻋﻠﻰ ﻟﻠﺮﻣﺎد 4%). وﻗﺪ

آﺎن ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻻﻟﻴﺎف ﻓﻲ ﺣﺪود 1.05-2.11%. وﻗﺪ آﺎن ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﺘﺎﻧﻴﻦ، ﺣﻤﺾ اﻟﻔﺎﻳﺘﻴﺖ واﻟﺒﻮﻟﻴﻔﻴﻨﻮل -0.037

0.348% و0.15-0.73% و0.624-0.742% ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ. وﻣﺤﺘﻮي اﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮم واﻟﻔﺴﻔﻮر 0.742-0.624

ﻣﺠﻢ/100ﺟﻢ و0.19-0.97ﻣﺠﻢ/100ﺟﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ. اﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎدن اﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﺔ (اﻟﺮﺻﺎص واﻟﻜﺎدﻣﻴﻮم) ﻓﻘﺪ

آﺎﻧﺖ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺪود اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ آﺎن ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﻨﻴﻜﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺪود 0.127-0.173ﻣﺠﻢ/100ﺟﻢ. وﻗﺪ وﺟﺪ ان اﻻس

اﻟﻬﻴﺪروﺟﻴﻨﻲ واﻟﺤﻤﻮﺿﺔ آﺤﺎﻣﺾ ﺧﻠﻴﻚ آﺎﻧﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺪود 3.5 -5.7% و 0.5-2.0% ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ.

اوﺿﺤﺖ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ان ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﻤﺎدة اﻟﺠﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻘﺒﻼت (ﺑﺪرة اﻟﻜﺎري وﺑﺪرة اﻟﺨﺮدل) 96.39 و96.42% ﻋﻠﻰ

اﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ وهﺬﻩ اﻟﻘﻴﻢ اﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ (90% اﻟﺤﺪ اﻻﻗﺼﻰ). وﻗﺪ وﺟﺪ ان ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﺪهﻮن ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺪود

اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ (32% اﻟﺤﺪ اﻻﻗﺼﻰ) ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ آﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﻴﻢ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺪود 31.97 و33.67% ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ. ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ

وﺟﺪ ان ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﺮﻣﺎد ﻟﺒﺪرة اﻟﻜﺎري 30.8% وهﺬﻩ اﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ اﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ

ﻟﻠﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ (6-12%). ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ آﺎن ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﺮﻣﺎد ﻟﺒﺪرة اﻟﺨﺮدل 4.3% ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺪود اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ

اﻟﻜﻮدآﺲ (3.7-4.5%). وﻗﺪ آﺎن ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻻﻟﻴﺎف ﻟﺒﺪرة اﻟﻜﺎري وﺑﺪرة اﻟﺨﺮدل 9.7 و10.6 ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ. وﻗﺪ

آﺎن ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﺘﺎﻧﻴﻦ، ﺣﻤﺾ اﻟﻔﺎﻳﺘﻴﺖ واﻟﺒﻮﻟﻴﻔﻴﻨﻮل 0.237 -0.340%، 0.174 -0.788% و0.73-0.82%ﻋﻠﻰ

اﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ. اﻣﺎ ﻣﺤﺘﻮي اﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮم واﻟﻔﺴﻔﻮر 0.820و0.873 ﻣﺠﻢ/100ﺟﻢ و0.505و12.9ﻣﺠﻢ/100ﺟﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ

اﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ. ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ آﺎﻧﺖ اﻟﻤﻌﺎدن اﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺪود اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ.اﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻮﺟﺒﺎت اﻟﺴﺮﻳﻌﺔ (رﻗﺎﺋﻖ اﻟﺒﻄﺎﻃﺲ

واﻟﻤﻜﺮوﻧﺔ ﺳﺮﻳﻌﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﻀﻴﺮ ) ﻗﺪ آﺎن ﻧﺴﺒﺔ اﻟﻤﺎدة اﻟﺠﺎﻓﺔ وﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﺪهﻮن 97.22و96.0 % و 7.15و%9.54

ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ وهﺬﻩ اﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺪود اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ دﺳﺘﻮر اﻟﻐﺬاء اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ.وآﺎن ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﺮﻣﺎد واﻻﻟﻴﺎف 1.0

و4.54 % و 2.01 و5.43 % ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ. وﻗﺪ آﺎن ﻣﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﺘﺎﻧﻴﻦ، ﺣﻤﺾ اﻟﻔﺎﻳﺘﻴﺖ واﻟﺒﻮﻟﻴﻔﻴﻨﻮل0.239

و0.269 % و0.323 و0.492 % و 0.364 و 0.873 %ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ. اﻣﺎ ﻣﺤﺘﻮي اﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮم واﻟﻔﺴﻔﻮر 0.364

و0.873 ﻣﺠﻢ/100ﺟﻢ و0.397 و 4.273 ﻣﺠﻢ/100ﺟﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ. ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ آﺎﻧﺖ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ اﻟﻤﻠﻮﺛﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﺟﺒﺎت

اﻟﺴﺮﻳﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺪود اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻮدآﺲ . وﻗﺪ اﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﺖ اﻻﻟﻮان اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﻤﻮح ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﻬﺎ ﺣﺴﺐ

ﻟﺠﻨﺔ دﺳﺘﻮر اﻟﻐﺬاء اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﻓﻲ آﻞ اﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎت اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮة .

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

In Africa, the current seek for easy to prepare or fast foods has brought with it a progressive loss of important components of the African food culture. The African’s richly enormous variety of food spices and condiments are today gradually being replaced by the large number of bouillon cubes in the market (Smith, 1995). The Codex Alimentarius Commission was created in 1963 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) to develop food standards, guidelines and related texts such as codes of practice under the joint FAO/ WHO Food Standards Program. The codex alimentarius (latin for food law or food code. The main purposes of this program are protecting health of the consumers and ensuring fair trade practices in the food trade, and promoting coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international governmental and non- governmental organization. Food labeling is the primary means of communication between the producer and seller of food on one hand, and the purchaser and consumer on the other. The Codex Alimentarius standards and guidelines on food labeling are collected to allow their wide use and understanding by governments, regulatory authorities, food industries, retailers and consumers (complete texts, codex alimentarius 2005). Labeling includes the label and any written, print or graphic matter (CODEX STAN 107-1981) Contaminants in foods are any substance not intentionally added, which is present in such food as a result of the production (including operations carried out in crop husbandry, animal husbandry and veterinary medicine) , manufacture , processing , preparation , treatment ,

packing , packaging , transport or holding of such food or as a result of environmental contamination (CODEX STAN 193-1995, Rev.2007). The objectives of this study are : • Test some chemical and nutrition evaluations of some imported foods spices, condiments and snacks. • Evaluation of the imported foods spices, condiments and snacks according to the codex specifications. • Comparison of the results obtained with the labeled of the specified products.

CHAPTER TWO LITRATURE REVIEW

2.1 Seasoning products Liquid and powder seasoning extracts are found to be convenient for the incorporation of flavor into foods such as soup mixes and meat products. The liquid seasonings are virtually essences of the spice oil. The solid extracts usually contain salt or dextrose as diluents or adsorbent for oleoresin. Emulsifying agent may also be present (CODEX STAN192-1995).

2.1.1 Ketchup and Sauces Tomato ketchup usually contains tomato puree, , , salt, and or other spices. Thickeners such as carob bean gum and added colour are also often present. In view of comparatively low acidity, tomato ketchup tends to be attacked by mould, in particular and it is therefore filled as hot as possible before capping. The general quality of tomato ketchup and sauces can be further judged from other determination such as pH, acidity, total solids, ash, colour, and ability to withstand storage after incubation for one month at 37o C. The standard for tomato and sauce shall be as follow: Tomato ketchup and sauces should contain not less than 6% by weight of tomato solids derived from clean and wholesome tomatoes or from tomato puree or it is equivalent, made from clean and wholesome tomatoes. The Food Standard Committee (FSC) recommended that the minimum for tomato solids should be increased to 8%. Sauces and sauces like products include ready-to-eat sauces, and dressings, and mixes to be reconstituted before consumption.

Sauces are divided into four sub-categories: 1. Emulsified sauces Emulsified sauces include sauces, gravies and dressings based, at least in part, on a fat or oil-in water emulsion. Examples include: dressing (e.g., French, Italian, Greek, ranch style), fat-based spreads (e.g., with mustard), , and fatty sauces. 2. Non-emulsified sauces Non-emulsified sauces include water-, coconut milk-, and milk-based sauces, gravies and dressings. Examples also include , tomato ketchup, sauce, , Oriental thick Worcestershire sauce ( sauce), Chili sauce, and white cream (cream-based) sauce (sauce consisting primarily of milk or cream, with little added fat (e.g., butter) and flour, with or without seasonings or spices). 3. Mixes for sauces and gravies It is a concentrated product, usually in a powdered form, to be mixed with water, milk, oil or other liquid to prepare a final sauce or . Examples include mixes for cheese sauce, hollandaise sauce, and salad dressing (CODEX STAN, 192-1995).

2.1.2 Mustard Mustards are the seeds of Brassica nigra or Brassica juncea (black mustard or brown mustard) and Sinupis alba (white or yellow mustard). Both kinds of mustard are important spices used for flavour and aroma. The whole seeds are used in pickles and in while the prepared mustard, which is a mixture of ground mustard with salt, vinegar, spices and other condiments, is used in , frankfurters and gravies (Lopez-Argüello etal., 1998). Mustard as it appears on the market (Anon, 1973) consists of a powdered and milled mixture of the seeds of black

and white mustard . When water is added in making up the condiment, the corresponding glucosides present become hydrolysed due to the enzyme myrosin in both seed: Black mustard:

H 2o KC10H18NS2O10 ⎯⎯→⎯ C3H5NcS + C6H12O6 + KHSO4 Myrosin Allyl isothiocyanate Dextrose

(Volatile) White mustard:

H 2o C H N S O ⎯⎯→⎯ acrinyl isothiocyanate (non-volatile) + 30 42 2 2 15 Myrosin

C6H12O6 + C16H24NO5HSO4 Dextrose Sinapin hydrogen sulphate

Black mustard contain up to 2% of volatile oil of which over 90% consists of allyl isothiocyanate (rather less in B. juncea). Allyl isothiocyanate is the compound in mustard which is mainly responsible for the pungent odor and taste. A crinyle isothiocyanate, which is present in white mustard having less odor, but contribute to the pungency of the taste. Both black and white mustard seed contain appreciable quantities of fixed oil (25-40%). Partial removal of the fixed oil should not necessarily be considered as serious form of adulteration as it does not affect the taste to any great extent, and further, a lower proportion of oil reduces the liability of the mustard rancidity.

2.1.3 Pasta Durum wheat semolina is considered to be the best material for making high quality pasta products. The intrinsic quality attributes of the pasta are influenced primarily by the properties of the protein and starch fraction and by factors such as the origin of the semolina (Wood et al.,

2001), and the pasta production process (mixing, extrusion and drying conditions) (Debbouz and Doetkott 1996). Starch and proteins are responsible for most desirable characteristics of cereals products. The many textures and culinary qualities of pasta are related to the interactions of these two biopolymers in the presence of water (Gu¨ler et al., 2002). The influence of protein on the properties of pasta has received much attention (Dexter et al., 1983), however, less information is available on the influence of starch on pasta quality although it is the major component of durum wheat semolina (approx. 70%) (Maache- Rezzoug, 2005). Pasta quality has been shown to be highly influenced by starch gelatinisation and protein network formation (Fardet et al., 1998 and Riva et al., 2000). During cooking, gelatinization and formation of the protein network occur simultaneously and confers the viscoelastic characteristics to the cooked product (Riva et al., 1991). Pasta colour is the first important quality characteristic that greatly influences consumer acceptance (Maache-Rezzoug, 2005). The colour indices are highly related to the genetic and agronomic characters, and to milling and pastification conditions (De Stefanis and Sgrulletta, 1990).

2.1.4 Macaroni Macaroni and similar products are produced essentially by kneading a mixture of semolina derived from Durum wheat with water into dough. The mass is then extrude through dies under pressure or rolled, and cub into various shapes and finally dried to a moisture content of about 13%. Also in1949 the former Ministry of Food (MOF) published the following description in code of practice.

1. Macaroni Tubular shape 2. Spaghetti Solid rods not less than 1/10˝ diameter 3. Vermicelli Flat or rod shape not more than 1/10˝ diameter 4. Plain noodles Flat ribbon shape, containing no egg 5. Egg noodles Flat ribbon shape, containing egg 6. Farfals Ground, granulated or shredded alimentary paste 7. Macaroni elbows Tubular elbow shape approximately between ¾˝ and 1½˝ overall length 8. Spaghetti pearls Spaghetti, short cut, to not more than 1/8˝ 9. Macaroni rings Macaroni short cut, to not more than 1/8˝ 10. Macaroni pearls Macaroni short cut, to not more than 1/8˝ and not more than 1/8˝ diameter 11. Macaroni (rice Extruded products in the shape rice shape) product 12. Fancy shapes Should be described under their normal classification, eg shell, letter …etc

2.1.5 Curry powder Curry powder is a mixture prepared by grinding the clean and wholesome spices such as coriander, mustard grains, galanga, fenugreek, caraway, chillies of capsicum, black pepper, , mace, cinnamon, cumin, dill, ginger, pimento, the ground-up leaves of an Indian plant, spices of bay leaf and cardamom (Arab Standard Specifications, 1983 and Food Standard Committee (FSC), 1970). Salt is usually present. Many different mixtures are prepared, but the food standards (curry powder) order states an overall minimum of 85% of spices and aromatic seeds and herbs. This implies that the total of added flour (pea or bean flour were frequently present at one time) and salt should not exceed 15%. The amount of lead (max. 20 ppm) should be determined. The Food Standard Committee (FSC) (1970) recommended revocation of the order. Curry

powder of widely varying composition developed by the British during their colonial rule of India. The word "Khari" from which "curry" is derived, from Southern India and refers to a sauce of any kind Grade designation and definition of quality of curry powder. (Arab Standard Specifications, 1983). General Characteristics Requirements Maximum percentage of moisture 10 Volatile oil minimum v/w on dry matter basis 0.4 ml/10g Non volatile ether extract percentage on dry matter basis 7.5 Ash insoluble in Hcl maximum percentage on dry matter basis 1.5 Crude fibre maximum percentage on dry matter basis 1.5 Curry powder usually contains four to six spices selected from fenugreek, turmeric, pepper

2.2 Heavy metals An immense interest has been focused on the toxic effect of heavy metals in the plants as most of the soils act as sink for these heavy metals. Heavy metal pollution of biosphere is increasing drastically due to industrialization and anthropogenic activities (Shraddha et al., 2004). The contamination of agricultural soils by trace metals has now become ever growing worldwide concern due to transportation of metals into the food chain. The data are well documented on the accumulation of heavy metals in the standing crops and soil, receiving wastewater from industrial regions (Barman et al., 2000); however, metal-induced alterations in these crops have not been studied. Soils can be contaminated with heavy metals from various human activities including mining, smelting and metal treatment operations, vehicle emissions and deposition or leakage of industrial wastes (Wu et al., 2004).

It is known that serious systemic health problems can develop as a result of excessive accumulation of dietary heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, and Pb in the human body (Oliver, 1997).

2.2.1 Cadmium - Cd Cadmium is a relatively toxic metal, which soon after ingestion is liable to cause acute gastritis with vomiting and diarrhea. Formerly cadmium was liable to present in foods due to the use of certain utensils and in particular cadmium plated vessels. The Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food (MAFF, 1973a) reported that cadmium in food arises mainly from natural sources, but it may be derived from any of the following causes Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO) (1972): i. Deposition from atmosphere. ii. Discharge and deposition in water and subsequent uptake in aquatic animals. iii. Enhanced uptake by plant due to the use of superphosphate fertilizers. iv. Disposal of sewage sludge on land. In a survey conducted in the S.W. of England, Taylor (1971) found up to 6 ppm in various fish products. The majority of products contained less than 1.2 ppm and the higher levels were found in fish pastes, possibly due to the presence of viscera.

2.2.1.1 Health effects of cadmium Human uptake of cadmium takes place mainly through food. Foodstuffs that are rich in cadmium can greatly increase the cadmium concentration in human bodies. Examples are liver, mushrooms, shellfish, mussels, cocoa powder and dried seaweed.

An exposure to significantly higher cadmium levels occurs when people smoke. Tobacco smoke transports cadmium into the lungs. Blood will transport it through the rest of the body where it can increase effects by potentiating cadmium that is already present from cadmium-rich food. Other high exposures can occur with people who live near hazardous waste sites or factories that release cadmium into the air and people that work in the metal refinery industry. When people breathe in cadmium it can severely damage the lungs. This may even cause death. Cadmium is first transported to the liver through the blood. There, it is bond to proteins to form complexes that are transported to the kidneys. Cadmium accumulates in kidneys, where it damages filtering mechanisms. This causes the excretion of essential proteins and from the body and further kidney damage. It takes a very long time before cadmium that has accumulated in kidneys is excreted from a human body. Other health effects that can be caused by cadmium are: - Diarrhea, stomach pains and severe vomiting. - Bone fracture. - Reproductive failure and possibly even infertility. - Damage to the central nervous system. - Damage to the immune system. - Psychological disorders. - Possibly DNA damage or cancer development.

2.2.1.2 Environmental effects of cadmium Cadmium waste streams from the industries mainly end up in soils. The causes of these waste streams are for instance zinc production, phosphate ore implication and bio industrial manure. Cadmium waste streams may also enter the air through (household) waste combustion and burning of fossil fuels. Because of regulations only little cadmium now

enters the water through disposal of wastewater from households or industries. Another important source of cadmium emission is the production of artificial phosphate fertilizers. Part of the cadmium ends up in the soil after the fertilizer is applied on farmland and the rest of the cadmium ends up in surface waters when waste from fertilizer productions is dumped by production companies. Cadmium can be transported over great distances when it is absorbed by sludge. This cadmium-rich sludge can pollute surface waters as well as soils. Cadmium strongly adsorbs to organic matter in soils. When cadmium is present in soils it can be extremely dangerous, as the uptake through food will increase. Soils that are acidified enhance the cadmium uptake by plants. This is a potential danger to the animals that are dependent upon the plants for survival. Cadmium can accumulate in their bodies, especially when they eat multiple plants. Cows may have large amounts of cadmium in their kidneys due to this. Earthworms and other essential soil organisms are extremely susceptive to cadmium poisoning. They can die at very low concentrations and this has consequences for the soil structure. When cadmium concentrations in soils are high they can influence soil processes of micro organisms and threat the whole soil ecosystem. In aquatic ecosystems cadmium can bio accumulate in mussels, oysters, shrimps, lobsters and fish. The susceptibility to cadmium can vary greatly between aquatic organisms. Salt-water organisms are known to be more resistant to cadmium poisoning than freshwater organisms. Animals eating or drinking cadmium sometimes get high blood- pressures, liver disease and nerve or brain damage.

2.2.2 Nickel Nickel is a compound that occurs in the environment only at very low levels. Humans use nickel for many different applications. The most common application of nickel is the use as an ingredient of steal and other metal products. It can be found in common metal products such as jewellery. Foodstuffs naturally contain small amounts of nickel. Chocolate and fats are known to contain severely high quantities. Nickel uptake will boost when people eat large quantities of vegetables from polluted soils. Plants are known to accumulate nickel and as a result the nickel uptake from vegetables will be eminent. Smokers have a higher nickel uptake through their lungs. Finally, nickel can be found in detergents. Humans may be exposed to nickel by breathing air, drinking water, eating food or smoking cigarettes. Skin contact with nickel-contaminated soil or water may also result in nickel exposure. In small quantities nickel is essential, but when the uptake is too high it can be a danger to human health. An uptake of too large quantities of nickel has the following consequences: - Higher chances of development of lung cancer, nose cancer, larynx cancer and prostate cancer. - Sickness and dizziness after exposure to nickel gas. - Lung embolism. - Respiratory failure. - Birth defects. - Asthma and chronic bronchitis. - Allergic reactions such as skin rashes, mainly from jewellery. - Heart disorders. Nickel fumes are respiratory irritants and may cause pneumonitis.

Exposure to nickel and its compounds may result in the development of a dermatitis known as “nickel itch” in sensitized individuals. The first symptom is usually itching, which occurs up to 7 days before skin eruption occurs. The primary skin eruption is erythematous, or follicular, which may be followed by skin ulceration. Nickel sensitivity, once acquired, appears to persist indefinitely. Carcinogenicity- Nickel and certain nickel compounds have been listed by the National Toxicology Program (NTP) as being reasonably anticipated to be carcinogens. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has listed nickel compounds within group 1 (there is sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in humans) and nickel within group 2B (agents which are possibly carcinogenic to humans).

2.2.2.1 Effects of nickel on the environment Nickel is released into the air by power plants and trash incinerators. It will than settle to the ground or fall down after reactions with raindrops. It usually takes a long time for nickel to be removed from air. Nickel can also end up in surface water when it is a part of wastewater streams. The larger part of all nickel compounds that are released to the environment will adsorb to sediment or soil particles and become immobile as a result. In acidic ground however, nickel is bound to become more mobile and it will often rinse out to the groundwater. There is not much information available on the effects of nickel upon organisms other than humans. We do know that high nickel concentrations on sandy soils can clearly damage plants and high nickel concentrations in surface waters can diminish the growth rates of algae. Microorganisms can also suffer from growth decline due to the presence of nickel, but they usually develop resistance to nickel after a while.

For animals nickel is an essential foodstuff in small amounts. But nickel is not only favorable as an essential element; it can also be dangerous when the maximum tolerable amounts are exceeded. This can cause various kinds of cancer on different sites within the bodies of animals, mainly of those that live near refineries. Nickel is not known to accumulate in plants or animals. As a result nickel will not bio magnify up the food chain.

2.2.3 Lead Limits for lead are prescribed in the lead in Food Regulations (1961). Foods must comply with the general limit of 2ppm. Fish and fish products containing natural lead in excess of the general limits are however exempted from having to comply with regulation. The cumulative poison lead is probably the most serious metallic contamination of food. Codex Alimentarius give the tolerable weekly intake for man as 0.05 mg/kg body weight. Small amounts of lead occur in many foods naturally, but the principle source of contamination is the use of the metal and its alloys and compounds for processing materials (e.g. solders, glazes, enamels, wrapping materials and piping) and for insecticides. Alcoholic drinks and soft water are especially liable to pick up lead from piping which convey them. The presence of lead in foods is surveyed in the reports of MAFF (1972) and FAO/WHO (1972).

2.3 Minerals 2.3.1 Calcium Calcium can be determined by precipitation as the oxalate. The precipitate is dissolved in approx. M sulphuric acid and the resultant solution titrated with permanganate. Precipitation fro hot ammoniacal solution yields a coarse-grained more readily filtered precipitate. With

foodstuffs, however, it is advisable to use a solution made faintly acid with acetic acid prior to the addition of ammonium oxalate in order to prevent interference due to phosphates (Pearson, 1973). Many workers have described methods involving titration of the calcium in the ash using EDTA. Smaller amounts can be determined calorimetrically sing glyoxal- bis(2-hydroxyanil) (Potter and Long, 1966), turbidimetrically involving production of the oxalate (Hunter and Hall, 1953), by atomic absorption spectrophotometry or flame photometry. Due to the comparatively high amount present in milk, the calcium figure is often use for assessing the MSNF(Milk Solid Non Fat) content in products such as ice-cream, bread and .

2.4 Anti nutritional factors 2.4.1 Tannin Tannin are phenolic compounds and interfere with iron absorption through a complex formation with iron when it is in the gastrointestinal lumen which decreases the bioavailability of iron . These is an important difference in the way in which the phenolic compounds interact with different hydroxylation patterns (gallic acid , catechin , chlorogenic acid ) and the effect on iron absorption (Brune,M.Rossander, L.Hallberq,L. (1989). Products containing chestnut tannins included at low dosages (0.15- 0.2%) can improve wellbeing (Muller-Harvey, I. and McAllan A.B. (1992).

CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials The materials of this study were tomato ketchup, HP sauce, Piccalili sauce, Pasta sauce, curry powder, mustard powder, andomi noodles, potato chips .These materials were collected from supermarket in khartoum.

3.2 Methods 3.2.1 Determination of moisture content - Moisture content of andomi noodles and potato chips was determined by air –oven method according to AOAC (1990). Five grams of previously prepared sample were weighed into a flat-bottomed metal or glass dish. The sample was dried in the oven at specified temperature (103°C) for 4 hours. The dish containing the dried sample was cooled in a desicator till it reaches room temperature and weighed. The dish was transferred to the oven, and the sample was dried again for 2 hours (at 103°C ), and then cooled and are weighed. The percentage of moisture content was calculated using the following equation:

W2-W3 Moisture, % w/w = ------x 100

W2 - W1 Where: W1 = weight of empty dish (with or without lid, sand and cover). W2= weight of the sample + dish.

W3= weight of the dried sample + dish.

- Moisture content of ketchup, sauces, curry powder, mustard powder was determined by infra- red method according to AOAC (1990). The drying programme of the infra-red balance was set. Five grams of the sample were weighed into the cleaned pan of the balance and spread evenly on the pan. The lid was closed to direct the infra-red beam towards the sample. The reading was recorded at the end of the cycle.

3.2.2 Determination of total ash content Ash content of tomato ketchup, HP sauce, Piccalili sauce, Pasta sauce , curry powder, mustard powder, andomi noodles , potato chips was determined according to AOAC (1990) method .A clean silica crucible/dish was dried in a muffle furnace at 450 + 20°C for an hour, transferred to a desicator, cooled to room temperature. The dish then was weighed to the nearest 0.1 mg in an analytical balance. Five grams of sample were weighed into the dish. The dish was transferred to a muffle furnace and the temperature of furnace was raised to 450oC. The dish was transfered to the muffle furnace and ashed at 450oC for 4 to 6 hours. When the ash is carbon-free, the dish was transferred to the dessicator and weighed immediately. The percentage of Total ash content was calculated using the following equation: Total Ash, %w/w = W3 - W1 X100 ------W2 - W1

Where: W1 = weight of empty silica dish.

W2 = weight of silica dish + sample. W3 = weight of silica dish + ash.

3.2.3 Determination of fat content Fat content of tomato ketchup, HP sauce, Piccalili sauce, Pasta sauce was determined by Werner –schmidt method according to AOAC (1990). Ten grams of sample were weighed into the tube, 10 ml of conc. hydrochloric acid were added and immersed in boiling water-bath till the mixture turned brown or violet in colour and the fat was seen to collect on the surface. The tube was cooled rapidly, extracted the fat by shaking with 30 ml of mixed ethers (1:1). The layers were allowed to separate, ether layer transfered into a weighed evaporating dish. Separation is assisted by the addition of alcohol. The extraction was repeated three times with 30 ml aliquots of solvent and distilled off the solvent. The dish was dried in an air-oven maintained at 103 + 2oC, cooled in a desiccators and weighed. Fat content of curry powder, mustard powder, potato chips and andomi was determined by soxhlet method according to AOAC (1990).Ten grams of sample were weighed into an extraction thimble, placed the thimble in the soxhlet middle piece. Flat bottom flask of the apparatus with a few pumice stones was weighed, and 50 ml of N- hexan were poured and refluxed for 6 hours. The solvent was removed by distillation in the flask. The residue was evaporated on a boiling water-bath and dried in oven at 103 + 2oC till the loss in weight between two successive weightings were less than 2 mg. The crude fat content of sample was calculated from the difference of weights of flask and the weight of sample.

The percentage of Fat content was calculated using the following equation:

Fat, % w/w = W2-W1x 100 ------W

Where: W2 = Weight of dish/flask with fat in grams. W1 = Weight of dish without the fat/empty flask in grams. W = Weight of material in grams taken for test.

3.2.4 Determination of protein content Protein content of tomato ketchup, HP sauce, Piccalili sauce, Pasta sauce, curry powder, mustard powder, andomi noodles and potato chips was determined according to AOAC (1990) methods. One gram of sample was weighed and transfered into a digestion flask. 1.0 g of catalyst mixture and 10 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid were added. The flask was heated on the block digester until the liquid become clear and continued heating for another 30 min. A blank was digested, omitting the sample. The pH was calculated of end point of the Buchi distillation system. The blank value was determined by connecting the blank digestion flask to the Buchi distillation unit which is pre- programmed to disperse 20 mL of distilled water and 40 mL of NaOH. The ammonia evolved was received in 10 ml boric acid solution contained in a conical flask attached to the receiving end. The trapped ammonia was titrated against 0.02 Hcl using a universal indicator (methyle red+ bromocresol green).

The percentage of Protein content was calculated using the following equation: Nitrogen % = (ml Hcl( sample titre) – ml Hcl( blank) x0.02 x 14 x100 Weight of sample x1000

Protein %=N% X general factor (6.25).

3.2.5 Determination of crude fiber Content Crude fiber content of tomato ketchup, HP sauce, Piccalili sauce, Pasta sauce, curry powder, mustard powder, andomi noodles and potato chips was determined according to AOAC (1990) methods. Two grams of sample were weighed into a beaker and extracted with diethyl ether by stirring, settling and decanting three times. The sample was transfered carefully with 200 ml of nearly boiling sulphuric acid solution and immediately connected the condenser and refluxed. Boiling should start within 1 min. The flask was rotated frequently, boiled for 30 min. The flask was removed, cooled under tap water and the contents were filtered immediately through linen cloth in a fluted funnel. The residue was washed with boiling water until washings are acid-free. The residue was transfered back into the flask with 200 ml of boiling sodium hydroxide solution boiled for 30 min, cooled under tap water and filtered through a gooch crucible. The residue was washed thoroughly with hot water until the filtrate is free of alkali. Then the residue was washed with about 15 ml of ether followed by alcohol. The gooch crucible was dried to constant weight at 110oC, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The crucible was placed in a muffle furnace at 600oC and ignited till carbon-free. Cooled in desiccator and weighed again.

The percentage of crude fibre content was calculated using the following equation:

Crude Fibre, % w/w = W1 - W2x 100 ------W Where: W1 = Weight of gooch + residue after drying at 105’C W2 = Weight of gooch + ash after ignition at 600’C W = Weight of sample.

3.2.6 Determination of energy value of foods Energy value was determined according to A.O.A.C,(1990) Calorific value of foods is the amount of energy in K. Calories or K. Joules the food can give when determined in a bomb calorimeter. The actual values, obtained by its digestion in the human system, slightly differ from the values determined by bomb calorimeter. For all practical purposes it is calculated from the amount of fat, protein and carbohydrates present in the food. For the purpose of determination of calorific value, carbohydrates are usually determined by difference as follows: Carbohydrates, % w/w = 100 - (Moisture % + Fat % + ash% + Protein % + crude fiber %) A) Fat % x 9 =______K.Cal. B) Protein % x 4 =______K.Cal. C) Carbohydrates % x 4 =______K.Cal. Energy value = (A +B + C) =______K.Cal.

3.2.7 Determination of minerals in foods -Determination of Calcium - Calcium of curry powder, mustard powder , andomi noodles and potato chips was determined by AAS according to AOAC (1990).Five grams of sample were weighted into a clean dry silica crucible, heated on a hot plate to completely char the sample. The crucible was placed in a muffle furnace maintained at 450 oC and allowed to ash for 4 -6 hrs. The crucible was removed from muffle and placed in a desiccator and cooled to room temperature. The crucible was placed in a desiccator and allowed to cool., the sample was then dried on a hot plate and returned the crucible to muffle furnace and allowed to ash. The crucible was cooled in a desiccator, 5 mL of deionised water, 5 mL of conc. hydrochloric acid were added, heated on a water-bath to dissolve all the minerals and brought to near dryness. Another 5 mL each of water and hydrochloric acid were added, warmed to dissolve, transfered quantitatively into a 50 mL volumetric flask using deionised water and made up to volume. Sample was diluted to get the mineral into the linear concentration range of instrument using deionised water.

- Calcium of tomato ketchup, HP sauce, picalili sauce and pasta sauce was determined by AAS according to AOAC (1990). 20 g. of sample were weighted into a 250 mL conical flask, 10 mL nitric acid was added and allowed for digestion for about 1 hr. at room temperature. 10 mL sulphuric acid were added and slowly digested on a hot plate till all the organic matter is destroyed. When sample tends to turn black, 1-2 mL of nitric acid was added to assist oxidation. The sample was cooled and made up to 50 mL in a volumetric flask.

Conc. element, ppm = Cs x D.F. x V W Where: Cs = Concentration (ug/mL) of element in the working sample solution. D.F. = Dilution factor, if any. V = Sample volume initially W = Weight of sample in grams.

-Determination of Phosphorus in foods Phosphorous content was determined colorimetrically according to the A.O.A.C.(1970) Vanado –molybdate method using Ultra-violet- 120-02 Spectrophotometer,and the following equation: P% = RX D.FX100: 106XWts Where: R = concentration in ppm corresponding to the optical density D.F. = dilution factor. Wt.s = weight of sample. 3.2.8 Determination of heavy metal contaminants in foods Heavy metals were determined by AAS according to AOAC (1990).

Equipment and materials Equipment: ƒ Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer, Varian SpectrAA-20 with GTA-96 Graphite Tube Atomizer and VGA-76 Vapour Generation Accessory or equiv.

ƒ Digestion bomb, Parr Instrument Co., USA or Equiv. or Digestion vessel for microwave digestor. ƒ Analytical balance ƒ Laboratory blender ƒ Volumetric flasks, 25, 50 and 100 mL cap. A-grade/calibrated. ƒ Pipettes, 1, 2, 5 and 10 mL cap. A-grade/calibrated. ƒ Conical flasks, 250 mL cap. ƒ Funnels ƒ Crucibles (Silica) ƒ Standard Volumetric Flask (25, 50 ml, Grade A). Reagents: ƒ Hydrochloric, Nitric and Sulphuric acids, Aristar grade or equiv. ƒ Sodium borohydrate, A.R. grade, BDH or equiv., 0.6% in 0.5% NaOH and 10% KI. ƒ Stannous chloride, A.R. Grade, BDH or equiv., 25% in 20% Hcl. ƒ Sodium hydroxide, A.R. Grade, BDH or equiv. ƒ Potassium iodide, A.R. Grade, BDH or equiv. ƒ Orthophosphoric Acid modifier (5000 ppm): A.R., RDH or equiv. ƒ Standard solutions: ƒ Standard solutions (NIST, 10000 ppm): Lead (3128), Cadmium (3108). - Materials (tomato ketchup, , HP sauce, Piccalili sauce, Pasta sauce , curry powder, mustard powder , andomi noodles , potato chips) . - Determination Dry ashing: about 5-10 grams of a sample were weighed in a clean silica crucible. The sample was chared on a hot plate, placed the crucible in a muffle furnace controlled at <450°C for 4-6 hrs. The crucible was cooled in a desiccator .Ash was dissolved in 5 mL of nitric acid, made up to volume in a 50 mL volumetric flask.

Determination of lead and cadmium using Graphite Furnace Atomizer: The instrument was set up following the steps given in operation. Instrument Parameters Lead Cadmium Measurement mode Peak Area Peak Area Wavelength (nm) 283.3 228.8 Slit width (nm) 0.5 0.5 No. of replicates 2 2 The amount of element in the volume of sample injected was determined, Used Orthophosphoric acid modifier (5 ml). -Expression of results Lead and cadmium: Injection volume of sample to GTA: 10 uL Volume made up: 50 mL Instrument reading (ng): R Weight of sample, g: W Conc. in sample (ppm) = R x 5 W

3.2.9 Determination of Tannins content Tannin content was determined according to Price et al.(1978) technigue using WPA S101 D Spectrophotometer No.292 and U.V-120- 02 spectrophotometer . Tannin concentration was expressed as catechin equivalent (C. E) as follows: C.E% = C x 10 x100 200 Where: C = concentration corresponding to the optical density. 10 = volume of extract . 200 = sample weight (mg).

3.2.10 Determination of phytic acid content For Phytic acid determination the method of wheeler and Ferrel (1971) was applied with slight modification using WPA S101D spectrophotometer No. 292 and Ultra – violet – 120-02 spectrophotometer . Calculation was realized by the formula: 6x A x mean K x 20 x 10 x 50 x 100 = mgP/100g sample 4 1000 x 2 Where : A = optical density K = concentration/A

3.2.11Determination of polyphenol Polyphenolic in samples were estimated using the Prussian Blue assay m, as described by Price and Butler (1977). Ground sample (60mg) was extracted with 3 ml absolute methanol in a test tube, by constant shaking for one minute, then poured into a filter paper. The tube was quickly rinsed with an additional 3 ml of methanol and the contents poured at once into the filter paper. The filtrate was diluted to 50 ml with distil water , mixed with 3ml 0.1 M FeCL3 in 0.1 N HCL for 3 minutes , followed by the timed addition of 3 ml 0.008 MK3Fe (CN)6. The absorption was read after 10 minutes at 720 nm on spectrophotometer. In all cases, tannic acid was used as reference standard.

3.2.12 Determination of food colours Synthetic food colours of tomato ketchup, HP sauce, Piccalili sauce, Pasta sauce, curry powder, mustard powder, andomi noodles and

potato chips was determined by paper chromatography according to A.O.A.C (1990). -Equipment and materials ƒ Water bath ƒ Hot plate ƒ Beakers, 25, 100, 250 mL cap. ƒ Separatory funnels, 250, 500 mL cap. ƒ Filter funnels ƒ Chromatographic tubes 15 x 150 mm ƒ Chromatography tank with cover lid. ƒ Pure cotton wool, 20-30 cm strips ƒ Chromatographic Paper, Whatman 1 and 3 or equiv. ƒ Capillary tubes ƒ Acetic acid, A.R. grade ƒ Ammonia, A.R., 0.88 Sp. Gr. ƒ n-Butanol and isobutyl alcohol, A.R. grade ƒ Polyamide powder ƒ Alumina, acidic ƒ Methanol ƒ Sodium Hydroxide ƒ Coal-tar food colour standards: Prepare 0.1 % solutions of permitted colours in water separately. ƒ Sodium Chloride ƒ Solvents for Chromatography: 2% Trisodium citrate in 5% Ammonia (0.88) solution. 50 mL of test sample solution were acidified with 2 ml of acetic acid and boiled with a strip of wool (Prepare pure white cotton wool, 20 cm bits, boiling in dilute Sodium Hydroxide and washed with water to remove NaoH) until most of the colour is taken up by the wool. The wool

was washed thoroughly with water. The coloured wool was boiled with 1% ammonia solution in a 25 mL beaker to strip the colour into the solution. The coloured solution was concentrated to about 1 mL and used for spotting on paper.100 mL solution 11(2% Trisodium citrate in 5% ammonia (0.88) was poured into a cylindrical chromatography tank. Closed with lid and allowed time for the space above the solvent in the tank to get saturated with the solvent vapours. A sheet of chromatographic paper (16 cm x 30 cm) was made to spot the samples and standards about 1.5 cm apart). Astraight line 1.5 cm was drown from the base. The colours were spotted carefully using a capillary tube to get small round spots and label them using a lead pencil according to the samples and standards and allowed to dry. The paper was fold into a cylindrical form and tied the edges with a thread taking care not to allow the edges to touch. The paper was inserted carefully in the tank. (The solvent level should be such that the spotted colours won’t be immersed in it). The solvent was allowed to ascend till three fourths of the paper, carrying the colours along. The paper was removed from the chromatography tank and allowed it to air dry. The Rf values were compared with that of the standards to identify them. 3.2.13 Determination of pH pH was determined according to A.O.A.C, (1970). The pH meter was calibrated with a buffer solution of pH value 4.0 (Ruck 1963). Buffers were prepared using potassium hydrogen phathalate according to the A.O.A.C, (1970) by dissolving 128 g in 500 ml distilled water. pH values were determined at room temperature at about 27Oc.

3.2.14 Determination of titerable acidity

The total titerable acidity was determined according to method described by A.O.A.C, (1984) as follows: 1. Five gms of sample were taken in a beaker. 2. The sample was extracted continuously with hot water (85C) until reaching 100 ml of volume of extract. 3. The extract was cooled at room temperature. 4. The volume was made up to 500 ml in volumetric flask 5. The sample was filtered using whatman (No.4) filter paper. 6. About 50 ml of prerared sample was taken in volumetric flask and were titrated against 0.1N sodium hydroxide (NaOH) using Phenol phathalein(0.5%) as indicator. 7. The end point of titerable acidity was detected by changing color into violet to brownish. 8. Titerable acidity was measured acetic acid equivalent and given as percentage. The percentage of Total acidity was calculated using the following equation: Total acidity = Titer (ml) x N(NaOH)x dilution x Equivalent weight x100 / weight of sample taken x Volume taken x 1000

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Chemical Analysis 4.1.1 Proximate composition The proximate composition of different imported food products is shown in Table 4.1. There were a highly significant (p<0.01) differences in the protein, fat, fibre, ash, dry matter, carbohydrates and energy. The curry powder contained a significantly (p<0.05) higher amount of crude protein than the values obtained for mustard powder, potato chips, andomi noodles, tomato ketchup, pasta sauce, and HP sauce. The proximate analysis indicated that mustard powder is significantly (p<0.05) rich in fat compared to carry powder, potato chips, andomi noodles, pasta sauce, piccalilli sauce, tomato ketchup and HP sauce. It was observed that mustard powder had significantly (p<0.05) higher fibre compared to curry powder and potato chips. On the other hand, both tomato ketchup and HP sauce had similar (p>0.05) fibre, but none the less contained significantly (p<0.05) lesser fibre than andomi noodles, piccalilli and pasta sauces. The ash content of curry powder in the present study was significantly (p<0.05) higher than that reported for mustard powder and piccalilli sauce. However, it was significantly (p<0.05) higher in HP sauce and pasta sauce compared to tomato ketchup and andomi noodles. Dry matter content of potato chips was significantly (p<0.05) higher than that of mustard powder and curry powder. However, andomi noodles dry matter was significantly (p<0.05) higher compared to HP sauce, pasta sauce, tomato ketchup and piccalilli sauce. HP sauce had significantly (p<0.05) higher carbohydrates compared to both tomato ketchup and andomi noodles. Carbohydrates of pasta sauce was significantly (p<0.05) higher compared to potato chips, piccalilli sauce,

mustard powder and curry powder. Concerning energy of the present food products, mustard powder had significantly (p<0.05) higher calories compared to andomi noodles, potato chips, pasta sauce, tomato ketchup, HP sauce, curry powder and piccalilli sauce. The protein content of tomato ketchup, HP sauce, Piccalili sauce and Pasta sauce was 3.31, 1.13, 1.67 and 2.31 %, respectively which was lower than that proposed by Codex Standards (13 %) (Codex Standard 57-1972, Revision 2007, Codex Standard 248-2005 and Codex Standard 193-1995, Revision 2007).However the protein in the label of tomato ketchup and sauces was lower (1%) than that obtained in this study. The ash content of tomato ketchup, HP sauce, Piccalili sauce and Pasta sauce was 0.27 , 2.29 , 3.9 and 2.43 % respectively which was in the range that proposed by codex standards( 4% max) (Codex Standard 57-1972, Revision 2007, Codex Standard 248-2005 and Codex Standard 193-1995, Revision 2007). Dry matter and crude fibre of mustard were 96.42 and 10.69 % respectively and were higher compared to Codex values (90 and 1.4- 4.2%, respectively), however, the crude fiber in the label of mustard powder (10.7%). Ash content and fat content of mustard powder were 4.31 and 32.04 % respectively and were in the range specified by Codex (3.7-4.5 and 24-38.8%, respectively) (Codex Standard 193-1995, Revision 2007 and Arab Industrial and Mining Development Organization 625-2002). However, the fat content in the label of mustard powder (32.2%). The protein content of andomi noodles was 4.05% which was lower than that proposed by codex standards (10.5% min)( Codex Standard 178 – 1991 rivision 1995).However in the label of the sample was (3.3%).

The fat content of andomi noodles was 7.15% which was in the range that proposed by codex standards (20 % max) however in the label of sample was (6%). The ash and crude fiber of curry powder were 30.8 , 9.77% respectively which were higher than that proposed by Arab Industrial and Mining Development Organization 503- 1983 (6.0- 12.0 % and 1.5%max respectively). The protein content of potato chips was differed between result in this study (4.3%) and in the label (4%). The fat content in potato chips was 9.54% which was in the range that proposed by codex standards (35.0 max), however in the label of sample was (9%). The crude fiber in potato chips was 5.43% which was higher compared to Codex values (1.4- 4.2%), however in the label of sample was (5%).

4.1.2 Minerals composition Minerals composition (mg/100g) of imported food products is given in Table 4.2. Andomi noodles had significantly (p<0.05) lowest concentrations of Pb compared to the other food products. Furthermore, both tomato ketchup and piccalilli were significantly (p>0.05) lower in Pb than pasta sauce, mustard powder, HP sauce, carry powder and potato chips. Regarding Cd concentration, tomato ketchup and piccalilli considered to have a significantly (p<0.05) lowest values compared to andomi noodles, carry powder, HP sauce, potato chips pasta sauce, mustard powder. Nickel content in tomato ketchup and pasta sauce was significantly (p<0.05) higher than that in Andomi noodles, mustard powder, HP sauce and potato chips and significantly (p<0.05) lower than that in piccalilli and carry powder.

The lead residues of ketchup, HP sauce, piccalilli sauce and pasta sauce were 0.103, 0.156, 0.104, and 0.112 respectively which was in the range specified by Codex standards (1.0ppm max). Codex Standard 248- 2005 and Codex Standard 193-1995, Revision 2007). The cadmium residues of ketchup, HP sauce, piccalilli sauce and pasta sauce were 0.011, 0.019, 0.011, and 0.022 respectively which was in the range specified by Codex standards (0.05ppm max). Codex Standard 248-2005 and Codex Standard 193-1995, Revision 2007). The lead and cadmium residues in mustard powder were 0.146 and 0.024mg/100g which were in the range that proposed by codex standards (0.5 and 0.1ppm max). (Codex Standard 193-1995, Revision 2007). Phosphorous in mustard powder was12.9mg/100g which was higher than that proposed by codex standards (1.51-2.02ppm). The lead and cadmium residues in curry powder were 0.171 and 0.019 mg/100g which were in the range that proposed by codex standards (10 and 0.1ppm). (Codex Standard 193-1995, Revision 2007). Lead and Cadmium of Potato chips were 0.178, 0.02 mg/100g respectively which were in the range specified by Codex standard (0.5 and 0.1ppm ) Codex Standard 193-1995, Revision 2007. Lead and Cadmium of Andomi noodles were 0.066 and 0.018mg/100g which were in the range specified by Codex standard (0.2 and 0.1ppm, respectively) Codex Standard 193-1995, Revision 2007. Calcium and phosphorus were significantly (p<0.01) different for imported food products under test. The Ca content of potato chips and mustard powder was significantly (p<0.05) highest compared to curry powder, tomato ketchup, pasta sauce, piccalilli, HP sauce and andomi noodles. On the other hand P content of was significantly highest for mustard powder, followed by potato chips, piccalilli, tomato ketchup, curry powder, Andomi noodles HP sauce and pasta sauce.

Phosphorous of mustard powder was 12.909mg/100g which was higher compared to Codex range (1.51-2.02 ppm) Codex Standard 193- 1995, Revision 2007.

4.1.3 Anti nutritional factors Anti nutritional factors of different imported food products are given in Table 4.3. It was significantly (p<0.01) affected by the types of imported food.

4.2 Physical properties 4.2.1 pH and acidity as acetic acid pH of the different imported food products is presented in Fig.4.1. Andomi noodles pH was significantly (p<0.05) higher compared to curry powder, mustard powder, pasta sauce, HP sauce and tomato ketchup. However, values of pH were similar (p>0.05) in piccalilli and potato chips and both were considered to be the lowest ones. Fig. 4.2. depicts the acidity as acetic acid of the different imported food products. The highest values were reported for piccalilli sauce, HP sauce, mustard powder, tomato ketchup, curry powder, pasta sauce, potato chips and andomi noodles. pH and acidity as acitic acid of all samples were in the limit that proposed by codex.

4.2.2 Colour The results given in Table 4.4 indicated that the different imported food products had natural colours (permitted colours).

Table 4.1. Proximate composition of different imported food products. Imported food products Parameters Protein% Fat% Fibre% Ash% Dry matter % Carbohydrates% Energy (calorie) Spices and condiments e g e d f b e Tomato Ketchup 3.31 +0.11 1.57 +04 1.05 +0.05 0.27 +0.01 88.39 +0.07 82.20 +0.16 356.14 +0.60 HP sauce 1.13 h+0.15 0.48 h+0.04 1.31 e+0.01 2.29 c +0.02 91.82d+0.05 86.60 a+0.15 355.22 e+0.33

Piccalilli 1.67 g+0.15 2.53 f+0.06 2.11 d+0.17 3.91 b +0.09 75.32g+0.05 65.10e+0.19 289.87 g+1.01

Pasta sauce 2.31 f+0.11 3.01 e+0.05 1.88d+0.04 2.43 c +0.16 90.52e+0.09 80.90 c+0.29 359.92 d +0.81

Mustard powder 31.97b+0.23 32.04 a+0.11 10.69 a+0.11 4.31 b+0.03 96.42b+0.03 17.41 f+0.43 485.91 a+0.22

Curry powder 33.67 a +0.35 22.31 b+0.39 9.77 b +0.25 30.8 a +1.82 96.39b +0.01 1.07 g +1.21 339.78 f+0.69

Snacks potato chips 4.3 c +0.36 9.54 c+0.29 5.43 c +0.42 4.54b+0.15 97.20a+0.01 73.39 d +0.27 396.62 c+3.55

d d d d c b b Andomi noodles 4.05 +0.13 7.15 +0.06 2.01 +0.08 1.00 +0.06 96.03 +0.03 81.81 +0.19 407.83 +0.63 + SEM 0.13 0.10 0.11 0.38 0.03 0.28 0.81 Values are means (+SD) of 3 replicates per treatment. abcdefghMeans with different superscripts in the same row were significantly different (P≤ 0.05). SEM: Standard error of the means from ANOVA d.f 12.

Table 4.2. Minerals composition (Mg/100g) of imported food

Samples Parameters Spices and condiments Pb Cd Ni Ca P Tomato Ketchup 0.103 f +0.00 0.011 g+0.00 0.162 c+0.01 0.742 c+0.01 0.970 c+0.02 HP sauce 0.156c+0.01 0.019 d+0.00 0.127 f+0.01 0.629 d+0.00 0.190 f+0.00 Piccalilli 0.104 f +0.00 0.011 g+0.00 0.173 b+0.01 0.624 d+0.00 0.912 c+0.01 Pasta sauce 0.112 e +0.01 0.022 b+0.00 0.162 c+0.01 0.734 c+0.01 0.211 f+0.02 Mustard powder 0.146d+0.02 0.024 a+0.00 0.138 e+0.01 0.873 a+0.03 12.909 a+0.01 Curry powder 0.171 b+0.01 0.019 e+0.00 0.299 a+0.01 0.820 b+0.01 0.505 d+0.02 Snacks potato chips 0.178 a +0.01 0.020 c+0.00 0.115 g+0.01 0.873 a+0.03 4.273 b+0.11 Andomi noodles 0.066 g +0.01 0.018 f+0.00 0.150 d+0.00 0.364 e+0.01 0.397 e+0.00 + SEM 0.00047 0.00003 0.00031 0.0103 0.0239 Values are means (+SD) of 3 replicates per treatment. abcdefgMeans with different superscripts in the same row were significantly different (P≤ 0.05). SEM: Standard error of the means from ANOVA d.f 16.

Table 4.3 Anti nutritional Factors of imported food additives.

Samples Tannin% Phytic acid% Poly phenol % Spices and condiments

Tomato ketchup 0.340a+0.01 0.150 e+0.01 0.742 c +

HP sauces 0.037 d+0.01 0.693 b 0.00 0.629 d +

Piccalili sauces 0.042 d+0.00 0.734 ab+0.00 0.624 d +

Pasta sauces 0.348 a+0.01 0.150 e +0.01 0.734 c +

Mustard powder 0.340 a+0.01 0.788 a+0.03 0.873 a+

Curry powder 0.237 c +0.00 0.174 e +0.01 0.820 b + Snacks

Potato chips 0.267 b +0.03 0.323 d +0.03 0.873 a +

Andomi noodles 0.239 c+0.00 0.492 c+0.01 0.364 e + + SEM 0.0072 0.0199 0.02 Values are means (+SD) of 3 replicates per treatment. abcdefgMeans with different superscripts in the same row were significantly different (P≤ 0.05). SEM: Standard error of the means from ANOVA d.f 16.

Table 4.4. Colours of samples. Samples Name of colour E number Spices and condiments Tomato ketchup Lycopene E 160d Caramel E150 HP sauces Lycopene E 160d Caramel E150 Piccalili sauces Caramel E150 Curcumin E100 Pasta sauces Lycopene E160d Caramel E150 Mustard powder Curcumin E100 Curry powder Curcumin E100 Snacks Potato chips Beta carotene E160a(ii) Andomi noodles Beta carotene E160a(ii)

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION When the results in this study were compared with the limits proposed by codex standards, it was found that the protein of ketchup, HP sauce, piccalilli sauce and pasta sauce were lower than that proposed by Codex Standards. Ash content of ketchup, HP sauce, piccalilli sauce and pasta sauce were in range that proposed by Codex Standards. Dry matter and crude fiber of mustard were higher compared to Codex values; however, ash and fat of mustard powder were in the range specified by Codex standards. The lead residue of ketchup, HP sauce, piccalilli sauce and pasta sauce were in the range specified by Codex standards. The cadmium residues of ketchup, HP sauce, piccalilli sauce and pasta sauce were in the specified by Codex standards. The colours of Tomato ketchup, HP sauce, pasta sauce, piccalilli sauce, curry powder, mustard powder, andomi noodles and potato chips were natural colours that proposed by codex standards. pH and acidity acetic acid for all samples were in the limits proposed by codex standards.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS On the basis of the results, it is recommend that: 1. Microbiological contaminants and heavy metals in food produced locally should be determined. 2. Food industry plant should be obliged to include the minerals in the labels.

3. These commodities are found very widely in local markets and they are preferred by children who are a vulnerable group so it is recommended that Sudanese Standard and metrology Organization to formulate Sudanese standards for these commodities to protect the health of children.

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Appendix (1) Tomato Ketchup

Appendix (2) Andomi noodles

Appendix (3) HP sauce

Appendix (4) Mustard powder

Appendix (5) curry powder C

Appendix (6) Potato chips