HAOL, Núm. 19 (Primavera, 2009), 7-27 ISSN 1696-2060

WARS, AND THE FIRST REAL WORLD

Petri Minkkinen University of Helsinki, Finland. E-mail: [email protected]

Recibido: 3 Marzo 2009 / Revisado: 1 Abril 2009 / Aceptado: 15 Abril 2009 / Publicación Online: 15 Junio 2009

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to Eurocentric actors as the main protagonists of engage in a conceptual discussion for a broader these global rules and thus global power- publication on “The Cycles of , relations, especially in an emerging situation in and Revolution”. It departs from a which also material factors support their presupposition that our common world is possibilities and capabilities to set these rules.1 experiencing a transition from a broad Another presupposition is that this global Eurocentric historical context into a non- transition is an interactive process of world level Eurocentric broad historical context. It proceeds processes and transformations and by a historical discussion on the concepts related and power-political transitions at macro- to , reforms and revolutions and explains regional, national and local levels. A related why, in the context of the actual phase of global presupposition is that, as was the case of transition and the First Real World War, it is, Mexico’s revolution of 1910 which had national, despite earlier discussions on revolutions and macro-regional and global transformative world revolutions, meaningful to suggest that implications, the new long revolutionary process our common world is experiencing a First Real in Mexico has produced, is producing and will World Revolution. produce similar implications but which take Keywords: Broad Eurocentric historical context, place in a different world historical situation. non-Eurocentric broad historical context, the These latter transformations are taking place in First Real World War, a First Real World the context of the First Real World War Revolution, War, Reform, Revolution. (FRWW) and in a situation, in which a genuine ______global level power-political transition in taking place. Therefore, it is argued in this article that INTRODUCTION whereas the earlier revolutionary processes and their outcomes during this 500+ broad historical his article, the purpose of which is to be a context, including the so-called world preliminary conceptual and thematic revolutions, took place within the parameters of Tdiscussion for a broader publication on this broad Eurocentric historical context, the “The Cycles of Imperialism, War and actual global transformative process or Revolution”, departs from a presupposition that revolution will be the First Real World our common world is experiencing a transition Revolution (FRWR), both in terms of its world- from a broad Eurocentric historical context into wide scope and due to its outcome, that is, a a non-Eurocentric broad historical context, transition to a non-Eurocentric broad historical which in effective terms means that we are context.2 departing from a 500+ years period during which Eurocentric actors, social forces and 1. THREE EUROCENTRIC CIVIL WARS powers have been in a position to set the AND THE FIRST REAL WORLD WAR defining rules of global political, economic and power-political affairs, among other things. We I have suggested that the war declared by the are thus witnessing a major transition which is first Bush administration should be understood about to produce a revolutionary outcome at the as the First Real World War (FRWW). This global level, in a sense that the non-Eurocentric claim is based on the view that the great wars of actors, social forces and powers will replace the 20th century, which have in the Eurocentric view

© Historia Actual Online 2009 7 Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution Petri Minkkinen of history and world been conceived as I and II the wars of 1914-1918 and 1939-1945, which he World Wars and the Cold War, were in fact I, II, sees also as “one long ‘thirty years war from and III Eurocentric Civil Wars of 20th century (I, 1914-1945”, were a culmination of the rivalry II, III ECCW). To begin with, it is useful to between the and Germany. The remember that many commentators conceived US had become stronger in the world-system the 1914-1918 war simply as the Great War and since “at least the 1870s” and the US had thinkers such as John Maynard Keynes become increasingly important competitor to the understood this war as the European Civil War.3 British on the world market, and the principal As was the case of this war, also in the wars of rival of the US was Germany.6 After Germany 1939-1945 and 1947-1991 (or beyond 1991), the had been defeated and had destroyed main protagonists were European or more itself in the context of the II ECCW, the US broadly Eurocentric countries and social forces. emerged as the hegemonic power. At that time Moreover, all these wars or conflicts were the relations between revolutionary Mexico and violent struggles between the Eurocentric the United States had reached a relatively stable countries and their representatives whom phase7 and the , which had been a struggled on behalf of their version of Modern temporary strategic ally of the US and the Allied Eurocentric economic growth forces, and which had been allowed to weaken (MEEGI) against the representatives of itself in its war against the Third Reich, became competing but in this sense similar Eurocentric the principal enemy of the western variety of economic growth . This is the case of and the principal competitor in the the US, the Great Britain and France as well as struggle between competing MEEGI’s. Even if -Soviet Union and Germany in all their China after its 1949 revolution and Cuba after variants of politico-economic organization, its 1959 revolution, together with the including the Third Reich, even if the national decolonization process, offered at least partially socialistic ideology of the latter was quite differing competing alternative models, which skilfully devised to draw influence from the however remained within the sphere of MEEGI, glorified and mystified past. That was also the despite the endogenous elements they contained, case of Japan, the empire of Honorary Whites, the Soviet Union remained the principal which had during the 19th century opted for competitor as an alternative model of MEEGI. MEEGI for defensive reasons (but which This competition materialized – in various developed into imperialist practices as well), and countries of varying level of “development” in revolutionary China, which strived for economic different parts of the world – as economic and growth also after its dissociation from the military aid, military and other coups, support Eurocentric Soviet and Stalinist model(s) and for “our” dictators, repression of peoples and the chinozation of its national development opposition in competing camps (as well as that strategy.4 Especially in relation to the III of internal opposition), proxy wars, open and ECCW, the strategy of MEEGI had been opted direct wars, among other things. Most clearly for by Latin American and African countries, and violently this competition took place in the even if many of them incorporated indigenous so-called Third World countries and it took elements into their most often nationally place in the context of the III ECCW which oriented economic growth strategies. continued at least until the early 1990’s.8

Even if the three ECCW’s were struggles mainly The United States had emerged as an between Eurocentric states and their exceptionally powerful hegemonic state after the representatives, it is true that all of them were II ECCW, in the context of which the principal fought to a varying degree outside the European states had effectively destroyed their territorially delimited geographical Europe. This previous power position. After the war the US does not change their fundamental nature as and its social forces became the main promoter struggles between Eurocentric states and of western version of Modern Eurocentric representatives of modern economic growth economic growth ideology and praxis and it was ideology. Even if as a major challenge to the considered to be in their interest, not only to Western civilization as the US conceived itself extend and consolidate their own power representing it and the first great revolution of position, but in the context of emerging III the 20th century was the Mexican revolution of ECCW, to support the reconstruction of Western 1910, at least until Russia’s Bolshevik Europe in order to halt the alleged expansion of revolution replaced it is as the principal threat5, the competing MEEGI’s and related forms of for example Immanuel Wallerstein thinks that governance and property control as represented

8 © Historia Actual Online 2009 Petri Minkkinen Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution by the Soviet Union and the “socialist bloc”. As global output increased temporarily during the suggested by the world-systems analysis (WSA) 1990’s.10 and transnational historical (THM), this hegemonic position lasted until early This triumphalist attitude of the US ruling and 1970’s. Especially in the context of THM it has governing classes and shared by many of their been suggested that from the 1970’s the phase of especially European equivalents was however one-state based hegemony eroded and there was based on shallow ground. Even if Zbigniew an attempt to internationalize or trilaterize the Brzezinski’s suggestion that the eventually hegemony through the ruling and governing successful US plan to allure the Soviet Union to class organizations such as the Trilateral occupy Afghanistan in 1979, which was based Commission.9 This informal institution was still on the assumption that by giving the Soviets a product of especially the US social forces and their own Vietnam war, they might strengthen whereas earlier institutions such as the the possibilities of the fall of Soviet Union may Bilderberg meetings had deepened the contain a grain of truth, it also saw seeds for cooperation of the US-Western European ruling another problem.11 One part of this project was and governing classes, the Trilateral to support the Mujadeen troops which conceived Commission incorporated also their Japanese the atheist-communist Soviets as an enemy and counterparts, elevating the Honorary Whites into by doing so they built ground for the eventual the circles coordinating the interests of the turn of the Mujadeen and other local forces trilateral promoters of the western version of opposing also the US military and equally MEEGI. Steadily the ruling and governing occupying presence in the Islamic countries classes from other parts of the world were against them as representatives of materialist incorporated into the Trilateral Commission and Western culture. During the Iran-Iraq war the other informal and also formal governing US, which was humiliated by Iran’s Islamic institutions, which competed with and tried to Revolution, supported Iraq’s Saddam Hussein’s replace the international institutions with more secular and dictatorial government and the US equal decision-making practices such as many and the European corporations provided Iraq of the United Nations institutions. This process material to build chemical weapons which their of incorporation has proceeded along with the ally Saddam Hussein used against the Iraqis. promotion of economic globalization or Just before the I Iraq war the US diplomatic globalization of capitalism based on ideology representative in the area is believed to have and praxis of increasingly hardened and more replied positively in Hussein’s request to extend pure “western” or “capitalist” versions of its presence in Kuwait, which, while facilitating Modern Eurocentric economic growth ideology. Hussein’s occupation of Kuwait, may or may not have contradicted the overall US policy in In the context of the world-systems analysis the region. Be it as it may, the I Iraq war there has been a more consistent tendency to strengthened the US military presence in the underline the declining tendency of the US area and by many such as Osama Bin Laden this hegemony and power position. Within the THM, military presence in Saudi-Arabia was which builds on ’s view of considered unacceptable. Moreover, the long hegemony based not only on coercion but also and continuing Israel-Palestine conflict in which consent, there has been a stronger tendency to the US has especially from the 1970’s supported point at the consent which the US and trilateral the Israeli policies, has been a constant source of ruling circles have been able to build around the mistrust and opposition to the US and more neo-liberal version of the western variety of generally “Western” policies in the Islamic MEEGI. It is true that in the context of decline world, which has emerged as one key area in of the inwardly oriented national development which the Eurocentric world order has been strategies of the “developing” countries and the challenged. collapse of the Soviet Union and the East- European “socialist” bloc, the triumphalist US Decolonization was a process which took place and other collaborating ruling and governing in the context of the decline of the Eurocentric classes were in a position to declare a victory for world order in a sense that the Europe, which their version of MEEGI. Moreover, even if also was weakened after the 1939-1945 war, was the European Union with its slightly and at least also in a situation in which its grip on colonized apparently more socially oriented growth model territories was getting weaker. The new powers strengthened, the US share of the global GNP or the US and the Soviet Union were in principle in favour of decolonization but at the same time

© Historia Actual Online 2009 9 Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution Petri Minkkinen they were eager to impose their versions of military dictatorship, a more subtle and indirect MEEGI’s on these “liberated” territories and subversive mode was adopted. In relation to thus to draw them into their respective spheres Mexico, the aim was to undermine its internally of influence. The abovementioned emancipation oriented development policies through of the Islamic world was a part of this process as promoting a revolt of the local capitalists was the process of decolonization in Africa. The through e.g. subversive propaganda of the local Mexican revolution of 1910 had, besides its US embassy.13 internal consequences also external consequences. Among other causative factors, Though the coup organized against such as the 1929 crash in the New York stock democratically elected Allende government was exchange, it made the US to renounce its earlier in principle just another military dictatorship new imperialist policies towards the Caribbean imposed on a Latin American country, it was and Central America by 1930’s. In combination also a landmark which coincided with the with Mexico’s 1917 constitution and Carranza’s emergence of the renewed anti-democratic mood foreign policy doctrine, Mexico’s 1910 within the US ruling and governing circles revolution promoted new nationally and aiming at rolling back the so-called “excess of internally oriented economic growth ideology in democracy”. Chile became also a precursor of Mexico and Latin America, which underlined the renewing imperialistic spirit – which the right of these countries to exploit their resembles the Bush the younger administrations natural resources and to develop their national new imperialist policies the seminal example of economies. The II ECCW and the preparation which is Iraq – in the context of which the for it fomented the possibilities of these earlier leftist radical reformist government was countries to promote such policies. However, as overthrown through a semi-direct proxy military the US and the Soviet Union emerged as new coup and the Chilean society was transformed superpowers from this war and the US was in a into a laboratory with an objective to engage in a position to foment its grip on Latin America, the total social transformation in the context of the US adopted a policy which tried to check policies of “economic imperialism”, a derivative excessive economic nationalism and to prevent of the monetarist approach of the so-called advance of in Latin America.12 In Chicago Boys. In the case of Mexico a more the context of this policy line and together with indirect policies were adopted and the aim was like-minded local ruling and governing classes, to promote a transformation through a rebellion the containment of the excesses required often of the local capitalists against the Luis the imposition of a right-wing military Echeverría government, the aim which dictatorship, for example in Guatemala in 1954 materialized later and especially during the and in Brazil in 1964. 1980’s after a series economic crises in Mexico and in the context of world economy. In a In the early 1970’s the post-1945 phase of US situation in which the post-II ECCW hegemony hegemony was eroding, especially when of the United States was eroding, in the context conceived as hegemonic position among the rich of III ECCW, these two transformative policy Northern countries and areas such as the US, lines, neo-conservative or neo-liberal (more Europe and Japan. At that time also the Bretton indirect and economistic policies) and new right Woods system was transforming from a system (more direct and militaristic policies) emerged stabilizing post-war economic recovery and as principal right-wing transformative policy expansion of the rich countries of the world lines of the US ruling and governing classes.14 economy towards a system promoting the socio- economic transformation of the poorer In a sense the imposition of military dictatorship countries. However, in relation to Latin America in Chile was a continuation of earlier US the US intensified its subversive policies both in policies of anticommunism and supporting the semi-direct and indirect ways. In the case of national security dictatorships in order to halt Chile a military coup and a consequent military the supposed Soviet communist advance and to dictatorship was organized and realized through promote US economic interests. On the other the proxies in order to prevent the radical hand, it coincided with the beginning of the US reformist policies of the democratic and socialist hegemonic decline, the advance of neo- government of . In the case of conservative/neo-liberal and new right policies Mexico, which has been conceived as a perfect as well as related reorientation of the Bretton dictatorship, as a regime which can contain Woods system. Middle East crisis and the radical transformations without resorting to consequent oil crisis together with problems of

10 © Historia Actual Online 2009 Petri Minkkinen Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution the nationally oriented development policies and MEEGI made a similar mistake in humiliating the costs of buying of internal social peace the Russians in the context of undoing the contributed to the emergence of the debt crisis Soviet Union which was made with the Germans of the 1980’s. Also the eventually successful in the form of humiliating economic demands undoing of the Nicaraguan Sandinista-revolution after its defeat in the I ECCW in 1918. The paved way for a situation in which it was Germans did not forget this humiliation and it is possible to allow the “third wave” of quite probable that the Russians will not forget it democratization, at least partly because the either, in a situation which more or less ended economic problems of the poorer countries and the period of Eurocentric civil wars of the weakening of the radical left allowed a belief (1910/1914-1991+). that the limited democracy would not constitute a threat to the US and local economic interests In the eve of the outbreak of the I ECCW in in the area. The ideological triumph of economic 1914 the Balkan situation was conceived as a orthodoxy which was built into the global, reason for (though in reality it was mainly a regional and bilateral economic treaties helped trigger of) the Great War. Again in the 1990’s to continue with limited democratization which there were fears about the repetition of Balkan in such a situation was considered relatively situation in a sense that it would trigger a new harmless until the late 1990’s.15 “world war” even if in fact the dissolution of Yugoslavia was related to the final phases of Successful taming of the remaining possible three Eurocentric Civil wars of the 20th century, nationalist threat of the Mexican Revolution of despite the fact that an Islamic element was 1910 by the end of 1980’s – which marked also involved in both cases (dissolution of the a beginning of a new long Mexican Revolution Ottoman Empire in the first case and the – was also related to the changes in the Soviet Bosnian war and the involvement of the non- Union and China. Soviet Modern Eurocentric Bosnian Moslem-fighters in the latter case). growth model had lost its growth capacity and Though both belonged to a transition era which the “new Cold War” (i.e. the renewed involved links to past and to the future, it is intensification of the III ECCW) together with important to remember that they both still the successful weakening of the Soviet Union belonged to the era of intra-European conflicts through its induced Afghanistan operation or Eurocentric Civil Wars. On the other hand, (among other things such as the Chernobyl despite the fact that the European Union had incident) lead to unsuccessful reform efforts in emerged as a challenger to US position, the the Soviet Union in the context of which relative Yugoslav wars while ending the period of political liberalization preceded economic ECCW’s, constituted also a first “real” war in reforms and eventually lead to the collapse of Europe after the end of II ECCW and it Soviet Union and its empire. China, on the other coincided with the US preparation for the next hand, after the , opted for the round of wars, as the Wolfowitz-Cheney team primacy of market oriented capitalist economic prepared a memorandum in 1992 which reforms without political reforms at least at the suggested that in a changing world situation the state level, which, as in the case of well US must be prepared to prevent the rise of any developed and “pure” capitalist democracy, competing power which might challenge the US helps to keep the citizens or the people from global position, which was temporarily interfering with the socio-economic policies of improving during the 1990’s. This posture was respective cadres or ruling sectors16, was much built into the program of the Project for the New more successful in its transition strategy which American Century (PNAC), the 1997 Statement has made China the foremost emerging capitalist of Principles of which demanded a radical dictatorship, whereas Russia has until recently increase of the US military expenditures in order (despite the pillage of the remaining Soviet to defend the US global position,17 and the national assets and the emergence of local class government of George W. Bush fulfilled their of robber barons i.e. the oligarchs) had to adapt wish after the atrocities of S-11-2001, which to expansion of the US, the EU and the NATO. served as a pretext to launch the First Real World War by the end of 2001. On the other hand, it can be said that, whereas China has saved its face through thousands years The purpose of this ongoing war, containing the old sense of cultural superiority and patience in new imperialist wars of conquest, the war on defending its national interests, the terror and non-white others and the global representatives of triumphalist “western” network of internal civil wars, was to control the

© Historia Actual Online 2009 11 Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution Petri Minkkinen emergence of the EU, Russia, China and India understand the broader picture and the general as well as to undo the emerging alternatives interest and also selfish and arrogant, in a sense movements in Islamic countries. It was also a of wanting their share of the pie). At least to a pretext for an effort to undo the globalizing certain degree paradoxically this is related to alternatives movement to neo-liberal political modernity and modernism (including post- etc. program and potentially dangerous migratory qualifications), which instead of offering movements thought resorting to hard form material and cultural improvement as well as integral fascist control and surveillance policies. liberty and freedom, independently of their It was also an effort to tackle with the US and particular definitions, seems to demand global economic and legitimacy crisis which increasing control and surveillance of the human started in 2001 – a W-shaped (or maybe even beings. Thus, even if the First Real World M-shaped) – global economic crisis resembling Revolution ends up in undoing neo-liberalism that of 1930’s, through military-Keynesian and new imperialism as well as signifies a economic policies which (while in reality transition to non-Eurocentric broad historical contributed to the deepening of the US structural context and the end of FRWW, it does not and debt-related economic downfall) helped necessarily mean that the human condition will temporarily to alleviate and in a sense postpone improve in particular cases or in general.19 the US and increasingly and to a varying degrees also global depression until more or less 2. NON-EUROCENTRIC BROAD 2007. Besides the new forms of war in the HISTORICAL CONTEXT context of FRWW, due to the US intentions to plant aggressive anti-missile systems into the What does it mean that we are experiencing a , the NATO expansion to transition to a non-Eurocentric world? Should countries previously belonging to we be very strict in a sense that a non- Soviet/Russian empire, and the continuing new Eurocentric world is a place where only people imperialist wars and operations in Eurasia and peoples of non- Caucasian descent rule and (including the still at least partially mysterious set the operative rules of this world? Or, should Russian-Georgian war) and consequent re- the requirements for a non-Eurocentric world be armament policies of Russia, this may more relaxed, in a sense that even if many or eventually emerge also as a more traditional most of the rule-makers are non-Caucasian great power war also in Europe, which may also while not all of them, the rules they set or include a Nuclear Holocaust.18 device, are derived from the non-Caucasian ways of organizing their life and historical In the context of three ECCW’s, all or at least experiences? Or, should we include a territorial most participants claimed to fight for and in the requirement for the concept Eurocentric, that is, interest of their populations and ways of life and that most of the inhabitants of these territorially also outspokenly on behalf of “the people” defined areas and especially their ruling and whom had been mistreated in the earlier social governing classes are of Caucasian descent? Or, systems and social struggles. On the other hand, should we relax the requirement even further in the context of the First Real World War it is and conceive as non-Eurocentric all territorial typical that the ruling and governing classes or areas outside the recent hegemonic or dominant sectors are fighting not only against external areas which have promoted and maintained the others but also internal others, conceiving their Eurocentric world order, i.e. especially the own populations as possible and potential territorial Europe proper, the United States and threats. In the context of neo-liberal and new also Canada. Even this relaxed requirement is imperialist political programs and related forms far from unproblematic, given the fact that the of integral and consequent war and racial-ethnic composition of all these most control policies, and also more generally, in the Eurocentric areas is changing, which, of course, context of e.g. control policies included in the can also be conceived as a symptom and also a environment-related control policies, not only promoter of undoing the European or non-white or non-Caucasian others but also the Eurocentric legacy of these territorial areas. human beings in general have in probably unprecedented ways become threat units that are What then is a Caucasian? According to The not only disposable (too many, potentially Free Dictionary, “European physical dangerous and expensive to maintain) but also in anthropologists of the 17th and 18th centuries need of increased control, surveillance and proposed various systems of racial rehabilitation/re-education (too stupid to classifications based on such observable

12 © Historia Actual Online 2009 Petri Minkkinen Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution characteristics as skin colour, hair type, body In this article it is supposed that now for the first proportions, and skull measurements, essentially time in human history the world is a territorially codifying the perceived differences among divided whole, including the Northern polar broad geographic populations of humans.”20 regions, and that in the context of the FRWW, it According to Oxford English Dictionary the is possible to move beyond MEEGI’s and term Caucasian was a name given to “the toward macro-regional and more indigenous and ‘white’ race of human kind” by Blumenbach in thus non-Eurocentric socio-economic systems. It 1800 and he derived the term from the region of is also suggested that not only outside the the Caucasus. Robert T. Hulme suggested in territorial Europe and the US-Canada complex, 1861 that there are “three varieties or principal but also within them the Eurocentrism is races – Caucasian, Mongolian, and Ethiopian.”21 decreasing, in terms of demography, the nature Another variety of this classification of of socio-economic system and the capacity to populations has been Caucasoid (Caucasian), define the “rules of the game”, globally, macro- Mongoloid, Negroid and in some systems regionally, nationally and locally.23 Australoid.22 For the purposes of this preliminary article, the term Caucasian 3. REVOLUTION AND REFORM understood as a white European, in all their varieties, with roots or actual existence in the In his book on European Revolutions between territorial Europe. 1492 and 1992 Charles Tilly wrote quite informatively that the European actors such as In Fernand Braudel’s thinking and in the context Great Britain, France and also Russia with her of world-systems analysis there is a definition of “adjacent regions” have been in a situation of a world which does not necessarily embrace the war almost all these 500 years, with only very whole world in territorial or spatial terms. few intervening years of peace.24 Moreover, his Braudel defined the Mediterranean which was study on European revolutions implies that cultural or civilization based whole which during this period there have been variations formed a world-economy, a distinctive whole between different periods in relation to the which was not a world-wide. In the context of intensity and number of revolutionary situations. world-systems analysis developed foremost by For example, if between 1642-1691, the Low Immanuel Wallerstein there are different types Countries, Iberia, Balkans and Hungary, the of partial worlds and world-systems, such as British Isles, France and Russia had aggregate world-empires, world-economies and mini- number of 121 years during which they had systems. Within this intellectual framework we revolutionary situations, between 1692-1741 this are living in a modern world-system, a capitalist was the case only during 52 years and between world-economy which emerged 500+ years ago 1742-1791 only during 33 years. However, as an European world-economy and which has during the period between years 1792-1841 this during different phases developed into a number increased to 98, reduced back to 49 capitalist world-economy which in the actual during 1842-1891, increased again to 65 world comprises practically whole territorial between years 1892-1941 and reduced back to world. A partial world-economy has become a 44 between years 1942-1991.25 world-system covering whole or almost whole world. Within his intellectual framework, as in This statistical analysis of revolutionary various other critical approaches but in different situations in Europe suggests two main terms, there has been discussion on the development paths. First, there was an overall possibilities to move beyond the capitalist tendency towards internal political consolidation world-economy and world-system into a within territorial Europe, i.e. less years of different socialist world-economy or world- revolutionary situations. Second, there has been system. Even if this objective may well emerge a clear cyclical tendency in relation to decrease as an entry to a better world-system than the or increase of years during which there has been actual one, the problem here in definitional revolutionary situations. On the other hand, even terms is that , as it has been developed if the overall number of revolutionary situations as a systematic thought system and practice, is has decreased, the intensity, depth and the evidently an offspring of Eurocentric parts of extensiveness (i.e. the impact) of these world and thought, even if many practices to revolutionary situations have increased at least which we may denote with the concept in some cases. There is a parallel situation in socialism are necessarily not. relation to the European wars. If one can say that for example from the French revolution of

© Historia Actual Online 2009 13 Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution Petri Minkkinen 1779 the impact and the extensiveness of the or reoriented without undoing and negating its revolutionary situations has increased, it is also fundamental features or properties and thus possible to say that the impact and the without causing a re-evolution at this particular extensiveness of the European wars has temporal point. increased, especially during the 20th century in the form of three ECCW’s. The related There has been some discussion that a sustained hypothesis of this article is that, besides the long-term re-formation could produce also a re- ongoing global transition or revolution in evolution. This may or may not be a valid power-relations, there has been, is and will be an suggestion but it is evident that for example the increase of aggregate revolutionary situations social democratic gradual social-engineering globally (possible also years) between years promoting sustained re-formation has not 1992-2041.26 Moreover, as from the beginning produced a re-evolution as defined above. That of 21st century our common world entered in an this possibility is not altogether denied here is era of the First Real World War, it is suggested related to a possibility and actual reality that here that we are at the moment amid a First Real such projects of sustainable re-formations have World Revolution, which as it the case of the been pre-empted before it has been possible to FRWW with its sub-wars, can be subdivided obtain real-life evidence whether this is indeed into interconnected macro-regional, national and possible during longer periods of time.29 local revolutions and revolutionary situations.27 However, as is the case of the re-evolutions, also the re-formations can be undone to a certain How should we conceive the terms revolution degree. In both cases however some aspects of and reform? As these words suggest, in the first the changes caused remain and it is also possible case the question is related to re-evolution which that within the processes of re-evolution and re- denotes that it is important to reorient the formation, new re-orienting re-evolutions and process of evolution which is taking place in a re-formations take place. This may be related to given and geo-historical the internal frictions or external pressures, or, to context. In the second case the word suggests other newly perceived needs to re-orient the path that there is a need to cause a re-formation selected, with or without internal frictions and within a given social formation and geo- external pressures. Thus, as is the case with the historical context. In other words, revolution re-evolutions or re-formations proper, in a sense means that there is something fundamentally that they carry within them features of earlier wrong in this particular social order and it is social formations, also after counter-revolution, necessary to change its path or form of evolution counter-reformation or re-orientation the new in a way which departs from this path or form (or restored) social formation carry with it at and opts for a very distinctive path or form. It least some features of the earlier social may imply that up to a certain temporal point a formation, though not necessarily toward a social order has evolved but in a problematic progressive and emancipative direction, what way, in which case it may be sufficient to cause ever meaning given to these concepts. a distinctive path or form of evolution without however undoing or negating everything In general terms the revolutions experienced in contained by this social order. It may also imply the course of global history have either been that at that temporal point it is necessary to undo realized by existing or wanna-be ruling and everything contained by it. In the latter case, if governing sectors or/and the revolutions have we conceive human beings or some of them as been eaten by themselves. A typical outcome inseparable parts of this social order, it may has been a somewhat revised or transformed require undoing also all human beings or those social order in which the new ruling and of them whom are inseparable parts of this governing classes or sectors have emerged and social order. This option has however replaced the earlier ones. For the part of the historically caused unnecessary human suffering masses i.e. the broad majorities of populations, a and waste of human potential which has newly found social order has offered some or effectively harmed the consequent development none improvements and continuity under the of this re-evolving social order, both in the cases governance system guided by new the ruling and of revolution and in the cases of coup d’état as governing classes. This situation is caused either well as in the cases of electoral victories, by external pressures on the new revolutionary managed or not.28 On the other hand, re- formation, internal frictions inside the formation means that its end-result is a social revolutionary cadres or their willingness to order the path and the form of which is reformed impose a new social order which necessarily

14 © Historia Actual Online 2009 Petri Minkkinen Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution causes opposition from the part of those First Real World War, the global economic benefiting from earlier social order and in all of crisis which began in 2001 and has intensified these cases some kind of forceful imposition or recently, and the possible dissolution as well as repression is needed. An often mentioned the on-going regionalization of world economy solution to this problem, especially to the and economic governance system are taking problem of external pressure, has been that a place in the context of the US and also European revolution should take place globally or at least decline as well as the transition to non- among sufficient number of political entities Eurocentric broad historical context and the which would allow a situation in which external First Real World Revolution. pressure would be impossible or futile. As was also the case of the French Revolution of In the case of the global solution, there however 1789 and the Napoleonic wars, there was and remains a possibility that in order to impose a has been a conservative counter-reaction in both new social order, equally forceful and repressive cases. In the first case this was represented by modes of imposition are needed. It is also quite the Congress of Vienna and Holy Alliance. In conceivable that the internal frictions of the the second case a partial US reaction against cadres over the course of revolution would also Mexico’s 1910 revolution, the combined US- in this case require repression or violent British-German reaction against the Russian purification of the ranks. The more limited Bolshevik revolution and its ramifications in variety of solution, that of sufficient number of Germany, in the context of US-German political entities, could mean for example that competition and the rise of aggressive, the political entities of a certain region are expansive, militaristic and globalistic within the sphere of a newly found revolutionary nationalism in form of populist and right-wing social order. This could correspond for example National Socialism in Germany31. In the third to the macro-regions of our common world and case, there has been a rise of aggressive, in this case it might be possible to respect better militaristic global nationalism in the US, which the particularities of a given area30. Also in this adopted the policies of new imperialism and case, there remains the very real possibility that hard form integral fascism in order to prevent in order to impose a new social order, violent the US decline and the ascendancy of forms of imposition and repression are needed. alternatives movement of the global civil society It could be suggested here that, in the context of and in order to establish a new kind of world(- the FRWW, the revolutionary/reformist )empire, with special focus on promoting its transformations in different world regions geo-strategic interests in the “soft underbelly” of constitute a variety of global network of the Eurasian landmass, in order to control the alternatives, the cumulative consequences of emergence of the European Union, Russia, which are difficult or impossible to reverse by China and India as well as curbing down Islamic the previous Eurocentric ruling and governing alternatives movements which their anti-Soviet countries and classes. policies had strengthened. However, it is evident that the First Real World Revolution is beyond Though there are significant similarities between the US (and somewhat allied) counter- the great transformations of 19th and 20th revolutionary policies, even if their repressive centuries and those of 20th and 21st centuries, and population control policies have been there are also important contextual differences. adopted (or their earlier policies have been The Mexico’s 1910 revolution and the other synchronized) by many governments with the great revolutions of the first part of the 20th hard form integral fascist policies of the Bush century coincided with the crisis of the previous administrations, and around which a intensive phase of liberal economic and construction of new consent (in Gramscian imperialist globalization, the Eurocentric Civil sense) has had certain success, especially among Wars, the dissolution and regionalization of the ruling and governing classes. world economy and the ascendancy of the US into a hegemonic position. The actual on-going There is general tendency to believe that all long Mexican revolution as well as the revolutions are more or less progressive or dissolution-revolution of the Soviet empire and emancipative. It is true that in all revolutionary most of the so-called real socialist bloc and the situations there is a conceived necessity to emergence of the co-called global civil society, change the existing social order and power the recent and actual phase of intensive liberal relations and most often also material factors economic and new imperialist globalization, the supporting this social order. There are however

© Historia Actual Online 2009 15 Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution Petri Minkkinen many examples of regressive revolutions and intervention, national self-determination and counter-revolutions which, as the so-called national economic development. This became progressive revolutions, aim at changing or evident in Woodrow Wilson’s policies and restoring the existing or emerging social order especially in Franklin D. Roosevelt’s policies, and power relations. Moreover, there can be which were during 1930’s and early 1940’s counter-revolutions within revolutionary compatible with the policies of e.g. land reform processes which are often related to the internal and oil asset nationalization of Mexico’s division within revolutionary cadres and also to president Lázaro Cárdenas as well as his more the external efforts to interfere with the conservative successor. There were also revolutionary process in order to halt it, or in considerable policy similarities between the order to change its course. It is also relatively opponents of policies of Cárdenas in Mexico typical that in the preparatory phases of and the opponents of those of F.D. Roosevelt in revolutions external states and social forces the US and there are similarities to the actual support certain sectors of the revolutionary revolutionary situation, in which policies of cadres in order to promote the particular Cárdenas have been adopted in e.g. Venezuela interests they may gain from the revolutionary and Bolivia and in which the next US president process. This was the case for example when the may adopt at least to a certain degree similar US oil sector supported Francisco Madero post-Bush policies, which may or may not allow (himself connected through family ties to more policies between different Mexico’s northern sector of private , still parts of the Americas. During the 1920’s there influential Monterrey Group)32, one key initiator was a purification of ranks of the revolutionary of the “democratic phase” of Mexico’s 1910 Caudillos and there were more leftist and rightist revolution, even if in the later phases of the periods of the post-1910 (revolutionary) revolutionary process the US oil sector was one governments until the electoral defeat of 2000. of the most hawkish and militarist force that Repression of the internal opposition (both wanted US military intervention to promote rightist and leftist) became commonplace and their interests. For their part, the Germans the revolutionary governments became supported Vladimir Iljitš Uljanovs (also known revolutionary and democratic only in name and as Lenin) revolutionary intentions with the hope the internally oriented growth model lost its that he would keep his promise – as he did – to previous growth dynamism by the 1970’s. By stop Russia’s participation to the inter- the 1980’s the “revolutionary” governments had imperialist war, i.e. the I ECCW, even if adopted neo-liberal and anti-social socio- Germany under the National Socialists became economic policies, in combination with the most ardent anti-communist and anti-Soviet undemocratic rule and the repression of power, which suited well to the overall policy especially the leftist opposition. The end of PRI- line of e.g. the US and Great Britain. revolutionary governments in 2000 aroused certain euphoria but soon the post-PRI One example was Mexico’s 1910 revolution, governments (latter of which is illegitimate) which was a the first great revolution of the 20th adopted repressive and anti-democratic policies. century and a long revolutionary process into which various US actors tried to influence at Another example is the November or Bolshevik different stages33. It was conceived as a principal revolution of Russia, which was from the point threat to the Western capitalist civilization as of view of its promoters conceived as a represented by the US – before the Russian progressive and necessary revolution in order to revolutions – and throughout the 20th century undo the existing ossified social order, which there were attempts to undermine its objectives was an hindrance to social development and and/or achievements one way or the other. reflected material and power relations that were Especially the US oil industry supported hopelessly outdated in order to achieve this military intervention in order to undo the progressive social development. Even before the nationalization Mexico’s oil assets – this battle new revolutionary regime had consolidated its is still under way. On the other hand, the position, the counter-revolutionary activity had experiences from direct military and other begun. However, by the 1970’s the Soviet indirect intervening in Mexico’s revolutionary regime was conceived (in “West”) as an ossified process were crucial in the process in which the regime incapable to adapt to the technological US regional and global policies transformed development achieved in the context of the from imperialistic and militaristic policies Western form of economic growth ideology and towards adoption of the policies of non- by the 1980’s many if not most within the

16 © Historia Actual Online 2009 Petri Minkkinen Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution Soviet sphere of influence conceived their the modern world-system contains a tendency to regimes as ossified hindrances not only to the expand and that from the beginning of the 20th political liberties but also to the progressive century there began a revolutionary phase in the social development achieved at least in some world-system. One should remember that this countries within the Western form of MEEGI. analysis has tackled with revolutionary As was the case of November revolution of tendencies within the capitalist world-system, 1917, many of those benefiting from the existing though containing the idea that once this order lamented the social revolutions that particular world-system reaches the limits of its changed the social order of the countries within sustainability, there opens up a possibility for an the Soviet sphere by 1991. As was the case after alternative and possibly socialist world-system the November revolution of 1917, the “springs from within this existing world-system, though of peoples” and “velvet revolutions” of late the transformative potential may emerge 1980’s and early 1990’s opened up an euphoric especially from the semiperipheral areas of this phase for many or most in these countries, and, world-system. It is, for example, from this again as after 1917, after the euphoric phase a perspective, possible to conceive e.g. the actual new phase of social inequality, confrontation long Mexican revolution as a revolution and control began.34 emerging from a semiperipheral country. It is also possible to conceive the actual Both of these great revolutions caused a re- transformations taking place in Latin America evolution and not only re-formation and both and China and why not also those in Russia and had global implications: Mexican revolution in Islamic world as transformative tendencies itself as well as through the emerging emerging from semiperiphery. hegemonic power the United States and the Russian November revolution in itself and According to the representatives of the world- especially through the eventually declining systems analysis there have so far been two hegemonic area Europe. Both also had world revolutions (WR), i.e. 1848 and 1968, implications to the later anti-colonialist and anti- which both were historical failures. Both were imperialist revolutions such as the Chinese also [progressive] counter-revolutions to revolution of 1949 and the Cuban revolution of [traditionalist-“rightist”] counter-revolutions in 195935. The duration of both was more or less relation to the French Revolution of 1789 and the period of the Eurocentric civil wars the of 1917, the purpose of (1910/1914-1991+) and both took place in the which was to fulfil the goals of the revolutions expansive though revolutionary phase of the of 1789 and 1917. The WR of 1848 was a Eurocentric world-system and did not, as was revolution for popular sovereignty (within and hoped, turn into revolutions leading to an between the nations) and it institutionalized the alternative world-system (though this term had “” and it fomented the political goal of not been coined at the time of the beginning of obtaining state power as an intermediary step to these revolutions). Because the Mexican social transformation. On the other hand, the revolution involved more indigenous elements WR of 1968 was a counter-revolution to the (though often more discursive than real, counter-revolution of 1917, which according to especially in its post-Cárdenas phase), it was the authors, was a victory of the proponents of more non-Eurocentric than the Russian the state-power strategy, and it institutionalized revolution, which was basically a radical catch- the so-called new social movements. The 1968 up strategy based on twisted and very WR had four main legacies. First, the Eurocentric Marxist thought, both in its “third capabilities of “West” and “East” to police the worldist” Leninist versions and its nationalist- South become increasingly limited. Second, it dictatorial (and more anti-Semitic and changed the power relations between status- imperialist) Stalinist versions. groups (such as age-groups, genders and ethnicities) especially in the rich countries. 4. WORLD REVOLUTIONS AND THE Third, the pre-1968 power relations between FIRST REAL WORLD REVOLUTION capital and labour have never been restored and “the functionaries of capital” have been on the The earlier discussion on world revolutions took run [i.e. the recent phase of intensive capitalist place in the context of the revolutionary phase globalization]. Fourth, the civil society became of the emergence of Braudelian world-economy less responsive to state-power and the power of or Wallersteinian capitalist world-economy. states over civil society diminished, especially in Especially the latter involves a suggestion that

© Historia Actual Online 2009 17 Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution Petri Minkkinen the semiperiphery as reflected by the crisis of An optimist would answer yes, at least in the different kinds of dictatorships.36 context of the continuity of Eurocentric broad historical context, and with considerable There are however various substantive issues reservations in relation to post-Eurocentric which separate the First Real World Revolution broad historical context, the eventual end result from earlier “world revolutions”. First of all, the of the FRWR. However, the themes such as of earlier WR’s took place in the expansive phase sexual liberalization, and also of the Eurocentric world-system whereas the minority rights38 have been banalized and FRWR takes place and in fact incorporates the commercialized up to a point that they have in transition to the non-Eurocentric broad historical real world terms become smoke-screens for the context. Second, for the first time in human real exploitative processes and undoing of real history, the whole world is interconnected in freedoms and social consciousness. If this is the various ways and all world areas and territories case in the rich countries which tend to claim to are either under someone’s sovereign rule or be liberal and freedom-loving, are there reasons claims to sovereignty have been made to believe that the possible freedom enhancing (including the northern polar regions), even if tendencies involved in the legacy of 1968 would some relatively minor “lost tribes” are still prosper in more conservative and traditionalist occasionally found. Third, whereas for example areas of the world, keeping in mind that various the WR of 1968 took place mainly by the conservative anti-liberal and anti-freedom representatives of unsatisfied middle classes tendencies have recently strengthened also in the (though it helped to wreck cultural/intellectual rich “liberal” countries, in which illusory hegemonies around the world), the freedom of all has actually meant freedom of contemporary FRWR reflects the dissatisfaction few and even these supposedly free few are of broad social sectors around the world (despite themselves objects of the anti-liberal and anti- the discussion of the elite lead nature of some freedom surveillance and control tendencies major alternative social institutions) and will involved in modernity discussed above? reflect true power transition from the Moreover, even if from the 1990’s there has Eurocentric areas to the non-Eurocentric areas. been a spectacular growth of alternative Fourth, the WR of 1968, despite its movements and tendencies promoting various countercultural elements and later dogmatic aspects of freedom for all (counter-revolution to turn, had certain similarity with anarchist- conservative counter-revolution), the individualist neo-liberal economic anarchism, institutionalized consequences of the new which, for its part, shared many interesting imperialism and the hard form integral fascism themes of and also China’s Cultural are still very much present, not only in the US Revolution. Fifth, despite the dogmatization of and Europe, but in some form of control in 1968 revolution ideologies, there was a broad- almost all countries of the world (new based belief in the progressive and emancipative conservative counter-revolution, in the form of nature of this revolution, whereas in the context gaining new consent (in Gramscian sense) in of the contemporary FRWR (despite some relation to necessity to increase control of the change-related emancipative hopes and beliefs, human beings) also in the most progressive without which no revolution is possible), there countries belonging to avant-garde of the are no whatsoever guarantees that this real world FRWR. Someone always wants to control level transformation will be progressive or someone and some social groups. emancipative at least as a whole, from the point of view of global majorities, or even various However, from the point of view of temporal though different minorities around the world. duration (1789 Æ 1848, 1917 Æ 1968), it might be possible to conceive the FRWW as derivative Would then, however, the FRWR be an example of 1968, even if in the actual transition the main of a counter-revolution to counter-revolution on implication is a transition from one broad 1968 WR, which materialized as a roll-back of historical context to another. Moreover, the popular democracy in the rich countries and nature of the FRWR as a freedom increasing and undoing of the national and socialist socio- emancipative derivative of 1968 would increase economic strategies and the progressive considerably in the case that all countries which adoption of the leftist 1968 cultural revolution have adapted integral fascist control goals (sexual liberation, minority rights, and technologies and constructed institutions anarchism) by the rightist neo-liberal and also to undermining human rights and individual a certain degree new right counter-revolution?37 liberties and freedoms would renounce and roll-

18 © Historia Actual Online 2009 Petri Minkkinen Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution back these freedom decreasing tendencies. financial assets of these poorer countries and the Possible signs of this possibility are the then emerging economic orthodoxy prohibited intention to Barack Obama to restore habeas protective measures by these countries – while corpus in the US and also Obama’s and also rich countries themselves adopted various open John McCain’s promise to undo the and hidden protectionist measures. On the other concentration camp of Guantánamo. Whether hand, especially during the 2000’s when the rich these promises are actually kept and similar roll- countries themselves are in economic troubles, back policies are adopted elsewhere remains to now the non-Eurocentric actors have a be seen. However, even in this case there are possibility to reverse this tendency and buy serious doubts in relation to general freedom cheaply productive and financial assets of the enhancing capabilities of either of these rich countries39. At the same time the US and the candidates, given the fact that both intend to EU – traditionally highly protectionist entities – increase military expenditures of the US, have began to adopt legal and other protective continue the US new imperialist wars (even if in measures to prevent their assets to be bought by refocused form in the case of Obama due to his these non-Eurocentric actors, thus reinforcing intention to increase war efforts in Afghanistan the overall tendency towards macro-area while reducing those in Iraq) in Eurasia and also specific and also national protectionism40. to increase border-control in the Mexico-US Moreover, one should remember that the border, and indeed more generally inside North possible and potential non-US and non- America. European purchasers tend to come from big countries with liquid assets (such as China, India Moreover, whereas the general tendency and also Russia) or from the oil rich countries towards the general increase of surveillance and and thus this possibility is not open to everyone control is related to modernity and recent trends and all countries. At the same time, especially in the development of control and surveillance the declining US has resorted to illegal new technology, it is to be seriously doubted whether imperialist measures and in fact open robbery in these candidates or in fact most of the people order to promote its (or at least of some of its around the world would be willing to sacrifice economic classes’) economic interests for even this part of technological development in example in Iraq, while, however, these actions exchange to increased liberty and freedom are in fact undermining its overall economic (other parts of modernity, at least partially), position. Moreover, while these non-Eurocentric even if control fatigue related reaction also in purchasing countries have had this possibility, relation to technology is certainly a possibility. their purchasing activity and simultaneous Be it as it may, the increased utilization of foreign investments to these countries have control and surveillance technology is one increasingly tied these countries to indication of the especially recently deepened interdependencies of capitalist world-economy, lack of trust, not only between the ruling and this tendency, while possibly benefiting these governing classes and the governed classes but non-Eurocentric countries in general, casts also more generally between the human beings necessarily doubts on the progressive and in general. This is one aspect of the dissolution emancipative possibilities of this aspect of the of the actual Eurocentric order and it remains to FRWR. be seen whether this technology and control related dissolutive factor is about to be removed Another dissolutive tendency is the macro- in the context of the FRWR and in the eventual regionalization of world economy and non-Eurocentric broad historical context. international economic organizations. This in fact, while undermining the actual order, also There are also other tendencies of dissolution in contributes to the FRWR, due to the fact that it the actual world which undermine the existing strengthens the material possibilities of the non- order and promote the FRWR, i.e. the transition Eurocentric or only partially Eurocentric world to a broad non-Eurocentric historical context. At areas and opens up possibilities for macro- the global level there have been repetitive and regional economic coordination based more on ever deepening economic crises which have macro-regionally specific and indigenous socio- undermined the existing territorial Eurocentric economic ideas and liberates them from the order. In this context it is particularly interesting universalistic Eurocentric orthodoxies. At the that whereas from 1970’s the economic crises of same time there have been in recent decades poorer countries made it cheap for the rich separatist and autonomist tendencies both within country actors to purchase productive and countries and from existing countries and

© Historia Actual Online 2009 19 Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution Petri Minkkinen defunct empires, some of which are more of considered minimal due to the “necessities” of internal origin (e.g. Zapatistas, Lakota’s, Orange capitalist globalization. County, Quebec, Kurds, Basques and Catalans) whereas some are more clearly related to global The First Real World Revolution and the power struggles (e.g. Kosovo, Kashmir, transition to non-Eurocentric broad historical Chechnya, Georgia) or anti- (e.g. context will probably also wreck the existing Tibet). Even if there would not be clear institutional-organizational world structure, not separatist tendencies there are tendencies to only that of international financial and economic towards indigenization of socio-economic institutions but also the United Nations policies within countries (e.g. Bolivia), which is structure. It is essential to remember that the one clear example of the policies attempting to existing institutional-organizational structure replace MEEGI with endogenous socio- was erected to consolidate the territorial, economic development as well as decolonization demographic and material expansion and from within and from below (as is the also case benefits of the conquering European populations of the Zapatistas and Lakota’s). To what extent during the past 500+ years. Even if China was it is possible to indigenize the socio-economic included e.g. in UN’s Security Council it does policies at macro-regional level is an interesting not change this basic equation. This will question but it is evident that the general probably also put into question the Holy Cow of tendency towards the macro-regionalization of existing state-borders, which, besides world economy and its institutions foment these consolidating these achieved gains, has been possibilities. considered essential for the maintenance of (which, evidently, in the context of Yet another dissolving and at the same time FRWW, does not exist).42 Throughout human reconstructing tendency are the migratory history, peoples have migrated for various movements. Whereas the European (and others reasons and borders and areas of “sovereignty” before them) colonists and imperialists changed and domination have been changed and it would the cultures and societies of the colonized areas, be utterly naïve to believe that this would not be contemporary migratory movements to the US the case in the context and aftermath of FRWR. (especially Mexicans, Latinos in general and This will evidently cause increased Asians) and to the EU (especially Moslems, confrontation within and between countries. Sub-Saharan Africans and Latin Americans41) Another very important question in relation to are lessening the Eurocentrism of these areas the FRWR and at least partially related to the both in demographic and cultural sense, possibility of continuing control and especially to the degree they do not assimilate surveillance practices is that of more or less and adapt to the respective white-Caucasian and permanent features related to human nature. As Christian (though secular) cultures. The US case the profound social transformations inevitably is at least partially different due to the fact that involves various kinds of power struggles, it the still dominant culture was imposed by the may yet result as an illusory revolution with European colonists (as is the case in Latin many good intentions, but, which may result as America as well), with the specific features a continuity in a new dressing. Though the offered by the imported black slaves and the question of human nature is highly contested indigenous peoples. However, this process of issue and it is also evident that cultural de-Eurocentrification from within has caused differences impact some human features, one and is about to cause frictions within these should not underestimate the possibility that all societies, and one vary lamentable aspect of this declarations on improving the lot of human process is its tendency to deepen the control and beings and related compassion may result as surveillance within these societies, whereas the another forms and modalities of predatory and de-Eurocentrification of various world areas selfish practices. (while one key reason for the new imperialism) is about to decrease in time as the changed It is also interesting to see how the power relations caused by the FRWR is about to contemporary phase of global economic crisis force US-Europe to retreat militarily and will affect the inevitable transition process. One possibly also economically – through curious thing is the surprisingly rapid fall on oil indigenization of foreign transnational prices, which seems to be too rapid in relation to corporations, among other things, the large scale the level how much monetary-financial crisis possibility of which has until recently been has so far affected the real productive economy and consumption – even if also the rise to the

20 © Historia Actual Online 2009 Petri Minkkinen Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution highest price level was probably at least partially with the militaristic aspects of SPP and in unrelated to real economy. It is however clear general, his reform plans seem to be more that if the lowering of the oil price level internally oriented (that is, inside the US) than continues and achieves some temporal duration, globally emancipative. In the case of John it will evidently affect the economic possibilities McCain victory, positive and emancipative of oil producing countries, including Middle development possibilities should not be Eastern Islamic countries, Russia, Mexico and expected (besides closing of the Guantánamo). Venezuela, all of which are among countries and In general terms Mexico will rise economically areas promoting local and regional revolutions within the North American political economy and also contributing to the FRWR. Another oil (despite the negative effects of the US and world price related issue is its implication to the US depression) whereas the relative position of war propensity. In principle lower oil price North America as a whole will decrease. It is would make military invasion to Iran less probable that Central America will increasingly hazardous in relation to its implications to oil become a part of the North American compact. price and consequent impact on the US and Migratory movements and internal world economic situation. On the other hand, the decolonization will make the US and North costs of earlier military Keynesianism and the America as a whole less Eurocentric. recent public financial institutions bailout, among other things, have dramatically increased South America has emancipated from the US the public indebtedness and the nature of overall tutelage, even if there have been US interference depression situation would most likely make in the affairs of Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia renewed attempts to improve economic situation and Ecuador. New macro-regional institutions through military Keynesianism futile and even such as Banco del Sur, Unión de Naciones highly counterproductive. Suramericanas (UNASUR) and Conselho Sul- Americano de Defesa carry further the South 5. SPECIFIC FEATURES OF DIFFERENT American macro-regional institutional MACRO-REGIONS development. From the western point of view the South American transformations are more Mexico will also in the future develop in the progressive, that is, they represent varieties new larger context of territorial North America, and forms of socialist and also nationalist tendencies the new long Mexican revolution has already (though nationalism is often conceived as non- impacted the development in the Americas as progressive). If conceived from the point of well as globally. Despite the internal and view of Braudel’s “extended Europe”, that is, external operations supporting the fraud aiming that Latin America is partly European or at stopping the transformative-revolutionary Eurocentric area, it is possible to suggest that to process though electoral polls in 2006 (as an extent that Latin American transformations happened also in the US in 2000 and 2004), this embody imported Eurocentric ideas and process continues through the combination of ideologies, they remain within the Eurocentric both violent and peaceful civil society sphere and to the extent they embody organizations, parliamentary means and endogenous i.e. non-Eurocentric ideas, they international cooperation, headed by the depart from the Eurocentric sphere. Thus, seen peaceful movement of the legitimate president from a strict criterion of non-Eurocentric, Latin Andrés Manuel López Obrador. North America America represents only partially non- in itself has a possibility to develop as an entity Eurocentric transformations, but seen from the of democratic regionalism, even though at the more relaxed criterion, as a challenge to the moment the neo-liberal NAFTA and the new recent Eurocentric power areas and also as one imperialist SPP (Security and Prosperity macro-regional locus, which, in the context of Partnership for North America) have set the path macro-regionalization or even dissolution of of regional development. If Barack Obama global economy, has a possibility to depart from becomes the next US president, there are the universalistic and one-dimensional possibilities for the renegotiation of NAFTA Eurocentric socio-economic dogmatism and to towards more social economic community. On promote more or less non-Eurocentric socio- the other hand, he supports the deepening of economic practices and institutions embodying border control within North America and has them. supported the continuation of the militarist Colombia Plan as well as the Merida Initiative In the case of Africa considerable advances were (extended Mexico Plan), which are compatible made during the decolonization and in the case

© Historia Actual Online 2009 21 Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution Petri Minkkinen of Apartheid regime of South Africa. Egypt of seen as a black spot. It is, on the other hand Gamal Abdel Nasser was the leader of Arab possible that Africa is, in a sense, experiencing a nationalism/socialism. Muammar Gaddafi’s temporal delay. If Latin America was socio- green socialism has been until recently been economically destroyed through the neo-liberal relatively successful in resisting external political programs of 1980’s and 1990’s, which pressure though now it has at least seemingly supported the emergence of recently actualized given up this resistance. South Africa has transformative socio-political forces, the suffered on the problems related to power increased interest of the Eurocentric new transfer as well as leadership problems after imperialist forces to “develop” Africa during the Nelson Mandela. Besides the Republic of Congo 2000’s may imply similar destruction- in which the murder of Patrice Lumumba was transformation cycle in Africa, even a more realized in order to pre-empt a , rapid one, though one must keep in mind that the recent case of Zimbabwe is the most obvious the material-economic possibilities – though not case of sustainable external pressure which natural resources – are more limited in Africa. together with internal problems have ruined the country. In the context of the FRWR Africa and Various key areas of Eurasia have been targets especially sub-Saharan Africa can be conceived of the US and NATO new imperialist policies as a relatively black spot due to the fact that no and occupation. This has overshadowed the real and credible endogenous transformative potential for endogenous non-Eurocentric movement, force or country is in sight. The development in Eurasia, which is actually one possible transformative energies are wasted in reason for the Eurocentric occupation of these internal civil wars (race-related or not) and quite areas. One of the possible institutional often the “development strategies” are foreign expressions of this is the Shanghai Cooperation aid dependent and externally imposed. In the Organization (CSO). As it includes Russia and context of the policies of new imperialism, China as well as a few ex-Soviet Union Africa has been a target area of the US, the EU republics, and Mongolia, India, Pakistan and and recently also China. The latter may or may Iran are its observers, it includes one way or not represent alternative possibilities for African another many powerful non-Eurocentric and development (e.g. alterative markets, emerging countries. While Eurasia in general is technology, financing and also capable though a great landmass of very different countries, the cheap work force), but given the fact that China eventual US-European military retreat from the can nowadays be conceived as a capitalist area may allow deeper political, economic and dictatorship, there are no real guarantees that security cooperation of these countries, the China would be a new developmental guardian interests of which may however be often angel for Africa, and it may well represent just contradictory. As for example China has another round of external imperialism and emerged as a competitor to the Western colonialism. monetary institutions, there may open up new possibilities for a new version of Asian or Seen from the point of view of Eurasian Monetary fund which would probably Eurocentrism/non-Eurocentrism angle, Africa as represent more endogenous and independent a whole can be seen as less Eurocentric from the monetary policies and thus contribute to the de- racial-ethnic point of view even if there are Eurocentrification of world economy. Even if many internal racial-ethnic conflicts. Even if the Russia is only partly non-Eurocentric both Chinese expansion in Africa would involve demographically and culturally, as a whole the exportation of Chinese people to Africa, this SCO-members and observers form an emerging would mean decreasing racial-ethnic economic powerhouse contributing to macro- Eurocentrism of Africa. If the Chinese regionalization of the world-economy, despite (imperialist) expansion in Africa succeeds in the economic ties discussed above. An replacing Euro-US imperialist interests and interesting and important question is how Japan socio-economic practices in Africa, or, its will integrate into the emerging Eurasian-Asian (benevolent) expansion supports the emergence complex. From the Western point of view these and strengthening of the endogenous socio- Eurasian and Asian countries are to a varying economic practices and the replacement of the degree progressive, while many of them are Euro-US ones in Africa, the possibilities for considered to be traditional-conservative and endogenous development may increase despite lacking freedom. the fact that from the point of view of the FRWR especially the sub-Saharan Africa can be

22 © Historia Actual Online 2009 Petri Minkkinen Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution Islamic world which ranges from Atlantic to Poland have together deteriorated the human Pacific Ocean, partly in Eurasia, in Asian island rights situation within the EU, and the roll-back states and in Africa, is one of the foremost areas of these deteriorations would be essential both to of alternatives to Eurocentrism, despite its human rights in Europe as well as to the internal religious, economic and political credibility of EU as a promoter of human rights divisions. The radical Islamism, to a around the world. In economic terms the relative considerable degree a result of the US and other weight of the EU will decrease even if at the Western aggression, forms the most visible moment it is difficult to see the overall short sectors but only a part of whole Islamic world, term implications of the actual phase of global and especially this part is considered from the economic crisis in different world areas. western point of view more conservative, Moreover, it is possible that the notorious traditional and regressive. While to a international financial institutions such as IMF considerable degree true, it should be will lose their global position and return to their remembered that the Western Christian original position as Euro-US institutions, as for fundamentalism as well as orthodox economic example its recent action in relation to Iceland fundamentalism can be considered as equally and Hungary seems to suggest. It is also possible non-progressive and regressive. Radical Islamic that the IMF will be eliminated completely as militants as well as many more moderate the European financial-monetary institutions Moslems have in different historical periods improve their possibilities to operate in such thought about the possibility of reconstruction of situations. Extra-European immigration will the Umma or the Caliphate. Whether this is or decrease the level of Eurocentrism also in even could be possible as one modality of non- Europe itself. Eurocentric and endogenous socio-economic order remains to be seen. One interesting NOTES possibility could be more socially oriented, tolerant and freedom supporting Islamic Umma, 1 One way to define revolutionary situations and which could possibly to a certain degree adopt outcomes has been presented by Tilly, Charles, some modern and non-Eurocentric forms of the European Revolutions, 1492-1992. Oxford/Cambridge, 1995. earlier anti-colonial Arab socialism. Be it as it 2 may, the fact remains that the oil-rich Islamic Besides FRWW and FRWR this article contains countries have economic muscle to promote abbreviations ECCW (Eurocentric Civil War) and MEEGI (Modern Eurocentric economic growth endogenous and non-Eurocentric forms of socio- ideology). economic order, fomented e.g. by the already 3 Keynes, John Maynard, The Economic existing OPEC and Arab Monetary Fund. Consequences of the Peace. London, MacMillan and Co., 1920, 3. In the case of Europe, even if during the 1990’s 4 On the similarities and differences of Soviet and the EU developed into a challenger of the US Chinese models after their respective revolutions and Europe as a whole is at the moment world’s (especially 1917 and 1949) see e.g. Skocpol, Theda, largest economic unit, prospects look generally States and Social Revolutions. A Comparative relatively grim. The main reason for this is the Analysis of France, Russia, and China. Cambridge, decision to promote at the same time Eastern Cambridge University Press (First published in 1979), 1984, especially Chapter 7. enlargement and the constitutional process of 5 See Minkkinen, Petri, “The First Real World War the EU, both of which have created considerable and the Emerging Nuclear Holocaust”. Historia problems. The East-European enlargement made Actual Online, 13 (Primavera, 2007), 19-41. the EU vulnerable to the US expansion, both in 6 Wallerstein, Immanuel, “The Global Picture, 1945- terms of NATO (dangerously undermining the 1990”, in Terrence K. Hopkins and Immanuel development of EU’s own defence institutions)43 Wallerstein (coordinators), The Age of Transition. and the US missile shield plans, which together Trajectory of the World-System 1945 2025. may lead to renewed great power wars in London/New Jersey, Zed Books; Leichhardt: Pluto Europe. The undemocratic constitutional process Press, 1996, 215. As I have suggested in Minkkinen, undermined EU’s credibility as a democratic Petri, “The First Real…”, op. cit., during the times of war and disagreement between the Eurocentric unit and has in fact paralysed the development powers, the capability of negotiation and room for of the Union. The adoption and manoeuvre of more peripheral states and actors has institutionalization of the US hard form integral increased. This has been the case during the fascist control and surveillance methods e.g. in Eurocentric Civil Wars of 20th century as well as the Eurojust-system as well as the conservative during the First Real World War declared by the first influence of East-European countries such as Bush administration. Wallerstein (The Modern

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World-System III. The Second Era of Great economic growth ideologies. On the other hand, Expansion of the Capitalist World-Economy, 1730- Xabier Gorostiaga SJ (El sistema mundial: situación 1840. San Diego/London, Academic Press, 1989, y alternativas. La experiencia, la visión y las 250-251) has pointed out in his discussion on the propuestas desde las victimas. Colección Mundo Spanish American independence and the Mexican Actual: Situación y Alternativas, México, CIIH- revolutionary independence struggle which began in UNAM, 1995, especially 11 & 17), who considers 1810, that “Three elements now entered to set the that the Third Eurocentric Civil War (what he calls stage for the final phase of the Spanish American “Cold War”) did end, thinks that – at that time – “the settler independences: the War of 1812 (actually actual civilization is antagonistic, confronting the 1812-1814) between the United States and Great North against the South […]”, among other things, Britain, the restoration of Ferdinand VII to the throne and in this unbalanced global situation, together with of Spain in 1813, and the Congress of Vienna in the [attempted] creation of global market, with the 1815. Besides being “more or less the last act of the tendencies toward homogenization and uniformity, settler decolonization of the United States”, as “under the umbrella of exclusive global military Wallerstein suggests, the War of 1812 between the monopoly.” (translated from Spanish by PM) Pablo US and Great Britain and the Napoleonic Wars González Casanova (“Globalidad, neoliberalismo y created also a war situation between Eurocentric democracia”, in Pablo González Casanova y John states both in North America and Europe, which also Saxe-Fernández (coordinadores), El Mundo Actual: in this case opened possibilities for more peripheral Situación y Alternativas. México/Madrid, CIIH- actors. As Wallerstein (“The Global Picture…”, op. UNAM-Siglo XXI, 1996, 50) interprets this that cit., 215) suggested the struggle of 1914-1945 can Gorostiaga means that the 21st century and the war of also be seen as a thirty years war. In this case the North against the South had already begun. This can principal competitor to the US was Germany but if be conceived as an economic war of the North we include revolutionary Mexico and Russia as against the South and González Casanova suggest principal threats, it is possible to suggest that a long that this can be seen in terms of global war as an war of the 20th century lasted either from 1910 to “internal war”, a concept which emerged from the 1991 (or beyond) or 1917 to 1991 (or beyond). If we experiences of the 1960’s and from earlier “colonial conceive Germany, especially after the European domination through credit”, which England practiced Unions inclusion of (or expansion to) various Eastern “with great success” from 19th century. They both European states, the strongest member-state of the appreciate the importance of military power, but in EU, we may also think that the disagreements the context of their analysis, this war of the North between the US and the EU over the Iraq war of against the South or global internal war, is foremost 2003-, which is taking place in the context of the an economic war, which takes place within the First Real World War, we may see yet another round practices of neo-liberal/neo-conservative program. Of of the US-Germany competition, despite the shadowy the Cold War as a “civil war of Europe”, see deals and agreements between Germany and the US Minkkinen, Petri, “La democratización de México en behind the scenes. el contexto mundial”. Relaciones Internacionales, 72 7 Which does not mean that the US social forces (Octubre-Diciembre de 1996), 37. which had been considering revolutionary Mexico as 9 See e.g. Gill, Stephen, American Hegemony and a threat to the Western capitalist civilization as Trilateral Commission. Cambridge, Cambridge represented by the US and which opposed also the University Press, 1990. reformist policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt, would 10 See and compare Minkkinen, Petri, “New have given up their task to undo the revolutionary Imperialism and Beyond. Why the New Imperialism and reformist progressive policies of Mexico’s Will Fail and Unseat the Bush Administration?”. revolution of 1910 as represented for example by Historia Actual Online, 4 (Primavera, 2004); Mexico’s 1917 Constitution and the foreign policy Minkkinen, Petri, KAKTUS, Bush ja Pohjois- doctrine of Venustiano Carranza (see Minkkinen, Amerikan tulevaisuus. Kriittinen avointen Petri, Meksikon 1900-luku. Vallankumouksellisen historiallisten kontekstien tutkimus ja muutoksellinen maan politiikka, talous ja ulkopolitiikka. Helsinki, politiikka. Helsinki, SRTY/Like. Another attempt to KAKTUS (forthcoming). Even if the concept create a hegemonic consent took place in the context development had been coined by President Truman, of the FRWW, this time around hard form integral the US which favoured gradual recreation of liberal fascist control and surveillance ideology and world economy, did not abandon its criticism of the practices. excessive nationalism of the national development 11 On Brzezinski’s revelations, see “Les révélations programs of the peripheral and semiperipheral d’un ancien conseiller de Carter, “Oui, la CIA est countries. entrée en Afghanistan avant les Russes...”. Nouvel 8 There are differing views whether the Third Observateur Hebdo, 1731 (Janvier 15-21 1998). Eurocentric Civil War ended, say, in 1991, or 12 Here one should remember that from the US point whether it continued beyond this date. It is evident of view communism was a foreign ideology to the that in the sense of “super-power” struggle between Americas and the standard custom was to interpret all the US and the Soviet Union this war did end as a or at least most attempts to improve the lot of the struggle between competing Modern Eurocentric

24 © Historia Actual Online 2009 Petri Minkkinen Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution poor social sectors as indicators of Soviet advance in England) and France have been the most constant Latin America. warriors. 13 See e.g. Minkkinen, Petri, Meksikon 1900-luku, op. 25 Ibid., 243, Table 7.1. cit. 26 This hypothesis implies that there has been, is, and 14 See e.g. Minkkinen, Petri, Meksikon 1900-luku, op. will be a general increase of revolutionary situations cit. globally during this period but admits that it is 15 After the triumph of left in various countries of possible to verify this hypothesis empirically only to Latin America, influential journals such as The the point of time in which this article is submitted for Economist began to discuss about the problems of publication. democracy, in a sense echoing the 1970’s discussion 27 Given the preliminary nature of this article, it is not on the crisis of democracy by the Trilateral possible to discuss all the revolutionary situations Commission. globally during the past 500+ years. This evidently 16 Relatively similar economic reform before political requires more research work and will be discussed in reform choice was made in Mexico. However, in the an eventual book emerging from this research case of Mexico the transition was very humiliating process. due to the necessity to cede considerable part of its 28 One might suggest that a revolution requires a re- sovereignty and autonomy to its traditional enemy evolution caused by the so-called people or peoples the US. On the other hand, despite the terrible which have not been in a position to benefit from the suffering faced by the Mexicans, their country will in earlier or existing social order. A coup d’état is a time evidently improve greatly its position in North change in power-relations within existing social American political economy, which, however, in the order in the context of which one ruling or governing context of global transformation, is becoming class, group or section undoes the power position of increasingly less central. another ruling or governing class, group or section 17 See , and takes this power position. This requires further ”Statement of Principles” and ”Rebuilding America’s thinking for example in the case of revolution, Defences”. whether a re-evolution can strictly be caused only by 18 See e.g. Minkkinen, Petri, ”The First Real…”, op. the so-called people or peoples or whether there can cit. be some actor or actors who somehow inspire or even 19 One can note that similar and quite justified lead this re-evolution. In the case of electoral victory, concerns emerged in the beginning of the 20th managed or not, a question arises whether a century, after the beginning of the I ECCW. revolution on the polls, or the so-called democratic 20 . revolution is possible? If the answer is yes, this 21 See , and there term requires that a revolution on the polls causes a re- Caucasian. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, evolution as defined above. Moreover, it is important the peoples living in the Caucasus are subdivided to remember that a system of representative into two northern branches and a southern branch. Of democracy as it was organized for example in the southerners Mingrelians and Laz, and the Svan England, was devised as a system which would form the Republic of Georgia and partly in Turkey. prevent a radical social transformation, especially in Among the northern group are the Chechens, the relation to property-relations. Kabardians, the Abkhaz, the Ingush, the Lezgi and a 29 This is related, among other things, to the number of less populous groups. Besides them, in the discussion whether the capitalist and social Caucasus and Transcaucasia area live various groups democratic Sweden is (or at least was) or even the of Indo-European, Turkic and also Semitic peoples New Deal but archetypically capitalist US was more (). real-communistic countries ever were or are or can 22 See . ever be (this discussion is well beyond the limits of 23 To what extent, if any, it is possible to discuss this article). about emerging macro-regional cultures or 30 The most obvious contemporary example is Latin civilizations, will be discussed in broader versions America. In this case one should remember that the arising from the basis of this article. new governments represent different versions and 24 Tilly, Charles, European Revolutions,…, op. cit., levels of deepness of social transformation and that 1995, especially Tables 4.1, 5.1 and 6.1. British even if there has been considerable advance in states (including England, Wales, Scotland and relation to new macro-regional institutions, these Ireland) and France have been most constantly in the differences have not yet so far been surpassed. As a state of war. Due to its formative process as a state historical example (or warning) one can remember and empire, Russia’s case is more complicated and the failure of Latin American countries to unite their includes also wars involving regions which have powers after the independence during early 19th been parts of Russian empire or which have been century. Moreover, in the context of the FRWW the within its sphere of influence. Also other European US has been mostly marginalized from these actors such as the Dutch and the Iberian states (Spain developments, which has given Latin America more and Portugal) have been often involved in external room to manoeuvre. and internal wars but the British states (especially

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31 To be sure, anti-Bolshevik sentiment and action 35 Which have effectively outlived their Mexican and was prevalent also among the broad sectors of ruling, Russian predecessors even if in both cases it has been governing and in general propertied classes of many necessary to make accommodations with the Western other countries. As in the case of Mexico’s versions of Modern Eurocentric economic growth revolution, the undoing of Bolshevik revolutions ideology. objectives and achievements became a permanent 36 See Arrighi, Giovanni, Terence K. Hopkins and objective of the US, Great Britain and Germany. Immanuel Wallerstein, Antisystemic Movements. Adolph Hitler’s National Socialistic Germany, London/New York, Verso, 1989, especially chapter which, among other things, adopted a policy of 5. protecting German workers against both international 37 Here one could refer to the belief in an Jewish finance and international Jewish communists emancipative upward spiral of capitalism and and within this framework preserved private socialism as suggested by Terry Boswell and ownership in non-Jewish and preferably German Christopher Chase-Dunn (The Spiral of Capitalism hands, emerged as a bulwark and primary force and Socialism. Toward Global Democracy. against the nationalized but potentially expansive Boulder/London, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000), Stalinist version of . This was also useful which seems to reflect the belief in almost perpetual in undoing Germany’s ascendancy in relation to upward spiral of capitalist and socialist revolutions Great Britain and the US, which, after Nazi- and adaptations (not basically an unsound belief Germany’s defeat, could proceed with undoing of the because the capitalist “learnt” also from the radical Soviet challenge, the success of which, however, was theses of Marx (see e.g. Minkkinen, Petri, KAKTUS, by no means certain at that time. Hitler’s policies had Bush ja…, op. cit) leading to ever more emancipated supporters also in the US and it is probable that the global society. US forms of anti-Semitism resonated also with the 38 At least in the rich countries the issue of minority Communist-Jew image given to Bolshevik rights has developed up to a point in which the revolution. demand of equal rights for each separate minority 32 Here it might be useful to remember that the group has lead to increasing dissolution of society wealthy industrialist supported Karl and to ever increasing demand for equal rights for Marx’s (he himself a descendant of a long line of increasingly small and increasingly curious minority Jewish rabbi-intelligentsia) investigation and political groups, whereas the goal should be equal rights to activity. Also Mexico’s anarchists promoted their everyone, each single human being. revolutionary propaganda from the US side of the 39 In the pro-economic globalization camp there has border. been a tendency to point at the redistributive 33 It was the second long Mexican revolution 1910- beneficial tendencies of capitalist globalization by 1929 (1940). First one was the anti-colonialist suggesting that the recent phase of globalization has revolution of 1810-1821 which lead to national opened up these possibilities to poorer countries. independence and the third one is the actual ongoing While there is a grain of truth in this these views tend one which began in 1988. (See, Minkkinen, Petri, to forget the state and public nature which is often Meksikon 1900-luku…, op. cit.). behind facilitating these operations. Moreover, while 34 It is evident that there are differences within the it is not possible here to engage in deeper discussion countries of ex-Soviet sphere. In Russia a majority on this topic on the benefits or defects of capitalist thought at least during 1990’s that their life was globalisation, it is necessary to remember that better during the Soviet regime. Moreover, as a especially the neo-liberal and new imperialist personality cult and a need for a strong leader versions of capitalist globalization have tended to emerged after 1917, similar development has taken concentrate ownership and polarize and dissolve place especially during the Putin era. Also, as was the societies and thus even if at the country level there case of Stalin era, has re- may be some redistributive tendencies this is not the emerged during the Putin era and in both cases this case at the level of human beings. tendency is related – notwithstanding the national 40 The discussion whether this is morally and particularities – to a more general world-wide ethically right thing to do is beyond the limits of this tendency. On the other hand, many Eastern European article. It seems however that rich man’s (or countries, especially those which are now EU- country’s) protectionism is and has been more member states, have to a certain degree improved acceptable than poor man’s (or country’s) their and their citizen’s situation. However, given the protectionism. Moreover, it was not considered as fact that the EU itself has, in the context of the First problematic when the asset purchaser came from Real World War, adapted to the corresponding forms other white Eurocentric country, whereas of population control, and the entry of new Eastern protectionism is required when the non-white asset European countries to the EU has in fact contributed purchasers have emerged. For example in Finland, to the increased within the EU, the the Eurocentric asset purchasers have so far done overall situation of the citizens of the Eastern much more damage to national ownership than the European countries (as well as those in other EU no-white asset purchasers. member-states), has not improved as much as is often 41 Here it is possible to say that besides the US believed. policies lead problems in European-Moslem

26 © Historia Actual Online 2009 Petri Minkkinen Wars, Revolutions and the First Real World Revolution relations, the traditional religion-based legacy of confrontation may still cause problems. In relation to Sub-Saharan Africans, there are reasons to believe that there is considerable resentment and potential conflict in Europe in relation to their immigration en masse. In relation to immigrants from Latin America no such resentment exist (due to their partial Eurocentrism and historical fascination in relation to indigenous populations and civilizations of the Americas), especially in Spain and Portugal, but also elsewhere. 42 It is true that the capitalist globalization (in its all forms) and the macro-regional and world institutions have (until recently) in a sense made state borders more porous and invisible though especially in the context of new imperialism and hard form integral fascism they have again become very much visible. This tendency – as well as all more or less utopian views of borderless world, be they capitalist or emancipative – should however be conceived at least partially different from the probable institutional and border changes related to the FRWR. 43 This has been the case despite the fact that the NATO belongs to past era, and should be dissolved, because in contemporary world it has become a new imperialist institution, the existence and the expansion of which is causing exactly what it was supposed to deter (besides the Soviet expansion), i.e. war, and possibly also a traditional great power war in Europe.

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