APPENDIX : A

®he Vidyadhara-s C x o

Vidyadharas :

To convince Vasudeva of the noble origin of Princess Kilajasa who had attracted the attention of Vasudeva in the guise of a matamga maiden Queon Hirannavati tells the story of the genesis of the Vidyadhara race of which Nami and VinawL were tiie founders^. The story tells that Nami and Vinaiai who hailed from the family of Usabha were not present at the time when Usabha, before his renunciation, distributed his kingdom among his hundred sons. After coming to know of the distribution, both the princes attended Usabha v;hile he was practicing penance, vri.th deep devotion and a conviction that the lord would give them their share in some form, though it was pretty late. Dharana the lord of serpents, seeing the futility of their service but at the same time pleased with their devotion towards the lord, gi-w»e them the over lordship of the two rows of mt. Veyaddha. as it WdS not possible to t ascend these on foot, he bestowed upon them loves which enabled them to fly in the air. He also advised them to T bring with the help of lo/es, people from various r countries, as their subjects. The various loVes which wer|

1. Vh(P), 163-64. 42-1

wielded before them by the Gamdhavvas and Pannagas were r fotty eight thousand in number and included lo/es like Maharohini, Pannatti, Gori. Vi.i;nutnai and others.

’T' After the investiture of loVes, Nami and Vinami ft* M got constructed Aahaneuracakkavala and other forty nine cities on the southern slope, of Veyaddha and Gaganavallaha and fifty nine on the nothern slope, respectively. For these cities, citizens were brought from different countries (janavaya) after which the new countries on Veyaddha were named. The princes also divided their subjects according to the loH*es they wielded into different nikayas. Such

T - sixteen nikayas named after the loj^es were : (i) Gorika, (ii) Manupuvvaga, (iii) Gamdhara, (iv) Manava, (v) Kesigapuvvaga, (vi) Bhumitumdaga, (vii) Mulaviriya (viii) Samkukka, (ix) Pamduga. (x) Kalageya, (xi) Mayamga (xii) Pawaeya, (xiii) VairLsalaya, (xiv) Pamsumuliga, (xv) RukkhamvTytliya and (xvi) Kalakesa. These sixteen nikayas were divided into two groups of consisting of eight nikayas (vibhatta atthaatta ya nikaya). In every city of the Vidyadhg.ra kingdom the image of lord Usabha along with that of the respective deity of the loyes (vi.i.iahivai) was consecrated in the general assembly hall (Sabha). C2.'X

This, however, never meant that Vid~/adharas T* ] had a sort of ■, rjoropoly over the magical loi^es . These 2 were within the reach of Jaina monks , and sometimes even of thieves^.

The division of the Vidyadharas into various - r nikayas according to the lo'/es they mastered, has also been' referred to in the Vh(M). In fact Dharmasena gani, the author of the Vh(M), refers to the passage of the Vh(P) t I which is called ^Padhamellfcaga Kamda^ , He, however, misinterprets the passage. As seen earlier, the sixteen Vi.lianikayas were divided into two groups, each one of which comprised eight nikayas. Dharmasena gani enumerates eight nikayas as Gorika, Gamdharika, Manaviyaka, Kesigapuvvaga ShumituiTidaga, Mulaviriya and Samkuya - the eighth one missing - and says that the Vh(P) gives a sub-division of each one of these eight nikayas into eight nikayas and thus

1. Any magical loi^e,erg. of controlling a serpent was called vijja; Vh(P),125.

2. ?h(P), 12g; JambusajJi, even before becoming a monk, was r having some lo^e. 3. VhlB*),7; a sefvant in the palace of king, Vairasena could fly in the air; Vh(P}, 173. 4. Vh(M), 1.126. making the number of nikayas to sixty four^. fhe sixty four groups according the author of the Vh(M)had different emblems and ways of practising ai;Isterities for the Y . ^ 2 acquirement of loVes (vi.1.1 ana puraccaranavihi) . Some of the glimpses of the life of Vidyadharas can be noted in the Vh(P) and the Vh(M).

As noted earlier the Vidhadharas formed themselves into various nikayas. These nikayas as can be seen from the story of Nila.jasa played an important role in the kingdoms of the Vidyadharas. The elders in the nikayas (nikaya vuddha) in cases of disputes even royal families were referred to as judges. A dispute pertaining to matrimony was taken to the ^elders and their judgement on the matter was taken to be final^.

The Vh(M) also refefs to the assembly where a OVeY Vidyadhara king presiding a Sabha of the Vidyadharas solved disputes brought before the Sabha. Such a sabha has been described in one place as painted in white and having inside it an im.age of the god Dharana. Any one who supposed himself to be wronged, beat a drum (dheri) placed in the hall with a stick (thuna) to call the members of the

1. Atthattha bheda evam causatthi feabheda padhamellage — • « II ■■II • • I II — — ^ . . 1 1 ■ «i i«» I -m • — — — ■ - - ■ ■■' ^1 - ■■ • I II I ■ Kamde ruvitar Vh(M), 1.126

2. Ibid. 3. Vh(F), IgO.lSl. assembly (sabhasada) to listen to his case and give judgement^.

It has been noted elsewhere that the Vidyadharas were generally beantiful and Vasudeva was so much beautiful, that he was taken to be a Vidl^iadhara by strangers. Some information about the outward appearance of the Vidyadharas can be had from the Vh.

A Vidyadhara dressed himself in such a fashion 2 that he sometimes looked like a juggler (imda.jaliya) . Vidhadhara Amitagati has been described to wear a yellow garment (^lyambara) and some ornaments^; while VidyadhaVi Mehamala, like Amitagate, was wearing only one garment (ekkavasana) of red colour (rattarrisuya) and had covered the rest of the body with sprouts of Asoka tree^’

The Vh(M) takes them virtually on par with gods (Suralogasamanabhavo-)^ Vi,1.1ahara.1ano )^the Vidyadharis have been described in one place to be so much beautiful as to create an illusion that they were nagakannas^. The dress

1. Vh(M), I.29a. 2. Vh(P), 195.

3. Ibid.; 139. 4. Ibid.; 73. 5. Vh(M),I.3. 6. Ibid.; II.232b. ( > 1 ^ S

of the Vidyadhara depended on the nikaya of which he became -1 ~2 a member. Dresses of mayaniKavi.j.la and Kesiyavi.i'.la have been referred to. Vasudeva, as a Kesiya-Vi.I.jahara, wore an earring in his left ear, a crest on his head, a garland, a blue garment, and a golden necklace. He had also besmeared his body with white paste (dhavalakadamgaraga)^. The ornaments of the Vidyadhara princesses were not different from those viorn by the princesses from the royal families» A Vidyadhara princess has been described as wearing a sprout

of Rattasoa■ r ^ f on the ear as a --kannapura, —‘---- ' fragr^jnt flowers in her mass of hair, and a tilaka of gold on the forehead^. One detail, very characteristic about the Vidyadharas and to be noted in the sculptures, is the way of their flying in the 'air. The Vidyadharis have been described as putting their hand round the neck of their beloveds (Kamthavalaggae) or as putting the hand on the shoulder of their partner^ after resting on his loins (Kakumdare). Vidyadhara-couples

are depicted in a similar way in indian sculpture of contemporary period.

1. Vh(M), II.26a, 2. Ibid.r II.110b. 3. Ibid.r 4. tbid.r II2b.3a. 5. fbid.-r II.26b. 6. Ibid.^ I.23ar C2.4

In the story of Nami and Vinami of the Vh(P) given above it has already been made clear that the Vidyadharas worshipped Usabha, and Dharana, the king of Nagas. In the sejne story it is related how after attaining conciousness, Amitagati bathes in a pond and pays salutations in the direction of xvorth^'; it is not made clear in the story as to whom he adored by such an act. Reference is also made to a Vidyadhara couple which visited the mt, Sammeta to 2 pay reverence to Jaina monks ,

The Vh(M) gives more details about the festivals celebrated by the Vidyadharasr Vidyadharas celebrated an atthahiya-mahima on the slmanaga mountain in celebration of Y r investiture of the lot-es. The lo-/os, according to the Vh(M), were first given on this mountain (vi.i.ja-padhamapayana-bhumi The description of the celebration of this festival is similar to that of the mahakomudi celebration held in S a v a tth iT Another festival was that held in honour of Samjayamla the king of serpents (i.e. Dharana) the confluence of five

1, ?h(P), 139; See also the story of Jayamta and Samjayamtaj Vh(P), 251-253. 2. Ibid.r 214-15. 3. Vh(M), I 26a; The VhlP) f.163-64 which describes the

incident of the invL-stiture does not refer to the place. G2q

rivers (pamcanadi-Samgama)^« Still another was held on mt. Harikuda in honour of monk Hari, whose nisihiya was on this mountain, and^j^Jinaraadana. The Vidyadharas are said to have iiv worshipped regularly a pool resided^by a naga deity. The story behind this tradition was that in ancient times there was a king by name Sarrmadadeva. He, at the end of his career, deposited his magical sword and shield with the naga deity. He also asked the deity to give his weapons to the ’hero’ (uttamapurisa) who worshipped the pool Vasudeva, in the Vh(M), is described to have got them^.

As is clear from the story of Gamdhavvadatta,

the Vidyadharas were human beings (manussamitta) and still could have contact with gods and demi-gods, As the Vidyadharas joined the gods in their praise of Vinh^ikumara, Tumburu and Narada were very much pleased with them, as a result of which they were bestowed vath proficiency in music (gamdhavva)^.

Sometimes, as is known from the story of cakkavatti Bharaha, certain Vidyadharas were helped by gods.

1. Vh(M), II 167a; see also the story of Samjayamta and Jayamta in the Vh(P) p,251-53j. 2. Vh(M), II liaab-119a. 3. lbid,r II.107a. 4. Vh(P), 130. 62_8

The Cilada Yidyadharas were helped by cloud-faced gods (mehamuha deva) who showered rains over the army of king Bharaha^,

The Yidyadharas equipped themselves with medicinal herbs of four types which very instantaneously cured the 2 wounded warrior of his wounds ,

The Vh(M) refers to the incident of Bharaha’s encounter with the Citatas helped by the mehamuha gods while describing a similar incident in the ease of Vasudeva, The version of the Vh(M) about the Bharaha-cilada battle, however, specifies that the shov^er sent by the cloud-faced-gods was of serpents, (sappavarisa)^» In their fight vdth Vasudeva tha kiratas have also been described as bearing different faces such as of elephant, tiger and bear^. The Kiratas themselves have been described as mechas and helped by an army of kkhasa (-senna)^. In still another description of a battle fought by Vasudeva with an adversary Vidyadhara king the latter is said to have been supported by Vedalas, Pisayas. Rakkhasas and warriors bearing faces of wild animals^, in the same battle a bhuta has been described as

1. ibid,r 156 2. ibid.r 13S 3. Vh(M),II 143b. 4. Jb^. 7 II. 143b-144a. 5. Ibid.^ 6.Ibid,y II,1. multiplying itself in number after every blow of sword from Vasudeva^.

Because of their hold on various magical loves the Vidyadharas have been described to accomplish many feats which were difficult for a human being. The Vidyadharas 2 could fly in air and could carry another person who was 3 I unable to do so . They could not only change their form , but could elude a human being by shovjing a third person as bearing a different form^. They could also take the form qf animals^, and sometimes create a new body through luv magic (mayamaya) . j^their ability to change their forms, while spleeping the Vidyadharas had to bear their own form. Vasudeva was married by Vegavati after showing herself as

Somasiri, But Vasudeva could notice her original form when she was sleeping . Because of such a superiority over human beings many Vidyadharas took liberty with women from the human world. In the Vh(P) it has been described hov; Mehasena, a Vijjahara, had approached one the wiver of Dhammitta in the form of Dhammilla himself? The examples of

1. Vh(M), II.1. 2. Vh(P), 71.

3. ifaid.r 71, 359. 4. Ibid, 7 352,359- 5. tbid.r 175» 6. Ibid.,- 355. 7. lbid_.r 140 Vh(P), 226. 9. Ibid..r 73. Vidyadharas kidnapping maidens from the human world are numerous in the Vh(P)^. nn example of a Vidyadhara couple acting as benefactors also should be noted. AgadadattA’s wife who had died of serpent-bite was brought back to life by 2 a Vidyadhara who vjas moved by the lamentations of Agadadatta . The Vh(M) informs that the Vidyadharas could fly as high up as the seventh aerial path (Sattama Vayupaha)^. The Vidyadharas could remain invisible or show themselves only to the persons of their liking^ or could change their form^. However, thoui^h they could deceive the eyes, they could not do so with touch. A Vidyadhari presented herself as

Vasudeva to Gamdhavvadatta who embraced her to find that the touch was not that of Vasudeva^,

Austerities to acquire loles

y' To acquire tne loye the Vid^^adhara had to pay a very high price. He had to undergo very severe austerities. When Vasudeva was initiated by a Vidyadhara for the acquisition of love enabling ijim to fly in the air (gaganagamanajogga vijja)

1. Ibid.f 6a, 227, 243. 2. Ibid.r k7r 3. Vh(M), II.99a. k. Ibid.r I. 6a. 5. Ibid.-f 1.66. 6. Ibid.r 1.6a. he ;vas asked to repeat the saerad syllafc>les for a day and a night. He was asked to observe reticence and not to be carried away by the amorous gestures of hindering spirijss (viggha) which earns in the form of beautiful vjomen^. In

another instance wherein Vasudeva was initiated to get an aerial C iir, the preceptor asked him to go alone on the fourjteenth night of the black fortnight (kalacauddasi) to a lonely place on a mountain. The preceptor performed the preliminary rites which included offering a bali to the gods. Then Vasudeva was asked to recite the saered syllable (vij,fa) for one ti-ousand and eight times - 2 (atthasahassavattiya) . Sometimes the aspirer had to accept the form of an ascetic (parivvayaga-vesadhari) and perform 3 austerities in the river water"^, or swallow smoke of , Lex. Kanaka tree^ or worship a dhumakumda^, To acquire Iviaha.lavati vidya one had to worship the images of Jayamta (i.e. Dharana) and samjayamta with a sattaraimdiya padima and^a fast for a period of one month (masiya bhatta)^. Some times they could we-ve to be had with a very easy procedure wherein they »ouM^ be

1. Vh(P), 239-30. 2. ibid.r 195.

3. rbid.r 229. 4. Vh(p), 179. 5. Ibid.; 6? 6. tbid.T 324-25. 432.

transferred from one friend to another^.

Reference has already been made to the gods who hindered the acquirement of lores.Some of the Vidyadhara families were more unfortunate as in the case of the family of Princess Balacamda. She was entvjined by nagas (na?^a-pusa-bamdha) during her austerities as a result of a 2 curse by the god Dharana .

Performance of austerities at an auspicious place like mt. Simanara (Simanaga) or the sight of god or a Jaina monk (Sahu) or a hero (uttamapurisa) during the puraccarana was supposed to bring the attainment of the love with less effort^.

The Yh{n) offers a detailed information on this Y topic. The most simple way of acquiring lo'/es v/as through marriage, Veruliyamala, one of the wives of Vasudeva, gave him Mahamanasi lo/e when ;^he marriage rites were being performed^. Existence of cruel practises to attain Vi.i.jas can be very well imagined from an incident from the Vh(H), To please the Samkuga vi.i.ja king VSTyuradha was prepared to

1. Ibid.r 324-25. 2. Ibid.r 251-53» 3. Ibid. 7 364. 4. Vh(P), 179, 251, 364. 5. Vh(M), IX.29b. (^'23

1 ^ kill Vasudeva as a victim . The Vh(M) also amiuerates A. places and constellations auspicious for the fulfilment of loTes. Places visited by saviours,liberated souls (siddha) and monks were fit for the performance austerities. Among these the best was the temple of Usabha in the Nanidana forest. The auspicious constellations v^ere Miyasira, Adda, three Puvvas, Mula, Assesa, Hattha, Citta ^ 2 and especially Pussa .

The nature of austerities performed differed from lore to lore. For Gori one had to perform reticence (mona)^ and behaviour like a log (katthamona) ; for Manu , i£ was required to behave like^Farivvayaga; for Gamdhari, of a talayara (?); for, Vanavi (Ma-?) of a hero (uttamapayatiya- manasaruva); for Maharohini, one had to accept the guise of Xavatiya or Pasuvata, or perform austerities on burning fire (kattharasi-hutavaha) or .jaliti ( ?), or galakuva (?) or cammacakamana(?). While accepting the dress of a Kavaliya or pasuvata, or while observing katthamona for the purpose of lores, a male performer had to accept the dress of a female^and vice-versa^.

The way of the performance of austerities has been described in the Vh(M) in the case of some of the loyes.

1 . rbid.r II. 27a. 2. Tbid.r I. 39. 3. Vh(M). I. 12b. 43^

Those are Gori, Pannatti, Kesiya, and Maharohini.

Vasudeva had performed ausceritiss for the acquirement of this mahavi.i'ia. For fourteen days he was asked to recite the saered syllables and observe a complete fast (niraharo). During the above period he was expected to observe indifference towards friends and foes, heat and cold, and keep open his eyes both during the days and the nights. When Vasudetea was performing this penance, his beloved, knowing the convention, put on his body the dress 1 » of a young woman.

Vasudeva vias also initiated for the loves of Kesiyapuvva group. He bathed, wore a pair of pattasadayas ^ sat on a dabbhasana which was purified by hymns and flowers> and recited the vij.ja. The mantra which was recited was as folloAi^s : namo arahamtana, namo siddhana, namo bhagavato adikarassa Risabhassa maliasetassa setakutassa, namo bhagavato Dharanassa nagara- - ino abhirakkhadu cchada - -2 .

Vasudeva is also said to have performed austerities for kesiya vi,i,1a« The course of austerities consint?d of thres instalments, each of which had a duration of seiwen days.

1. Vh(M), IT.124b. 2. Ibid..T II. 19a. 63S

These three fasts, accompanied by the recitation of lofe, were to be observed in i) a deserted house (sunnaghara) full of darkness, ii) in chest-deep water and iii} in a padima^. To start with, Vasudeva performed the benedictory rites, i.e., the worship of the gods. After determining not to eat any food (kayabhattapariccau) he sat ox]Ja. seat of darbha grass and started reciting the vijja*^.

Vasudeva \vith a view to attain Pannatti had to remain in water for three days reciting the vi.ija. He had besmeared his shoulders and forehead with yellow orpiment, v.’orn a ring (siddhatighacudiya) on his shoulders as an auspicious amulet and a white bracelet on the right hand^.

Pabhavati, to i-egain her- lost loi»es, when initiated for Pannatti observed austerities for seven days during which she remained in water. She first of all worshipped Dharana and then entered the water, whei-e she stood with stretched hands (lambiya-bhuya-.jyyala} reciting the pannatti love. On the next day she was intimidated by evil spirits like Dhaturakkha ( sa?) and Pi say a s^. Vasudeva, to facilitiite

1. Vh(M), II. 93b; on p. 94^, however, the instalments are said to have been observed in a cftmetery (riiasanasattaratta) 2. Vh(M), II. 93b. 3. Ibid,Tl9gb. 4. Vh(M), I. 42b-/,3a. 636

her getting the loye earlier, slept for one night with

- 1 an image of Salabham.jika, as directed by his other wives .

Decline (bhamsa) in the power of a loye :

A Vidyadhara had to abide by certain rules, failing which he had to suffer a decline and to return back to his original state of a human being. Dharana, the king of Nagas, had declared that if a Vidyadhara failed to pay respect to Jaina monks, and Jaina temples, or attacked a person vjhen in the company of his wife or made advances 2 to a maiden against her wish was to suffer the loss of lores .

The Vh(I'l) in adaition to the above^ states that failure in attending festivals in honour of sages samjayanita A and Hari was an equally serious offence . a person who adopted the form of the presiding deity of his lolFe was sure to die^.

Follovdng is the list of the various lo'fes referred to in the Vh(P) and the Vh(M).

1. Vh(M), I.42b-43a. 2. Vh(P), 125, 22?. 3. Vh(M), I.6ab; II.50a. 4. Ibid., I.l6a; II.119ab.

5. Ibid,, I.33b; II.2?. ^37

.ibhogini -(Aho— . .) : The lorecv/as helpful in tracing the whereabouts of a desired person who was at a distant place^.

In the Vh(M), Pabhavati is said to have employed this loi*e to know the whereabouts of Vasudeva who was 2 captured by lyianasavega . This lo're also helped one to know conversation done in the past by other persons 2s.

Osovani ; Pabhava, a chief of thieves, had employed this love to make the persons in the house which he wanted to 3 rob'', sleep.

Use of ti:is lo»e by a female ascetic (parivva~iya) has been referred to in the Vh(M)^.

Kalagi : One of the group of loTes after which the Vidyadhara-nikayas were named^.

Kaliya : The same as above^.

Kesiga (-ya) : One of the sixteen vidya-groups after which the groups (nikaya) of Vidyadharas were formed^

1. Vh(H), I.19a. 2. Vh(M), I 19a; see also Jain, J.C.,Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain canons, p.230 2a. Vh(k), I.47b 3. Vh(F), 8. h-, Vh(i''i), II,15a; see Jain, op»cit, p p.232 5. Vh(P), 164. 6. Ibid.L 7. Ibid.r 635

The procedure of austerities to attain the K^siya vi.1,i’a has been 'iven in the Vh(M)^.

Gamdhari : One of the sixteen vidj'a-^roups after \v-:ich groups (nikaya) were formed among ths Vidyadharas'^,

Gori ; One of the sixteen groups of vidyas wriich wex'C re3;onsible for foraiing groups of the Vidyadharas^.

In the Vh(I'0, Vasur’eve is described to have destroyed the cloud-faced (mehamuhajgods with the help of this love^. The procedure to attain this lore has also been given^. See also Mahagori.

Chayokkamini : The Vidyadhara king of the city of Ruppanabha jealous of Vasudeva, killed his friend king Amsumamta when the latter had been on a visit to the pleasure-garden outside his city^. This lore has also been referred to as Akaliyokkamini or Kayomini vi.j.ja].

Jalavamti : According to the Vh(P), this loTs vjac superior to the rest of the lores (Savvavi.I.jaccheyani). Ramana, seeing that he was sure to face a defeat, started austerities to

1. Vh(i-'if), II.93b. 2. Vh(P), 164. 3. Ibid.I. 4. Vh(fc), II.143b. 5. Ibid.- II. 124a. 6. VhlM), II.123a.

7. fbid.r G39

attain this loVe^. Probably this was the same as

Maha.jalavati referred to elsewhere in the Vh.

Talugfihadani : Pabhava, a chief of thievss, opened the door /•> of Jambu’s house , with this love.

In tho Vh(H) a female ascetic entered the palace of a king after opening the locks with this loi^e^.

Tirakkhamani : One of the several lores given to the

Vidyadharas by Dharana^, as the name suggests, a person could disappear with the help of this love. See also

Tirakkharani," •

Tirakkharaai : Vidyadhara i^ueen Kanagamala declared that she had concealed the foetus in the wonb with this loi^e^.

- Reference to a Vidyadhara moving invisibl&e- in the palace of Dhammilla is also made in the Vh(P)°.

In the Vh(M), a Vid3'‘adhara princess is said to have been made capable to enter an image of Salabhamjika 7 with the help of this lofe .

1. Vh(P), 244. 2. Toid. t 7.

3. Vh(Iv'i), 11.15a. 4. Vh(P), I64. 5. Ibid.r ^4 . 6. Ibid^7 73.

7 . Vh(M), I. 45a. Thambhini ; This loira enabled a person to stupefy any person whom he sees^,

Nagamuhi : Vasudeva employed this lore to arrest the - 2 Vidyadhara king Iviahasihara .

Nisunibha : This was one of the two coriiplimentary ^ the other being Sumbha. a person endowed with these two lol^es possessed an aerial car. When he wanx-ed to ’take off (uppayana) he employed the Sumbha lore and at the time of descending (nippayana) he employed Nisumbha lore. These -..3 lores are described as easy to attain (suhasahanao) .

Pamdugi : One of the sixteen important lores after which the Vidyadhar.d.s were divided into various groups^.

Famsumuliya : One of the important group of loras after which the sixteen nikayas of Vidyadharas were named^.

Pamnatti : It counted as one of the important lores which were given by Dharana to the Vidyadharas^.

1. Vh(P), 7. 2. ?h(M), II.104a. 3. Vh(P), 195. 4. Ibid.r 164. 5 . rbid.^ 6. ibid.^ Narada remarks that because of Pajjunna’s hold over Panna^ti Pajjunna v;as able to fight all the kings of • ■ • • Eharahavarisa. The various exploits of Pajjunna and Samba show that PannattI enabled a person to change his form, create animals and insects, stupefy another person, destroy something and create it again and know about incidents happening at a distant place^.

The Yh{h) gives the procedure in which Pabhavati 2 could attain the —•Punnatl;i c —' — — loi^e •

Pattalahu : As the name suggests, the lol^e made a person’s body as light as a leaf. Vasudeva xvas taught this Vidya by Samali^.

Pavvai ; One of the sixteen of lov^es after which sixteen groups (nikaya) of Vidyadharas were formed'^,

Paharanavarani : This loi^e was attained by Sirivijaya after riciting the saered formula for seven nights^.

1. Vh(P), 92, 94, 96, 9B, 125, 240, 30S, 2. Vh(M), I.42b-43a; s >e also II . 19^b; see ^ain^ op.cit.^

p . 232.

3. Vh(P), 125. 4. Ibid.r 164. 5. Vh(P), 31S. ^^2 -

Baaidhavirnokkhani : This loire was mastered by sirivijaya like the Paharanavarani in seven rights^. This was given 2 to Vasudeva by Princess Samali .

Bahuruva ; Given to the Vidyadharas by Dharana^. r^s the name shows, the loirs enabled a person to take to various fo rms.

Bhamari : A lore wielded by Vidyadhara *isanivega^.

Bhumitumdaga : group of loTes after which a nikaya of

Vidyadharas was named. There v;ere other fifteen nikayas named after lores'^

Manu : One of the sixteen groups of lo>es. The wielders of this type of Vidyas v;ere called hanupuvvaga^.

Madasamiivani : Vasudeva revived Amsiomamla with this lore"^. — I ■ I ■« w ■ ■ , ^ ,

Mahagori : This lore made tlie wielder unconquerable . See Gori.

Mahakali : A loTe wielded by princess iinilayasa^ dne of the Vidyadhara wives of Vasudeva^.

1. is tbid.- 2. Ibid.r 125. 3. IbM-r 164. 4. Tbid. r 319. 5. Ibid.-; l64. 6. Ibid.i 7. Vh(^‘^), II. 123a. Ibid.T II.155a; See also Vh(:-':) ,II.155b. 9.Vh(M) ,II.30a. 6^3.

Maha.jalavati ; Also referred to as Mahajala^ or Jalini^

This lore has been described as superior to the rest of the lore (savvavi.i.laceheyani)^. In the same context the Vh(P) prescribes Sattaraimdiyapadima and masiyovavasa as the means to acquire this lore.

In the Vh(M) a Vidyadhara is described to spread a web with this lo-re dll over the city to catch vasudeva who xvas there. Vasudeva cut the inescapable web of their lore with Va.i.iamuhi lore^.

Mahamanasi : One of the minor lores given to Vasudeva by his wife Verutiyamala, who was a Vidyadhara princess. Vasudeva became able to create things and fly in the air (viuvvinagasagamana ) vri.th the help of this lore^.

Maharahini : One of the important lores given by Dharana to the Vidyadharas^.

The details of attaining this lore have been n given in the Vh(M) . See Supra.

1. Vh(P), 31'3. 2. Ibid.^ 3. fbid.^ k. Vh(M), II.104a. 5. Ibid., II. 29b. 6. Vh(P), 164; see also Jain, Op.cit., P. 232. \ 7. Vh(M), II.lgb-19a. Ghh

Mahiva.1.1 amuhi : One could dig a tunnel in the earth with the pov;er of this lore.

Manavapumdaga ; Vasudeva’s friends Namda and others were initiated in this lore by queen Hirannavati and -Sage 2 Bharaddaya .

Manavi : One of the sixteen important groups of lores. The v^eilders of this group of lores were called Manava Yidya- dharas^.

Mayariigi : One of the sixteen groups of lores. The wielders were cal led Mayamga Vidyadharas!)'

Mulaviriya ; VJielders of this group of lores were called Mulaviriya Vidyadharas^.

Moyani ; This lore was complimentary to Thambhini lore. Persons stupified with Thambini were brought to senses with this lore .

Rukkhamuliga ; One of the sixteen important groups of lores after which the sixteen nikayas of Vidyadharas were formed{

1. Vh(M), II.21a. 2. Ibid.. II.106b. 3. yh(P), 164. 4. Ibid. 5. rbid.^ . 6.Vh(P), 7. 7. Ibid_., 16/4.. 6>tr

Vamsalaya ; Similar to the above^.

Va.l.jamuhi : This lore could cut the magical web of Maha.jalavati^.

Yi.i.lamuhi ; iivTien Asanighosa, an adversary Vidyadhara king of Araiyatea, started feeJring- from the^ battle field •« Amiyatea 1st loose this lore on him. As a result of this, Asanighosa surrendered to Amiyatea**3 .

Vi.i.jumuhi : 0ns of tho important lores given by Dharana to the Vidyadharas^.

Vimohani : Vasudeva, influenced by the powers of this lores, saw princess Lalitavega as a creeper^.

Veyala (-li) : Influenced by this lore, princess Suumaliya saw the dead body of her husband^. King Sirivijaya was shown an antelope and the dead body of his vdfe by his foe 7 who wielded this lore . Reference to queen Hirannavati• • employing a Veyala to fetch Vasudeva from his palace has been made in the Vh(P) . In the same context it is further

1. Ibid.^ 2. Vh(M), II.104b.

3. Vh(P), 319. 4. rbid., 164. 5. Vh(M), II.42b. 6. Vh{P], I50. 7 . Ibid.. 317. S. Ibid,. 17^-79- explained that such Veyalas were known as ’cold’ (siya) so called because of their touch. The others were called ’hot’ (unha) and were utilised to kill an antagonist.

Pabhavati working under the influence of Veyali love was shown a false decapitated head of Vasudeva^. In •• the Vh(M), Vidyadhara Vecittagai is said to have created 2 a heap of bones with this lore .

A Veyala employed to kill Vayuvega, a Vidyadhara king has been described, in the Vh(M) as brandishing a sword in one of his hands and moving very fast in the air to his destination^.

Samkuya : One of the sixteen groups of lores after which the nikayas of Vidyadharas were naraed^'^.

The deity presiding over this lore has been described to be cruel and was to be pleased with a human victim^.

Sumbha : A lore complimentary to Nisumbha lore. Vidyadhara could ’take off’ (uppayana) his aerial car with the recita­ tion of this lore'^. See Nisumbha.

1. Vh(M), 1 .36b. 2. Ibid.. 11.46a. 3. Vh(M), Il.llga. 4. Vh(P), I64. 5. Vh(M), II.27a. 6. Vh(P), 195. ^41

Sihamuhi ; War-drums vjere charmed with this lore, as a result of Vi'hich the drums put-^forth a terrible sound which intimited the hearts of soldiers of the adversary. This ultimately ensured victory for the wielder of this loYe^. Vasudeva utilised this lors at the time of his war 2 vjith king Mamdaradeva . The lore was supposed to protect the periphery of the army^.

Sutanucchayani : Princess Anilayasa covered the mouth of a tunnel, dug by her, with this lore^''.

1. Vh(M), II.145b. 2.Vh(M), II.1.^5b.

3. Ibid. , II.l'+3a. 4. Ibid. , II. 22b. APPENDIX : B

1. Cities 2. Forests

3. Islands

4. Janapadas 5. Land,ProVinces etc.

6. Mountains and Hills

7. Oceans 8. Palli-s 9. Rivers 10. Tirtha-s

11. Villages 12. Visaya-s GITIiiiS

^u.l.jha : Also called Aojjha and Atojjha. Kings Dasaraha, Rama and Sattumjaya ruled here. [Vh(F), 240, 24$, 334J.

It was the birth-place of the second and the fourteenth Tirthankara, and capital of Kosala kingdom v^hich vias one of the twenty-five and a half Aryan countries at the time of king Samprati ( Jain, Life in Ancient,e t c 371) • The same as Ayodhya in the U.P.

Aca(ya)lapura : King Rivusattu v;as ruling the region around this city in the times of Nala, according to the Vh(M). The city was situated on the way from the capital of Kosala (i.e. Southern Kosala) to Vidabbha janavaya [ Vh{M), II.'64aj*

Acalapura,said to be situated in the Abhira visaya, has been identified with modern Ellichpur in Berar ( Jain,

Op.cit. ^.263).

Arakkhuri : King Ratthavadahana was ruling here in the times of Kanha Vasudeva. Princess Susima of this city visited the % holy place Pabhasa along with her borther, prince Hamui.

Kanha, coming to know about her arrival, killed the prince and kidnapped her [Vh(P), 79J•

The city has be-n referred to in the Nayadhammakahao Lllj and is described to have been situated near Campa in the Avasyaka Niryukti [1297, See Jain, Op.cit., P.268.J GSo

Amalakadaya : Susena, a queen of the sovereign Sanamkumara

was the princess of the city of Amlakadaya |.Vh(P), 233J. Not identified.

Ktnalakappa : The kingdom of Amalakappa was under the over­ lordship of that of Gayaura. On way from Gayaura to

Amalakappa was situated the city of Vadapura [Vh(P),90J.

Jain takes iimalakappa to be identical vjith Allakappa which was situated on the w'ay from Masar in Shahabad District to Vaisali ( Qp.cit^. P.265).

Imdapura : Old name of the city of Kannakujja. King Jitasuttu, maternal uncle of Prince Jamadaggi of Varansi, ruled here. Because of the curse of JamadeLggi, daughters of king Jitasattu became hunch-backed. The city was known as Kannakujja after this incident [Vh(P), 237j* King Varima of Hari dynasty ruled here [Vh(P), 357J* •

The same as modern Kanauj in U. P.

Ilavaddhana : King Dakkha of Hari dynasty had a son, by name Ila, from queen Ila- The queen, because of her differences^ with her son left the kingdom, and founded a new city at Tamalittl. The city became famous as Ilavaddhana LVh(P),35?J Ilavaddhana has been described elsewhere in the same book as an important city on the banks of the Gamga. It was a great <^51

emporium of trade. Textiles of various types such as dugulla, cinamsuya, hamsalakkhana. kosi.i.ja and kasavaddhana; pastes of different colours; blankets and ornsments and incenses are described to have been displayed in the market here. The city was beautiful and could be compared because of its good planning which provided it with ditch, rampart and gopuras. with the city of Dhanada [Vh(P), 218].

Probably Elavaddhana of the Mahaniddesa (See

Motichandra, Sarthavaha, 134) is the same as the Ilavaddhana 01 the Vh{P).

U.1.1 eni : Situated on the bank of the river Sippa [Vh(I'«i), II. 82aj. In the Yh(F] Ujjeni is said to be the capital of Avamti janapada l.Vh{P}, 36, 49J* In the time of the yh(P] the city had regular trade relations with Kosambi in the

Vatsa janapada [Vh{P), 43J.

The city has been described as a peer of Amaravati, the city of gods [Vh(P}, 3&J* '^he Jainas had a special attachment towards this city. The famous Jivamtasami image was consecrated here, and, therefore, even monks used to pay visit to this city [Vh(P), 49j. There are many references in Jaina literature about the visits of Jaina Acaryas to Ujjayini v/ith this objective ( Jain Jpcit., i^.346) 65-2.

In the Vh(M), king Avamtisena is described to have ruled here. Vasudeva married his daughter. (Vh(M], II.81a).

This city is the same as modern Ujjain on the banks of the Ksipra (Jain, op»cit., p. 347).

Usabhapura : a certain king by name iidicca was ruling

here [Vh(P], 28?].

In Jaina tradition it occurs as the name of one

of the cities founded on the site of Rayagiha

(Jain, op.cit., p. 347)*

Kamcanapura : King Heraamgaya, contemporary of Kanha

Vasudeva, was ruling here (Vh(P}, 9Sj. Sodasa, the

cannibal, who harrassed the settlement of Tilavatthuya,

was said to be one of the sons of the king of Kamcanapura

(Vh(F), 1971. In this city, Vasuaeva married Laliyasiri

who was a daughter of a courtezan by name Sumittasiri Cvh(p), 360-63}.

In a story, two traders from this city are said

to have brought jewels from Lamkadiva (yh(P), 98}.

Kamcanapura was the capital of Kalimga country

which vj as one of the twenty-five and a half Aryan countri es at the time of king Samprati. It was the same as

Uantapura (Motichandra, Sarthavaha. p. 76). It is identified with modern Bhuvaneshvar in Orissa (Jain, op.cit. , p» 293)*

Kannaku.i.ia ; In the times of Jamadaggi, his maternal uncle Jiyasattu was ruling at Imdapura. Jamadaggi went to his maternal uncle vjith a proposal to marry one of his daughters. Jamadaggi cursed the princesses as none of them was ready to marry him. The result was that all the

princesses became hunch-backed. After this incident, the city of Imdapura cairie to be known as ’the city of hunch-backed maidens’, i.e. Kannakujja C^h(P), 237}..

Kannakujja is the same as modern Kanauj (Pargiter, ]^, p.307).

Kamalapura : Referred to in the description of carusami’s voyage to S-E countries (yh(P), I46J. iiccording to Motichandra, it is probably the same as Kamalim of the Mahaniddesa and was situated in the Kamboja country. He further explains the word Kamalapura as the Indian form

of the Arabian word ’Kamar' (Sarathavaha, p* 134)-

Kakatpdi : Situated on the bank of the Garnga, and on the way from Varanasi to Kusaggapura II.202a}. The city is also described to be situated to the NE of Vacchagumma (ibid., II.220b]. Pupphadarata, the ninth saviour, K’as born here, and hence the city was sacred to the Jainas (ibid., 11.202a).

Mahavira is said to have visited the city. It is the same as modern Kakan in the Monghyr district of Bihar (Jain, op«cit», p. 291).

Kaberi : Capital of king Sximdarapani who had given his daughter in biarriage to the prince of the city of

Radhamaddana (Vh(M), Il.yaj}. Not identified#

Kumdinapura ; Capital of the country of Viyabbha- Also referred to as Kumdini (jh(F), 357j or Kumdinapuri

(Vh(M), II.6lb3* Tne city is said to be founded by king Pulina, born in the Har^ynasty. According to the legend, the king, while on an excursion, saw at the site of the city, a lame (kumti) female antelope standing unalamed facing a lion. Taking this to be a good omen, the king founded a city which came to be known as Kumdinapura

CVh(Pj, 357}. The city is referred to in the legend of

Kanha Vasudeva who married princess Ruppini of K’omdinapura (}/h(P), 80-81}. In the Vh(M), the city is referred to in the Jaina version of the story of Nala and Damayanti

(Vh(M), II^6?b3. In this connection it is related that Sunisumarapura, where king Riduvanna ruled, vjas hundred y0.1 anas away from this city (ibid., II.69a). 655

Kumdinapura has been identified with modern

kaundinyapura on the river wardha in the Chandur Taluka of Amraoti District in Berar (Sircar, op.cit», p. 153)•

Kunala : Capital of kunala janapada. The same as Savatthi (Yh{¥i), Il.lob].

Kusa/^i;,g;apura : A nagara. The city was supposed to be very beautiful and worth describing for days together

(bahudivasa-vannani.i.1 a; VhTp), 27J. Monk Dhammarui is said to have visited this city in his preaching tour. He delivered his lecture on the Vebhara hill situated near this city. (ibid., 74)*

from this information it becomes clear that Kusaggapura v;as a part situated in the locality of modern Rajgir. Hiuen Tsiang informs that the old capital occupied M » by king Bimbisara was called Kusagrapura while the new^ one was called Jtajsigrha (Jain, op.cit. , p. 304i* .The Jaina tradition as giver n the Vh(r}, however, does not agree to this. Seni^a is said to have ruled at 'Layagiha (Vh(P), 2}.

In the Vh(Mj, king Jarasamdha, contemporary of

Vasudeva, is said to have ruled here (II.201a).

Kollai(Ya)ra : King Kunims of Hari dynasty ruled here (Vh(P), 357). Vasudeva, very much anxious to visit the city. 6 5 i

left Poyanapura and started travelling towards the SW in a country which was rich in kine. The city is described to be well protected vvith ramparts (pakara) which looked like the mt. Rayaya, having a row of palatial buildings • which obstructed the path of clouds, and provided with a temple of Somanasa where food and water was given to the needy (Vh(P), 355]«

Jain identifies it with Kullapakapura or Kulpak near Secunderabad in Andhra Pradesh (op.cit., p. 298).

Kosambi : Capital of Vaccha janapada (Vh{P), 35, 3&, 35ll' In the story of Agadadatta, Namdana, who was a son of a minister, is said to have run away from the city through the fear of the king. Namdana is described to have swam across the moat (ibid», 38). Kosambi and Ujjeni had a fair communication through the caravan traders (ibid», 59)■

It was the birth place of the sixth Tirthakara and was marked as the southern limit of itinerary city has been identified with modern kosam, a village situated on the northern bank of the Yamuna, and 31 miles away from

Allahabad (Pargiter, p. 3^7)•

Kosalapuri : Capital of Kosala {2) kingdom'. King Kosala ruled here in the times of Vasudeva (yh(M), II.34b]] • 657

To reach Kosalapuri from Vesali, Vasudeva travelled in S.western direction (jh(K), II.35a]. While travelling from Kosalapuri to Pedhapura in Dabhala kingdom he travelled to the north (ibid., II«54ab). The author of the Vh(M) remarks that ’the houses of sand’ (sikatap.hala) built for the marriage of Vasudeva vjere still to be seen in his times

(ibid., 11.37b).

Law gives Tumraana as the capital of South Kosala in the times of Kalingaraja v^ho conquered the kingdom. He identifies Tummana with a village Tumman, in the Bilaspur district (HGaI, p. 167).

Gayanagara : King Sattudamana ruled here 0Th(P), 28?}»

Probably the same as Hastinapura (Fargiter,

S p. 355).

Gayapura : Kings Jiyasattu (Vh(P), 89I , Vissasena, Mahu and Kedhava ruled here ^h(P), 90^.

Gajapura vjas one of the names of Hastinapura

(Pargiter, t. 355).

Girinagara : One of the cities in the Surattha visaya and probably its capital (j/h(P), 50-513 *

It is explained in the Anuyogadvarasutra (Sutta,130) that it v.’as situated near mt. u^jayat and hence called (o5S^

Girinagara. Tusaspha, the lavana governer ruled t'he country of Surastra with Girinagara as its capital/ (^ee Epi^raphia Indice. Vol.VIII, p. 42 f-f ^. It is the same as modern Junagadh.

Cakkapura ; Kings Pupphakeu, Aparaiya and Sattutama ruled here (Vh(P), 219, 258, 287j.

The seventh saviour received his first alms here (Jain, op.cit.. p. 274)* Not identified.

Camdanapura : King Araohariu of Gamdanapura is described to have visited campa to see the wood-apple trees

CVh(f), 296-99].

Campa : Capital of Araga janapada (Vh{P), 126}. Camdakitti, born in the family of Ikkhaga family ruled here (“ibid., 3571 On the outskirts of the city of Campa was a lake, vjhich was associated with the legend of a king by name Puvvaka and his queen. In honoui' of trie lake, a festival (sara-maha) vjas celebrated by the residents of the city of Campa ^Vh(P), 155-56]. For the follovjers of the Jaina religion the ’great lake’ had a special attraction, as, just near the lake was built a temple dedicated to lord 659

Vasupujja^ (Ibid.. 155, 126) and was probably the same as that situated in the Aipgainamdira garden outside the city of Campa (ibid., 134)* itiver Hayatavaluya flowed by the side of this garden (ibid.)« Campaurl has been referred to in the story of Dhammilla also CVh(P), 71]• It was situated on the confluence of rivers Camda and Gamga (ibid., 58]. There was another river Kanayavaluya a little away from this city (ibid., 67)*

In the Vh(P), king Konika is said to have visited Punnabhadda Shrine when Suhammasawi had been on a preaching tour to Campa and was putting up at the Shrine (ibid.. l6).

Campa has been identified with two villages near Bhagalpur, named Campanagar and Campapur (Jain, op.cit.,275)«

Carana.juvala : King iiyodhana, one of the descendents of the Universal ruler Bharaha, ruled here (Vh(P}, 185^* Not identified.

Chattakara : King Piimkara ruled here Qi^h(P), 258]. Not identified.

1. Law tells that from a lake on the outskirts of the city of Campa, which (i.e. lake) was famous by name Gaggara in the Buddhist literature and popularly known as ’oarovar’, were recovered many Jaina and Buddhist images; see HGAI, p. 217* 66o

Jayapura : Referred to In the story of Jambusami. King Vimjharaya vvho v;as ruling here appointed his younger son Pabhava as the successor to the throne, setting aside

Pahu who was the eldest prince. Pahu, taking shelter in the Vimjha forest, became a famous dacoit. During one of hie raids he encountered Jambusami who converted him to Jaina asceticism (Vh(P), .

During the time of Vasudeva, king Mehasens was ruling here* Mehasena gave princess Asasena in marriage to Vasudeva when the latter had defeated him in a battle (yh(P}, 206-208^. Vasudeva and Amsumamta started for the city of Bhaddilapura in Malaya country v/hich was nearby (ibid., 208).

Not identified.

Jayavapuri : another name of Dvaraka CVh(P), 793*

Kagapura : Capital of Damila country, and situated on the mt. (?) Malaura (Malaura-nivittham). Vvhen Vasudeva started for Nagapura from the city of Manivaddhana, he had to travel ssx for seven days by boat, and afterwards, some distance on horse. He married the daughter of king Surauha who was ruling here [yh(X}, Il.ySabl).

Nagapuram of the Vh(M) either refers to Nagapaddinam of Panri-nadu, which was the capital of the colas (See, Kanakasabhai, V., The Tamils Eig;h.teen Hundred Years Ago, p. 24).

Takkhasila : Bahubali, son of Usabha, ruled at Takkhasila {Vh(P), 187).

Jain refers to the Jaina tradition of Usabha’s foot-prints being preserved in this city (op.cit.. p. ISO). The mound 20 miles KIV of Rawalpindi has been identified as the site of the famous city (Marshall, Sir J., A Guide to Taxila, p. 1).

Tamalitti : Kingdoms of Tosali and Tamalitti are

described to be inimical to each other (Vh(lE), 6l'»63)* Probably they were adjacent to each other too« The district around Tamalitti was called Tamalitti Visaya (ibid., I4 ). Tamalitti was an emporium of international and interprovincial trade. Carusarai intenaed to lead his caravan carrying cotton and thread from Campa and Ukkala to Tamalitti (ibid., 145) probably to get a wider market. In the story of Kokkosa,

a trader from Tamalitti is said to have made a voyage to the lavana country (Vh(F), 61).

In the Vh(P) account of the Hari dynasty, it is related thet Ila, queen of king Dakkha, had differences with

her husband. She founded a city for her son, Ila, near

Tamalitti (tama little n5[i;aram nivesiyam) which later on was knovm as llavaddhana (ibid., 357)* C 6 X

Tamalitti has been identified vdth modern Tamluk

situated on the river Rupnarayan in the Midnapore District of Bengal ( Pargiter, MP, P.33O).

Tosali : Referred to in the story of kokkasa as the capital of king K^ajamgha. LVh(P), 6I-03 j.

During his itinerary lord Mahavira visitea this city ( Jain, op.cit., P.344)- It has been identified with Dhauli near Bhuvsneshvar in the Puri district of Orissa. (3ircar, Historical Geography etc. P. 34 and fn. )

Dasapura ; In the story of Agadadatta, he is said to have been sent as an envoy to this city by the king of Ujjeni.

LVh(P), 47J.

The name of the city, according to the Jaina tradition commemorates the incident of ten kings v;ho are said to have been hela up here because of rains. (Jain,

op.cit•, P.280]. It has been referred to in the inscription of king Usavadats and is the same as modern Mandsor ( Moti- chandra, Sarthavaha, P. IO5 ) in Central India.

m m •• Namdapura : Rtferred to in the story of the Brahmin Vasubhui — ' ' ■ « ' * — ■ ■! which appears as a part of the Dhammillahimdi [Vh{P),30j*

JMot identified.

Paittha : Princess hirimati of Pcittho was married to king —- • • ' • • Punnabhadda of Poyana [Vh(P), 255j- This is the same as ancient Pratisthana which • • was the capital of the Mulaka country and has been identified with modern Paithan on the Godavari" river in the Aurangabad district of i'-'.aharashtra LSircar, o ;j . cit • , I54J.

Piyam,.^u pat tana : a port. Referred to in the story of Carusami, the trader froiB Csmpa. He started his voyage to 3-E ports from Piyamgupattana [Vh(P), l46j.

.-i.ccoruin^ to i-iotichanora this should be somewhere in Bengal L^arthavaha, i*. I32J

Pupphakeu : King Pupphadamta ruled here [Vh(P), 28?j.

Not identified.

Purimatala : Usabha, the first saviour, attained omniscience

(Kevala) at this place [Vh(P), 183J*

The information is corroborated by the commentaries vaiich state that it was a suburb of the city of Viniya*- {Jain, opgcit., 324]*

Purisapura : King Samkharadha, ’the son of god’ (devaputta) ruled here in the times of Vasudeva. 3;imkharadha sent sonie horses of good breed to tne king of Mahapura [Vh(P), 309J* In the same context a legend has be..n given vjhich tries to explain the title ’Devaputta’ of king Samkharadha by attributing his fctherhooa to a Jain monk, Nami (ibid.)

Purisapura is* identified with modern Peshawar. Pedhapura ; Also called Pedhalapura, capital of Dabhala janapsda. Vasudeva and his friends attended the svayariivara ceremony of princess Kanagavai. Her father, king haricamda, ruled here. The city was to the north of Kosalapuri and a person travelling from Kosalapuri had to cross the Vindhya forest [Vh(M), 11.54abj. The tradition quoted in the Vh(Mj says that saviour Nami had preached (samosarana) in a garden outside the city and goddess Lacchi presented a dance recital before the lord. After this incident the garden "W'as called Lacchiramanujjana (ibid.).

The city might be placed somewhere in modern Bundelkhand. See Dabhala .ianapada.

Pokkhalavai : One of the Vidyadhara kings has been referred to as Pukkhalavai G;,mdhara LVh(P), 351J* Such a title to a Gamdhara kin^j^ was probably to differentiate him from other rulers of Gamdhara.

In the times of Kanha Vasudeva, king Naggai was ruling here. Kanha Vasudeva marriea his daughter, princess

Gamdhari (ibid.).

The mound of Bala Hisara, twenty miles North-fcast of Peshawar, has been identified as the site of Puskalavati

.vvheeler, Sir. w. , Gharsada, 23J* Poyanapura ; (1) Capital of beya janapada. The city was situated on the bank of the river Godavari. Vasudeva married tvjo maidens - one the princess of this city and the other a daughter of a minister [.Vh(P}, 353-55J*

Poyana is the same as modern Bodhan on the Godavari river in Nizamabad district [-^Jircar, op.cit. , of

Andhra Pradesh.

(2) During his itinerary, lord Mahavira visitec this city and delivered a religious discourse [Vh(P), 17-20J King Pasannacamda, ruler of this city was a contemporary of wahavira ana his brother Vakkalaciri is counted as one of the Patteya-Budahas in the Jaina tradition LVh{P),20j.

Poyanapura may be identified with Pratisthanapura, which vjas also known as Poyanapura, situated on the banks of the Gamga [See Jain, op.cit. , l^.323J-

Poyanapura referred to as the capital of Dakkha-

'Payavai', and his sons Ayala and Tivitthu [Vh(F), 276-77 and 311-13J v^as probably the one situated in north India, i.e. Poyanapura.

Baravati : Capital of four jsnapadas,viz. Anattha, burattha

Kusattha• • and Sukkarattha, • • ^ which were under the rule of Kanha Vasudeva and Rama. The site on v/nich this city was built was, it is stated, givenby god butthita, lord of the (^Q>(o

Lavana ocean. It ^as designed and built by Kubera and

ws.3 situated near int. lievaa LVh(P), 76j.

There is no unanimity of opinion among scholars about the identification of bhe site of this celebrated

city engulfed in a mass of legends. According to Jain, Mt. Raivataka and Urjayat are names of the same hill, •^^,hich is modern Girnar. And as such, Dvaraka is the same

as modern Junagadh [Jain, op.cit. 271j* Pargiter, however,

identifies JJvaraka with modern jvaraka at the extreme west of the Kethiav.'ar peninsula and equates Mt. Raivataka with

Barda hills nearby [MP, i^.340j. Shafer, discarding all old

viev<.;s, fixes the site of ancient Dvaraka at wohenjodado.

Lithography of ii.ncient India, P.118-19J-

Bhaddilapura : Capital of r-ialaya country [Vh(P), 209J. The city was associated v.itii the birth of lord Sitalasami

(ibid^ llZf). To conimemorate the auspicious incident a

temple dedicated to oi(ya)lasaffli was built at this place LVh(M), I.SbJ. King Maccha of Hari dynesty rulea here LVh(Pi, 3$?]* Vasudeva visited the city and married princess Pomda of this city [ibid., 210-212]. In the Vh(P) Llr.2l0j it has been described as a big centre of trade.

Jain identifies it with the village bhadia near

Kulaha hill, six miles away from huntergunj in the Hazaribag C67

district [Jain, op.cit.. ^.272] of bihar.

Bharuyaccha : i^ing Jiyasattu ruled here [Vh(P), 74]. Vasudeva married princess Tarapadi of Bharuyaccha city [Vh II.85J.

This is the same as modern oroach in Gujarat.

[Jain, ^p.cit., P. 273J.

Bho.iakada : Capital of the country of viysbbha LVh(P) ,98-99. The Vh(F) relates the legend about the foundation of the city. Prince liuppi of iiunidina-pura had taken an oath not to return to kumdinapura in case he became unsuccessful in bringing back his sister, princess Kuppini, v.'ho Vvas kidnapped by Konha and Rama. To remain faithful to his v^ords he founded the city of bhojakada, after he was defeated by Kanha and itama Libid. , 8O.8IJ. I ex i h th a According to Gokhale Historical and Cultural Geography, etc.,^. 412] the Bhojakatarajya, in the times of the Vakatakas, comprised the modern Taluks of Elichpur,

Daryapur, Amaraoti, Ghendur end some ports of ''Wardha.

Magahapura : Occurs as a synonym of rtayagiha [Vh(P), 2,16, 20J and Kusaggapura [ibid. , x^Iacchiya ; Also Cc.lled I»iettiya LV’h(M), ll.lSaj. i^ing

Harisena ruled here [ibid., Il.SbJ. 46

Manivaddhana : Capital of Kiraya janapelda, situated on the coast of the tvestern sea. Vasudeva married princess

Sagaradatta of tianivaddhcna [_¥h(i‘u), II.7$t>j. It >,as probably a port. Libia.. ?6bJ.

I\fot identified.

MaharatthanaKara : Capital of the ilbhira country and another name of the city of ^acchaguinina , II. 226a j.

Mahapura ; The Imdamtha festival was celebrated very jubilantly here. Vasudeva v-ent from liavaddhana to attend this festival. He married oomasiri who v/as the princess of this city [Vh(P), 220,223j.

The twelfth saviour got his first alms at this place L'Jain, op.cit. , ^308 ].

Mahila : The city was founded by King Visala born in the line of Hari [Vh(P), 35?j*

Probably the same as withila. See wihila.

Mathura ; iilso called Mahuripuri iVlii?), 3b8j. Capital of burasena country [ibid♦ , 232J. rieference is also made to Mahurajanapada [ibid. , 3^)6j^. It was situated down-strenin of

1. Surasenajantpada, one of the twenty-five orri o he If jr.ryan ki.n^doruS . t the time of kin^' oamprati, had its capital at i'iathur£ L^''"Otich':,aidra, Sarthavana, However, Shafer states that in the eo.rly period they were two different janapadas (op.cit. , t^.l$l) Soriyapurb on i-he Jamurid. Libiu., 10-llJ. The Vb(P) 1^.119.

relates the Isgend of Kariisa v.ho impilsoned his father

Uggasena and became the king of 14athura, when favoured by king Jarasamdha of Haya giha.

In one of tne di dactic stories explaining the merit of the observance oi five vows, it is related how king fijitasena of Mathura had cordial relations with a lavane king [Vh(P), 296J.

Hahesari : According to the account, of harivamsa given

in the Vh(P) L^-357j, Il£ son of king Dakkha and his queen lie., founded the city of lahesari.

It is the seme s moaern Maheshwar on the bank

of the Narmada in kadhya "radesi; •

Mittiyavati : Capital of king iJevaka, whose daughter

iJevaki Vvas mcrried by Vas lideva ct the instance of Kamsa

Vn(F), 368J. It was alsb called wattiyavati Libid-,

368-69J.

In the list of he twenty-five and a h^lf Aryan

countries the city has be en given as the capital of

Dasanna country [Motichan drt, Sarthavaha, 75 J- Accoraing

to the Puranas, the lihojs s had their capital at l.rttika-

vati [Pargiter, P*342 The balvas are described as 67o

marttikavatas i.e. ’reside Its of Mrttikavati'. Their / » capital is otherx'dse knovm as salvanagara or Saubhanagara X'vhich Shafer places near t le source of the Narmada (op.cit., p. 150}.

Kihila : Also called Mahi la (Vh(P), 357J* In the A^ayana Story of the Vn(P), it is stated that king Janaka ruled here (ibid. , 24I), which s! iov;s that it is the same as the capital of the Videha coun rj^. Prince Nami of Mihila who had turned a monk was asso :iated with the legend of the birth of ’Devaputta' Samkh radha of Purisapura (ibia., 308).

The city is sacr =d to the Jainas as it witnessed the birth, renunciation an i salvation of the nineteenth and twenty-first saviours (Jain, op.cit-, p. 314)* The city has been identified w Lth modern Janakpur in the Nepalese Tarai (Sircar, o£.cit., pp.28-29 fn.}.

Radhamaddana : Capital of king Hemaradha who had matrimonial alliance with the royal fs,):nily of the city of Kaberi or

Koberi (Vh(i'^], II.9a).

Jain refers to t rie Kathakosa, according to which, the city of xiadhamaddana as in the Madhyadesa (op-cit•,32$)•

Kayanapura : Asaggiva, a i/'idyadhara prince, after subjugating rest of the ¥i dyadhara kings established himself at Hayanapura, situated in Dahinaddha-Bharaha [Vh(P),275j 310X 671

The city of liayanapura has been also referred to in the story describing the previous birth of princes Amiyatea,

Sirivijaya ana others [¥h(P), 320-2lJ, and that of princess Sumitta of Varanasi who married a resident of Rayanapura (ibid., 115-16).

Hayanapura is sacred to the Jainas as it is the birth-place of the fifteenth saviour. The city has been

identified vdth modern Runai \\hich is about two miles from Sohavjal in Oudh (Jain, op.cit. , p. 327)*

Raya/:^iha : Capital of I'iagaha- It has been described to be beautiful like a temple [devar.iha-, Vh(r), 247^ and provided with moat, ramparts, and big road on which moved chariots and elephants (ibid., 2). It is also referred to as Kagahapura (ibid.). Outsiae the city was situated the famous Jaina bhrine Gunasilaceiya where lord I'-.ahavira

used to suiTimon his religious gatherings (ibid., 3)*

The famous hill Vebhara was in the vicinity of this city (ibi^, 15).

The place is the same as Rajgir in Bihar and is

sacred to Jainas as it was the birth-place of the

twentieth Titthayera (Jain, op.cit., p. 237)*

Rayapura : Referred to in the description of the trade

tour of Carudatta, the Sarthavaha from Carnpa [jh(P), 148_J. C72_

^*xter facing the blow oi Shipwreck, C&rudatta Swara across the sea to come ashore at the coast of lidumbaravai. i’rom here, he travelled through a forest infested by Pudimdas where he met his friend Ruddadatta* Afterv.’ords he and Ruddadatta went to Rayapura, purchased commodities like curtains, bracelets and started on their travel to the land of Hunas along the bank of the Siffidhu river (ibid.)»

The city of liayapura can be located somewhere between Karachi and Bombay, iiayapura is famous in Jaina tradition as the place -where the nineteenth Titthayara received his first alms. (Jain, op»cit.. p. 328). It can not be said whether Rayapura of the Vh(?) and that in the canonical literature are the same.

Ritthapura ; Capital of Kosala jsnapada. Vasudeva attended the ovayamvara of princess Rohini who v;as the daughter of king Rudhira of Ritthapura fVh(P), 364-65J* His son Kanha Vasudeva is also described to have married

Padraavati who was the princess of Ritthapura (jbid •, 78).

The city is associated with the tenth Titthayara who received his first alms at this place. Jain takes it to be the same as Aristapura (op.cit., p. 328). The Aristapura is probably the same as that referred to in the 673

Jat&kas• The city was v^dthin the territory of Sibi’s

kingdom and was on the way from Pancala to Mithila (Mehta, Pre Buddhist India, pp. 371-72)*

Lamkapuri : Capital of Lamkadiva II.139aj.

According to the Ramayana story as given in the Vh(P), Ramana, vsho was a Vidyadhara. left his land on the Veyaddha mountain and established himself on the island of Lamha because of his personal differences with his

brothers Soma, Jama and others [Vh(P), 240]. The city of La^a was probably very near to the sea shore (yh(P), 244-J*

La^apuri, according to both Jaina and Puranic tradition, was situated on the top of Trikuta mountain (Jain, op.cit., p. 306).

Vacchag:umma : Also referred to as Maharatthanagara. King

Ayala, who was contemporary of Vasudeva and ruled Abhira

Visaya, had his capital here^ (Vh(M), II.207).

It is the same as modern Vashim in Vidarbha.

Vadapura : King of Vaaapura was under the Suzerainty of the king of Gayapura [¥h(P), 90j or Hastinapura. The city was situated on way from Gayapura to the kingdom of

Amalakappa (ibid«).

i\iot identified. Vsnavasi : King Varima of the haridyanast}'', who ruled at Imdapiira (i.e. Kannakujja), is said to have founded the cities of Samjamti and Vanavasi [Vh(P], 35?J.

Vanavasi was one of the capitals of Kadamba kings, and la^/ on the banks of the Varada river in the oirsi Taluka of Korth Canara district of Karnatak. (Jain,

Op.ciu. , p. 351; Pargiter, p. 364).

Vasamtapura : King Jiyasattu vvho vvas the son-in-law of king Jarasamdha ruled here. Vasudeva cured his wife who was possessed by a ghost. Pleased w'ith Vasudeva, the king married his sister to Vasuaeva, [Vh{P), 248-49J*

i\iot identified.

Varanasi ; oituated on the bank of the Gamga {yh(P), IpZ^ and to the Siii of Varanadi (^h(i!-0, II.l87bJ. Capital of kings Hayasattu {yh(P], ll^D* Aggisehara (ibid., 235), and Karalabambha (ibid., 286). According to the Vh(P), the « city was associated with the bjj?th of Pippalada xvho was responsible for the propagation of sacrificial religion based on the knovvledge of ii.havvaveda (ibid? , 150-51)*

Vasudeva, during his wanderings, married Mayurasena, a Setthi's daughter and princess rcayanapadi, both of whom were from Varanasi (yh{.0 , 11.1751:^. 675

Varanasi is enumerated as the capital of Kasi country vjhich vras one of t\-venty-five and a half Aryan countries at the time of king oamprati (Motichandra,

SgrthavSha, p. 75)- The city vjas sanctified also with the birth of the seventh and the tvjenty-Lhird Titthayara

(Jain, op.cio.,^352}.

^iibhaya : Capital of Siradhu vise.ya- Princess Gori from this city vjas married to Ks.nha V'asudeva (jh(P), 7Sj •

It appears in ths list of ii.ryan countries at the time of Samprati, as the capioal of Simdhu country

[Sarthavaha, p.75)* Jain identifies it with Bhera in

Punjab (op.cit., p. 356).

Vi.1 ayakheda : Vasudeva married princesses Sama and Vijaya, aaughters of king Jiyasattu who ruled here (Vh(P), 12lJ.

Wot identified.

Vi.l'ayapura : Kingdom of Vijayapura and that of Mathura were separated by a forest infested by the Pulimdas

CVh(F), 284-86j.

Kot identified.

Viniya • Gapix^sl oi Kosala Janapaoa. ihe city was designed and constructed by Dhanada at the instance of the king of goas, Sakka, for the first anointed king of this Osappini,

Usabha. The city w'as named Viniya^i.e. modest, as the 674

residents of this city \vere' very modest [Vh(P), lo2j.

After Usabha, his son Bharaha, v^ho was destined to become the first Universal ruler (cakkavatti), ruled here. (ibid., 186).

Jaina tradition remembers this city as the birth­ place of the first and tne fourth saviours. According to "the comm. &n the iivasySka, it is the same as Ayodh]fa (See Jain, op»cit.,^356}.

Vedasamapura : referred to as the capital 01 king Divayaradeva V/ho v^as opposed to tiie performance of

Rajasuya and iisvamedha sacrifices by king Sagara on the

confluence of rivers Gamga and Yamuna/ [yh{P), 193]l* Vasudeva married princess Kavila, daughter of king Kavlla ■V'.h-o ruled here (ibidj , 200). The royal family/ of

Vedasampura had matrimonial alliances with that of Bhaddilapura (ibio. • . 212] and diplomatic relations v^ith the

kingdom of Ks.maruva (ibiil. , 198).

Not identified.

Vesali . Capital ox V^ajji janapc.da and strong—hold of (adhivasaya) of tne Liccaavis [Vh(M), II, 32aJ. Vasuaeva

married the Licchavi princess L.mdasena of Vesali-

(ibid., II. 35a). 0 7

It vtes sanctified vath the association of

Lord Mahavira, and has been identifiea vvith modern Basarh J*. in Hujaffarpur district of Bihar (Jain, op.cit. 35U) ♦

Sam.jamti : King Varima of Imdapura xvho was born in the line of Hari (Harivamsa) founded tvvo cities oarnjamti and

Vanavasi [yh(P), 357j*

It is identified with Sanjan in the Thana aistrict of Maharashtra (Sircar, op.cit., p. 203, 124 in.).

Sakea : iilso referred to as Sageya or Saeda. Capital of king Sagara, the Universal ruler (i/h(P), 305j* The city has its antiquity as far back as Usabnasami, the first

Titthayara (ibid. , 112), and ivas the same as the city of

Viniya ["ibid. , 300; Vh(M), 11.1593* Sakeya was ruled by the descendants of Ikkhaga family |Vh(P}, 300^. According to the Yh(P), oakeya was situated to the north of 6avatthi, in the Kosala janapada (ibia., 283 )•

In the Vh(L) the city is stated to hgve been glorified with the shrines of four Titthayaras:

Usabha, Ajiya, Janamaiti ana ii.namta* Their birth and renunciation took place in ti.is city (Vh(M), II.159aJ.

Vesudeva married seventeen daughters of Amohasena of

Saeda (yh(M), I.46b]J. In the Vh(M), the city has been described as oiie beautified on its outskirts with gardens 675

and forests; protected by lofty rarapsxtss; improvised vdth defence equipment on the ^.:opuras; and inhabited by generous traders, cheerful citi2,ens and the learned { i Oxa « , Il«159>i;*

In Ssmprati's times :>c-keta Vvss tno capit-al of ilosi. 1::. country. (Xotichandr: , o~rt::av5iia, p.76). According to liuudhist literature 3aketa v..as six yojanas aivey from oravasti (ibid. . p. 18). The Avasyaka Niryukti

(323, 382, quoted by J:in, op.cit., p. 26?) gives Ayodhya as the birth-place of Ajjta end Ananta, xvho as seen above, are said to have been born in oaketa. according to the

Jain tradition, it is the seme as Ayodhya^. The information

01 the Vh(P) [p. 2831 that oakeya in Kosala janapada was to the north of Sevatthi seems to be wrong. . dee also

Aujjha, Vini3'‘&, and Kosala janapada.

Savatthi : Capital of Kunala janapada [Vh(M), 1.9a, 32a,

34b]|. The city Vvas beautified V/ifch pleasure-gardens; was very vjell-planned; and looked like a Vidyadhara city, or a creation of the lord of gods [Vh(P), 265, 26Sj. The city was associated i^vith the legend of prince Migaddhaya and had a temple dedicated to sage Migaddhaya (ioid..

266-279 )' In Savatthi, Yasudeva married Bamdhumati,

1. kehta (op.cit., p. 433) does not take Saketa and

iiyodhya to be identical. ^7p

daughter of Setthi ]|l^cijnocleva and princess Piyamgusuindari (ibid.. 280, 3OS).

The Kotthaga garden outside the city vjas frequented by the citizens of b&vatthi to pay reverence

to the ceiya situated in it {yh{M), 1 .9a, 32a, 35a}.

Savatthi \u&s the ccpital of Kunala, one of the ■Aryan countries at the time of king Samprati (MoLichandra, Sarthavaha, pp. 75-76). The city 'was sacred to the Jainas because of its association Vvith o^ambhavanatha, the third

Titthayara (Jain, op.cit., 332). It is the same as oahet-Mahet in the Goda district of U.P. (luotichandra, Sarthavaha, p. 18).

Sihapura : The kingdom of Sihapura v/as under the suzerainty, of king Jarasamdha of .layagiha. King Siharaha of Sihapura tried to establish his independence. Jarasamdha brought him under his control with the help of Vasudeva and Kamsa [Vh(P), 118j. A certain Sarthavaha by name Bhaddamitta visited Sihapura before starting on

a long voyage (ibid., 153)•

In Jaina literature, Sihapura has been celebrated as the birth-place of the eleventh Titthayara. Jain (op.cit. , p. 334) identifies it vjith Simhapurx, near banaras. Kingdom of Simhapura situated somewhere in the (>%0

Punjab-Rajputana region, has been noted by Hieun Tsiang; another Simhapura is identiiied vjith oinghapurani near

Sirikakulam and in the 3rd - 4th Century k.U. yet another one was the capital of the Kalingadhipatis as noted by bircar [op- cit. , t*. IO3 , 137-38* J It is difficult to say as to where exactly the oihapura of the Vh(P] can be located. oumsuinarapura : In the Vh(k) version of the IMala-Damayanti story, buiiisumarapura has been given as the capital of king

Riduvanna LVh(i-i), II.67aj. The distance between 8umsu.niara- pura and i'^^umdinapura v;3S hunared yojanas [ibig. , II.69aJ.

The city was probably associated vdth the 3umsuma- ragiri of Bhargas referred to in the Mbh. [See Shafer, op.cit., ^.141; see also Jain, op.cit♦, t. 339, fn- 803]. It is located near Chunar in the Miraapur district of U.P. (Moti- chandra, Sarthavaha, 1+9)-

Suttimati : Capital of Cei-visaya [Vh(P}, 189j* The cele­ brated king Vasu Uparicara, who was born in the line of hari ruled here [ibid., 357J* In the Jaina version of the origin or Anariya Vedas it is stat':d that priest SamdHls became famous in the cedi-vieaya as a pacifier of pestilence and was hence called by king jagara to perform sacrifices at

Payaga and Patitthana Libia., 191J* <^81

It can be located somewhere near Banda in bundelkhand L^ee Cedi-visaye, and also Pargiter, MP.,

359].

^0.1.1 ha : King Ayadhanu born in the line of Hari ruled here LVh(P), 35?].

Not identified.

Sopparaya : Situated in the Komkana-visaya i.Vh(P}, 2 8 4 j. Sopporaya was one of the sources of diamonds [Vh(ti), II. 150a j.

The same as modern Nalasopara near Bombay.

LPargiter, 35Sj-

Soriyapur8 : The city was founded by king bori, grand-father of Vasudeva, Saniuddavijaya ana others. [Vh(P), lllj. After i.mdhagavanhi , Samuddavij oya c nra his nine brothers ruled here. Libid., 283; also Uttaradhyana, Chap.22.ij- The city of ooriyapura was situated on the bvnk of the Jamuna [VhiP) 10-11, 368j. It seems thrt Kanha and Rama abandoned their ancestral city snd established themselves at Uvaraka, [ibid..

78J5 probably thi'ou^i the fear 01 king Jarasamdha*

Motichondra identifies Soriyapura with ooron in the encient countr^r of kanykubja [ogTthavahg, t’t’* 75-76j, and places it, in his mc-.p, on the bank of the' Gamga. This, however, is not acceptable in the light of the information ^.82-

of the Vh(P). Kirfel identifies it with 5eripur L as quoted by Shafer, oo.cit., P. I27J. It is also identified v.lth Surajpur, on the right bank of the Yamuna, situated in the Agra district [op.cit. , t'.337J*

Dovira .* The city was founded by king /ira, brother of king

Sori [Vh(P], 357J- Though king Vira had founded a different city, it seems Sori and Vira vjere living together in

Soriyapura libid., lllj.

Wot identified. Hatthinaura : Capital of the Kuru country and situatea on the bonk of the Gamga [Vh(P), 305 J* ki-'ny personalities of

Jaina mythology are associated v.itii the city. These are oarnti [ibid_. , 34^], Kuin&hu Libia- , 3^+4 J, -^ra Libid. , 346j,

Sanamkuinara [ibid. , 233 J? oubhoma Li Did. , 235 J> Bahubali

[ibid., I86- 8 7J and Vinhukumara [ibid., 128-13lJ*

It is identified vith Hathna in the Meerut district of U.P. [ ^ .S oC>rl-kjarT5:kA> 3

Hatthisisa : The trader Damadadatta from this city renounced the world st the feet of i^nsmtajina L'^''h(P}, 295J*

Mahavira visited this place v^hile travelling to Tosali from Malaya [Jaln, Qp.cit., P.288J. Not identifiea. 6 8 3

FORESTS

Kalain.1araYattani : A forest [Vh(P), 112], known after the hilA Kalamjara situated somewhere in the vicinity of the city of Kakamdi [Vh(M), 11.234^]* From the description given in the Vh(M}, it seems Kalamjara was situated some­ where between the Ganga and the Mt. Vimjha. The hill has also been referred to in the Mbh. [Vana. S3,53-54J as one of the sacred places (tirtha) and has been identified with a modern hill bearing the same name and situated in the Banda district of Bundelkhand [Jain, op»cit♦. t,29l]*

Kum.iaravatta : A forest situated at the foot of Mt. Hima- vamta and to the North-East of Vijayakheda [Vh(P), 125]* A mountain of the same name is associated with Vairasami [ Jain, op»cit♦, ^^.304]*

Kolavana : The priest of Sihapura in one of his subsequent births is described in theVh(P) [t*. 254] to have become an antelope (camara) in this ’forest of boars’.

Kolavana is eniamerated in the list of the western people and has been identified by Pargiter with Kalavan near Nasik t. 38S).

Khairadavi ; This ’forest of Khadira trees’ was situated on the way from Hastinapura to Dvaraka [Vh(P), 93]•

Not identified. 69/f

Khaggavana : A forest situated in between Mt. Vimjha and

the city of Kakamdi [Vh(M), II.207a.]. It was famous for breed elephants [Vh(M), II.20$bJ. It literally means ’the forest of rhinoceros*. Not identified.

Joivana : The king of Poyanapura had been on a hunting tour to this forest [Vh(P), 3l6-319j» Not identified.

CamdanayaPa : Prince Jamadaggi of Varanasi, after accepting hermithood, retired to this ’forest of Sandal trees’. [vh(p), 235J.

Jalavatta : Situated on the way from the city of Mithila to Campa. Though the forest ladavi) was infested with lions Paumaraha, King of Mithila did not deter from his desire to pay visit to the famous temple of lord Vasupujja at Campa [Vh(p), 236-37].

Dadhidivaranna : Pulaka, one of the varieties of precious stones, was found in the forest of DadhitlvaraMa [Vh(M),

II.154aj.

Namdanavana : A forest situated near the city of Savatthi , Prince Sitauha of Savatthi visited it for hunting and had camped in the hermitage of a Ksatriya hermit by name Amohariu [Vh(P), 298]. ^S5

Bilayamtiya : A forest infested by Pulimdas and situated on the way from the city of Vijayapiira to Mathiira [Vh(P),

285].

Bhasavana : It was situated on the southern bank of river Ganga and was one of the forests famous for elephants of good breed [Vh(M), II.205bj.

Bhimadavi : (i) Viramgaya, a Vidyadhara. kidnapped two maidens Kanagasiri and Dhanasiri, who were sisters, and left them in the forest of Bhimadavi [Vh(P), 328j. (ii) Bhimadavi was situated in the country of Kalimga [Vh{M), II.154aj.

Bhuvaramanadavi : Situated on the bank of Eravai [Vh(P), 323J, which has been identified with Rapti in Audh or Ravi in Punjab [Jain, op.cit*. ^.282j. Two Bhutas by name Tambacula and Suvannacula, who served prince Meharaha, are said to be the residents of this forest in the Vh(P). Not identified.

Saravana : Situated near the city of Campa [Vh(P), 155

Not identified. ISLANDS

Ambara : One of the famous findspots of diamonds (Vajja) [Vh(M), II.130a].

Kimjam£i : 'The island of Kimjampi birds*. A fictitious island where birds, uttering words 'Kimjampi, Kimjampi* were supposed to live [Vh(P), 296].

Javana J Carudatta, a trader from the city of Campa, on his voyage, is described to have anchored his ship at all the ports in the South-East (dahina-puvva) region and to have gone further to Kamalapura and Javanadiva [Vh(P),l46j. Motichandra rightly states that 'Javanadiva* in the text of the Vh(P) is a wrong reading for *Javadiva', a word which is used for the island of Java [Sarthavaha, f. 131J*

Ravanadiva : 'Island of jewels*. This island was famous for precious stones. In the story of Carudatta in the Vh(P), a very long route to reach this island, visited by traders for precious stones, has been described. The traders started their journey along the banks of the river Simdhu, crossed the countries of Huna, Khasa and cina, went beyond the mountainous regions Sa^upaha and Ayapaha and reached a precipice* Here they killed the goats on which they had travelled, prepared bags of the goat-skin and entered them. These bags were lifted up by giant birds, named Bharumdas who took the bags to be pieces of flesh and took them to their residence in the Rayanadiva. The traders, after reaching the island, got out of the bags, collected gems and returned to India through Suvannabhumi [Vh(P),148-49].

Lamka : Ramayana in the fVh(P) gives the story of Ramanfl wherein it is told that because of his differences with his elder brother he left Mt. Veyaddha, which was the ancestral abode of the Vidyadharas . and established himself in the island of L a ^ a [Vh(P), 240j. In the Vh(P) in the story of two traders, it has been related that they made a joint venture in bringing precious stones from La^a. The traders undertook a voyage from Kamcanapura, their place of residence, to Lamka for this purpose [Vh(P), lllj.

The island of L a ^ a is generally identified with Ceylon [Jain, op»cit», 1^.306].

Simhala : Princess of Simhala was forcibly kidnapped by

K a ^ a Vasudeva [Vh(P), 79J* Carudatta, the trader of Campa, after his voyage of the South-East countries went to the West to visit Babbara and Javana countries via Simhala [Vh(P) , 146]. The VH(M) [lI.151a] describes Sii^ala to be famous for pearls. It is the same as Ceylon.

Suvannadiva : *The gold-island*. It was sit^uated in the Western Sea near the coast of the country of Kiraya in South India* It was so called because of a well, at the bottom of which gold was available in liquid form* King Mahasiha of Manivaddhana, the capital of the country of Kiraya, had control over it [Vh(M), II.75bJ. Not identified.

Hamsadiva : *The island of the goose’. It was an island formed in the bed of the river (amtaradiva) Gamga. It was situated to the North-East of the city of Varanasi, at a distance of eight yo.ianas [Vh(M),II.200bj.

JANAPADAS

: Capital Campa [Vh(P), I24J situated to the North- East of Magadha janapada on the left bank of the Gamga .Vh(P), 305]* The janapada of Amga was inhabited by cowherds who had number of cattle (pabhuva-gomahisa) [Vh(P) 1 3 J. The practice of the sale of women in the market of prostitutes (iscanikahatta) was prevalent here in the times of the Vh(P) [ibid]^.

Anga was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas and also one of the twenty-five and a half Aryan countries of the time of king Samprati of Maxirya dynasty [See Motichandra, optcit.,

P.75J* According to the tradition^ of the Puranas this land was so called after an eponymous. King Anga, who was one of the sons of the gueen of King Bali from sage Dirghatamas

(MP, t.325)

1. In the Mbh [Karna_, 30*^3] the practice of selling ones wife & children is said to be peculiar to the Anga country. 6 «p

: Capital UjjenI [Vh(P), 35-36, 49; Vh(M) ,11.Slaj. Described to have been inhabited by cheerful farmers who

reaped rich harvests of various crops, and the learned who were humble because of their wisdom [Vh(P), 35-36].

Auamti referred to in the Vh seems to be the northern Avamti; the southern had its capital at Mahissati [Jain, op.cit.. t’*69j*

Anattha : One of the four janapadas on the western coast which was ruled by Balarama and Kanha Vasudeva from the city of Dvaraka [Vh(P), 7?J; the other three being Kusa- ttha,• • ' Sarattha • • and Sukkarattha. • • « According to the Puranic tradition this kingdom was founded by an eponymous king by name Anartk. Krsna and Balarama, through the fear of king Jarasandha, fled from Mathura and settled in this region. In the Uttara- dhvavana Sutra also an indirect proof of this tradition has been offered : Vasudeva, father of Krsna, is said to have ruled at Soriyapura while Kanha and Balarama at Baraga i.e. Dvaraka [Uttara..22.1-22]. The country of Anarta along with Sindhusauvira is described in the ’Tortois-

Geography* to be situated in the right hind foot of the Kurma [Markandeva Purana, 5^.30-31] and Pargiter identifies it with the region around Dvaraka or Kusasthali which is modern Dvaraka*-;^ G ^ o

On the sea-shore at the extreme west of the

peninsula of Kathiawad (^, p» 340; see also Sircar, op»cit.. p. 33 and fn.)* Shafer, however, is not sure about the exact location of Dvaraka, which according to him is difficult because of the conflicting data in the

Epies. He tentatively places Anarta at or near the site of Mohenjodaro (Shafer, op»cit». pp. 118-19)•

Countries of Anarta and Surastra have been • • referred to in the inscription of Pulumayi/ (See Sircar, op«cit., p. 215)*

K^aruva : A kingdoa. The coimtry had diplomatic relations with the king of Vedas^apura. An envoy was dispatched from K^aruva to the court of king Kavilai^* of Vedasamapvira fVh(P), 198].

It was the same as Kamarupa and was some portion

of modern Assam. Reference to cordial relations between

Harsa and the lord of Kamarupa have been referred to in the Harsacarita (HESA. p. 171)* K^arupa was one of the countries conquered by Samudragupta and has been referred to in the Prasasti (CXI, Vol. Ill, p» 8).

Kasi : The river Gamga touched the southern fringes of this janapada, keeping Pryaga and the Vindhya mountain on the right bank (Vh(P), 305]• It has been included among the twentyfive and a half Aryan countries at the time of Samprati (Jain, op»cit.. p. 295) and was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (Sarthavaha. p. 75)* It comprised the region around modern Banaras.

Kiraya ; Capital Manivaddhana* It was situated on the shore of the western sea near the Suvannadiva and in the • • vicinity of the Malaya Kikkimdhigiri (Vh(M), II.75bJ. According to the Vh(M) {ll.77bj this mountain was also called Vanara malaya because of its association with the descendants of Yi.i.jahara Suggiva in the form of monkeyes.

The inhabitants of this country who are referred to as Kiratas Jyh(P), 76b^ are probably the same communities which lived along the sea-side and hills and practiced Kalavu form of marriage described in the Z---- Silappadikaram (see Dikshitar, V.R.R., Intro, p. Such a secret wedding taking place in the case of Vasudeva and the princess of Manivaddhana, has been described in the

Vh(M) [ll.76b3» In this connection, it should be noted that the word for residents of coastal regions are referred to as *Karaiyar* in the ancient Tamil literature (Kanakasabhai, V., The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago, p. 22). Kiinala : Capital Savatthi. King Eniyaputta was ruling here at the time of Vasudeva. (Vh{P), 269; Vh(M), I.9a].

One of the twenty-five and a half Aryan countries at the time of Samprati (Sarthavaha, p* 75)* It is the

region around modern Saheth-Maheth, which has been identified with aucient Sravasti.

Kiiru : Capital Hatthinaura. The Gamga flowed through (ma.1.ihenam) this janapada and by the side of Hatthinaura [Vh(P), 305}* Samti, one of the Cakkavattis and Titthayaras. was born as a prince to Vissasena who was the king of this country (Vh(P), 340]*

It was one of the twenty-five and a half Aryan countries at the time of Samprati (Sarthavaha^ p* 75)| and may have comprised the region around Hastinapura, in

the present Meerat district, (Sircar, op>cit», p* 21), on both sides of the Gamga*

Kusattha ; One of the four janapadas under the rule of Kanha Vasudeva and Balarama; the remaining three being

Anattha, Sxirattha and Sukkarattha (Vh(P), 77]*

It is included in the list of twenty-five and a

half Aryan kingdoms at the time of Samprati. Its capital

was Soriya (SSrthavaha. p. 75)• Soriyapura, which is the i^93

same as Soriya, of the Samprati list, has been given in the Vh(P) |[p. Ill] as the capital of king Sori who was the grandfather of Vasudeva, and also as the capital of

Vasudeva in the Uttaradhyavana Sutra (22.1). As stated earlier, (see Anatta janapada) Kanha must have left

Soriyapura through the fear of Jarasandha, but might not have ceased to rule the kingdom around Kusattha for it was under his control. The inclusion cf the janapada in Madhyadesa according to the Brahmanda Purana (Sircar,

op.cit.. p. 22) supports the above location of the janapada.

Kosala : Earliest capital Viniya (Vh(P), l62j; later capitals : Sageya (Vh(P), 283} and Ritthapiira (Vh(P), 364-65}. According to the Jaina tradition, this was the first kingdom of India, Usabhas^i being the first king who ruled this janapada from the city of Viniya {yh(P), I62J. Bhagirahi, the secred river, is described to have flowed on the southern fringes of this janapada {yh(P], 305j»

In another context, the Vh(P) describes the janapada as the foremost among all the janapadas. With its capital at Sageya, it has been described to be adjacent to (anamtario) and to the north of the SavatthT janapada {Vh(P), 283}. A hill called Asitagiri associated with the attainment of omniscience by a Jaina monk was situated near Ramanijjiya village in this Janapada (ibid*)*

In the times of Vasudeva, Ruhira, ruling at Ritthapura was the king of Kosala janapada (Vh(P), 2S3!J.

From the description of the course of the Gamga, it seems that Kosala was bounded on the south by the Gamga, on east by Payaga and on the west by the

Kuru janapada* The statement that Kosala janapada was to the nort^ of Savatthi janapada, however, is confusing*

2) Capital Kosalapuri. According to the Saina tradition, king Nala and his father ruled in this country [Vh(M), II.6lb]. Nala’s celebrated wife, Damadamti kas been, in one place, referred to as Sakala-puvvadisas^ini.i»e» the

Empress of the entire Eastern quarter (Vh(M), II*65b-66a3«

In the times of Vasudeva, king Kosala, maternal uncle of prince Ruiradeva of Vesali, was ruling in this janapada. It comprised ninety-six thousand villages (channauim g^asahassaim) and eighteen forest kingdoms (yh(M), II*346j#

It was situated to the SW of Vesali [yh(M), II*35aj» The hills Jambuya, Camdapaya, and lake Hanisorasiya, all situated on the Vindhya high-way (Vim.ihadavipaha) were within the boundary of this janapada Qrh(M), II«46aJ* The country was famous for elephants of good breed (yh(M), II.205bJ, and diamonds (Vh(M), 150a]. ^ 9 S

From the above description it is quite clear that the region was the same as Mahakosala in the Chota Nagpur region.

According to Motichandra (Sarthavaha« p* 215), however, diamond mines of ancient Kosala are the same as those at Panna*

Gamdhara ; Capital Pokkalavai. Kanha Vasudeva married princess Gamdh^i, daughter of king Naggai who was ruling this janapada [Vh(P),

The janapada comprised districts of Peshawar and Rawalpindi in the north Punjab, according to Sircar (op»cit«« p* 29 and fn.)•

Chalava : A janapada (?)• Situated at the foot of Vipura a peak in the Malaya range (Vh(M), II•154a)*

Dabhala : Capital Pedhalapura or Pedhapura. In the times •« of Vasudeva, king Haricamda was ruling this janavau (yh(M), II.39a3* It was adjacent to the Kosala janavaya fidho anamtaram kosal^anavau.Vh(M). II.6lb}. Vasudeva, while starting for Pedhapura from Kosalapuri, capital of Kosala janavaya, proceeded in the northen direction

(Vh(M), II.54a}. Dabhala kingdom, together with eighteen forest kingdoms (Sastadasatavira.i vabhvantaram) has been referred to in the epigraph of Panivrajaka Maharaja Sanksobha, dated A.D. 528-29. QPleet, C n , Vol. Ill, p.114 (l.a)J. Fleet equates the words Dabh^a with Dahala, which according to him, represents the modern Bundelkhand (op.cit.. p* 113-14 ).

In the light of the information from the inscrip­ tion of king Sanksojpha stating that he had inherited the kingdom of Dabhala from his forefathers along with the eighteen forest kingdoms, it is interesting to note that Kosala, which is said to be just adjacent to Dabhala in the VH(M) is said have included within it eighteen forest kingdoms and ninety-six thousand villages [Vh(M), 34bj*

Damila : Capital Nagapura. In the times of Vasudeva, the janapada was ruled by king Sihamuha. It was to the SE of Kiraya janapada and separated from Kiraya by a river (salilamtariQ)-j-eYh(M). Il.ySaJ.

Counted as a non-Aryan coxintry in the Jaina literature (Jain, op.cit*, p* 259)1 it might be the same as Tamilnad.

Magadha : Capital Rayagiha ph(P), 3] or Magahapura [Vh(P), 54J or Kusaggapura (yh(P), 27]« Situated on the right bank of the Bhagirathi [Vh(P), 3053* This janapada has been showered with the highest praise by the author of the Vh(P). He describes it as a forehead-mark of the Bharahavasa 0Th(P), 350^. It has been further described as follows ; a janapada studded with villages in vrtiich prosperous and pious families of house-holders lived; which was adorned with groves of trees which yiel^ded shade, fruits and flowers; and which had, in all its lakes and ponds, as though arrested Kamala (goddess Laksmi) in her abode, the lotuses (Vh(P), X]* Magadha is said to have excelled the rest of the janapadas because of its merits

[Visesagunasampado; Yh(Pj, 247j» All this splendour and charm around Magadha janapada sprang from the sovereignty which this country enjoyed during various epochs of ancient Indian history* Echoes of such an attachment towards

Magadha can be heared in the remarks of Kalidasa :

*ra.invatimahuranena bhumim*, about a king of Magadha* In the Vh, Jarasamdha who ruled the country at the time of Vasudeva and Kanha has been described as the most prominent king in the half of Bharata. (Vh{P), 247;

Vh(M), Il.lOlaJ.

Malaya ; Capital Bhaddilapura. The country (desa) was in the vicinity of the kingdom of Vedasamapura^ £Vh(P), 209}, and the mt. Sammeya (yh(P), 214]. ^ 8

This was one of the twenty-five and a half Aryan countries at the time of Samprati (Sarthavaha. p. 7 5 ).

Jain rightly places it to the south of Patna and to the SW

of Bihar (op»cit.. p* 310).

Maharattha : A janapada (?). Capital Vacchagumma. In

Vacchagumma, Vasudeva saw Maharattha and Abhira ladies

CVh(M), II.207b^. Vaccagumma which is stated to be the capital of Abhira janapada is referred to also as

Maharatthanagara [Vh(M), II.228a3* It appears that in the

Vh(M), Maharattha and Abhira are treated as identical* See Abhira.

Mahura ; Village Sugg^a is aaid to be situated in tjie Mahura janavaya [Vh(P), 306]. Probably it was the same

as Surasena .ianavata IVh(P), 232^.

In the list of the twenty-five and a half Aryan

countries at the time of Samprati, Mahura is given as the capital of the Surasena kingdom (SarthavSha. p. 75)• Greek writers say that Methora and Kleisobora were in

Sourasenoi (Sircar, op.cit.. p. 102) Shafer, however, states

that originally Surasena and Mathura were different janapadas (Shafer, op.cit., p. 144)•

Vaccha : Capital Kosambi (Vh(P), 356]. The southern limit of this janapada extended upto the Vimjhatavi,i.e. the

forest on the Vindhya mountain (Vh(P), 43]* 65>9

It was one of the twenty-five and a half Aryan countries at the time of Samprati (Motichandra,

Sarthavaha. p. 75), and zixa was also one of the middle coiantries (Sircar, op.cit.« p. 22 and fn.)»

Va.iJi ; Capital Vesali. This is described as the strong­ hold of the Lecchai Khattiyas (Vh{M), 11.32a])*

The Vajjis were a confederation of Va.i.ii, Licchavi, Jnatrka. Videha and others making it a group of eight members. It may have comprised the district around

Vaisali, i.e. the modern village Basarh in Mujaffarpur district in Bihar (See Law, HGAI, p* 265).

Vidabbha : Capitals Kumdinapura tVh(P), S0]| and Bhsiyakada ^h(P), 9SJ* Princess of Viyabhha jan’apadajS is described by the maid-servant of Saccabh^a as a daughter of a forest king (adaviraino dhuya) jyh(P), Princess of Bhoyakada, daughter of king Ruppi, has been referred to as Veyabbhi (yh(P), 80}. King Nala’s wife was the daughter of king Bhimaratha who ruled the country of Viyabbha (Vh(M), II.6lbJ.

Vidarbha janapada comprised modern Berar and adjoining regions (Sircar, op.cit*« p* 30 and fn.).

Sukkarattha : One of the four janapadas which were ruled by Kanha and Balarama [Vh(P), 773* 700

If the name is to be rendered in Sanskrit as *Sukra rastra’, the janapada might have some connection with Bhrgukaccha.

Surattha : One of the four janapadas under the rule of Kanha Vasudeva and Balar^a [Vh(P), 7?J. City of Giri- nagara was in this region [Vh(P), 50J.

Savatthi : Capital Savatthi. Another name of the Kunala janapada [Vh(P), 283].

Seya : Capital Poyanapura* Situated on the banks of the river Godavari. When Vasudeva visited the janapada king Vijaya was ruling this country [Vh(P), 353]*

Seya is the same as Asmaka or Asvaka in Sanskrit. Paudanyapura was the capital of the Asmaka kingdom [Shafer, op.cit.. J’.ll8j.

LANDS. PROVINCES. ETC-

Ayapaha : *The road of goats*. Referred to in the trade- tour of Carudatta, a trader from the city of Campa. Caru- datta and his caravan reached this region after crossing the territory of the Tamkanas. Here the guide asked all the travellers to cover their eyes with straps (acchini k ^ bamdiuna ). and ride goats (chagala). The goats carried all 701

the travellers very safely beyond the precipitous region [Vh(P), 148-149J. As the region was to be traversed on the back of goats, it was called Ayapaha. Motichandra the locates it somewhere in^Central Asia [Sarthavaha. 50-51, I33J.

Avaramta : Kanha Vasudeva and Baladeva are said to have ruled in this region [Vh(P), 80J. Elsewhere [Vh(P),77j Dvaraka, the capital of Kanha Vasudeva, is said to be an ornament of the four .janavayaSjviz. Anattha, Kusattha,

Surattha and Si;ikkara‘^tha. All these four .ianavayas together probably signified Avaramta.

People of Western India are described as residents of Aparanta in the Puranas [PI, Vol.

Umbaravaiavela : *The coast of Umbaravai*, referred to in the Vh(P), in the story of Carudatta. Carudatta’s ship, full of merchandise, wrecked near the Sorattha coast (kula)

Carudatta caught hold of a plank and floated for seven days in the sea and got ashore on the coast of Umbaravai [Vh(P),

146].

It might be the same as the coast near modern

Umbargaon, a small town in the vicinity of Thana, Maharashtra.

Uttarapaha : *The northern road*. King Dujjohana (Skt. Duryodhana) was ruling in this region [Vh(P), 83]* 7 d2_

Its counterpart was Dakshinapatha, »the southern road*, i.e» the region below the Vindhyas. The region north of the Vindhyas was known as Uttarapatha [PI, Vol.I^,

219j.

Khasabhumi ; ^Land of the Khasas*. Referred to in the story of Carudatta, a trader of Campa. To reach this land Carudatta travelled along with his caravan to the North- East of the Sindhu river and crossed the land of the Hunas Vh(P), 148]. Further, he went to the land of the Ginas and later on, through Samk^iipaha and Ayapaha, to the Veyaddha mountain [ibid» ]. Kj^hasas are referred to in the Vh(M) to be in the army of the Cilayas [Vh(M), II.144i^jji.e.

Kiratas.

According to the Puranas. Khasas lived both on the banks of the Ganga and the Caksu [PI. Vol.I^^ t*.498j» Jain takes the Khasas to be in Khakhe tribe of the present Jhelum valley [op.cit.. ^.362]. Motichandra identifies Khasabh\Lni of the Vh(P) with the modern Kashgar [Sarthavaha.

^ 1 3 3 ].

Cinabhumi : *Land of the cinas*. Referred to in the Vh(P) along with the lands of the Hunas and the Khasas (huna-khasa- cLnabhumio) in the story of the trader Carudatta [Vh(P),l48j. 703

In the Puranas. river Caksu or Vaksm - identified by Motichandra with Usuvega of the Vh(P) - is described as flowing through a region called Cinamaru (desert of the Cinas) [K, Vol. t*. 610j. Motichandra locates Cinabhumi of the Vh(P) in the Central Asia [Sarthavaha.

133]-

Cinatthana : In the story of Carudatta, it is related that Carudatta in his plan for a voyage to the eastern cotintries, first of all starts for Cinatthana from Piyam- gupattana. From Cinatthana he sailed to Suvannabhumi and further to Kamalapura, Javanadiva (i.e. Java) and Simhala [Vh(P), 146j.

Taakanadesa : ^Country of the Tamkanas*. In the Vh(P},

Carudatta and his caravan are described to have reached this land after crossing the river Usuvega - identified with Vanksu or Oxus by Motichandra [Salrthavaha. t*. 133J*

Carudatta and the other traders in the Caravan carried on 'silent trade* with the Ta^anas. In return for the merchandise, they got fruits and goats which were required by the traders for their journey further in the land of

Ayapaha [Vh(P), 146-49]*

Tanganas [the same as Ta^anas of the Vh(P)j are described in the Pxiranas as living on the banks of the rivers Ganga and Caksu [Sircar, op.cit.. t*. 61-63J* 70^

TJiey faaoue for trad» iia horses V^el.i-r, -K and lived in a mountaneous region [Sircar, op.cit..

Motichandra quotes the Avasvaka Curni [t. 120j about the custom of »silent trade» with the Tamganas [SsrthaYaha. . the- P. 172 J and locates them in Central Asia [Sarthavaha.«133].

Pamcanadisamgama : It is described in the Vh(P) to be the . . - near^river (?) Varunodiya and studded wi,th forest^/trees like Pvimnaga, Panasa, and Nalikera [Vh(P), 250J. The place was associated with venerable monk Samjayamta who practised penance at this place. This was supposed by the

Yidyadharas to be an auspicious place where it was easy to attain a lore [Vh(P), 264]• The famous Simanaga mountain, which is described as Vi.1 .iasahanabhumi [Vh(P), 264] and Vi.i.iapadhamapavanabhum? l]Vh(M), II.26aj, was situated in this region.

Shafer informs us that in the Puranas two

Pancanada regions have been referred to‘: in the Kurma geography one has been described to be in the tail of the Kurma’, while the other was in the West [Ethpgraphy of

Ancient India, t*. 13^]. Pamcanada referred to in the Vh(P) was probably one situated in the tail of the Kurma i.e. in the South-West portion of the Bharatavarsa. Shafer locates this Pancanada near Puskalavati in his map. l05

Poffld£ : Given as one of the sources of diamonds in the Vh(M) [II.150a].

In contemporary literature, Paundraka has been described in a similar way [Motichandra, SarthavSha. t*.215j. Law, on the authority of the lexicon of Purusottama, says that Paundra comprised Malda and Dinajpur districts [HGAI,

247]•

Babbara t Referred to in the voyage of Carusami* In the west, Carusami visited Javana and Babbara countries, where he earned eight crores as net profit [Vh(P), I46].

Babbara was probably the region around Barbaricon of Periplus [See Motichandra, Sarthavaha. t*. I32] and was situated at the mouth of the Sindhu.

Ma.i.ihadesa : Kattaviriya, king of Hatthinaura, called a confederation of the kings of Majjhadesa [ma.i ihadesahiva- ravano : Vh(P). 23Sj.

The Madhyadesa has been defined by Manu as the region bounded in the East by Prayaga, in the South by Mt. Vindhya, in the West by Mt. Pariyatra and in the North by

Mt. Himavat [MDS. II.21J.

Samkupaha » Situated beyond the Huna, Khasa and Cina lands at the foot of Mt. Veyaddha. Carudatta and other traders while crossing Sa^upaha - named so as one had to cross the 7oC

mountain here vdth the help of pegs fixed in rock « (uvalasamku) - put their luggage in a small bundle which ■was tied on the shoulders, and ascended the mountains, probably with ropes, which were suspended on pegs. It is described that if a person, because of wet palms, lost grip over the pegs, he was sure to die after falling in the pool of Vijaya river. A powder called tumburu-cunna was to be applied now and then [Vh(P), 1^8].

Motichandra once translates the word ^ankupatha as a road of Sparrows [Sarthavaha. 13$] and later on [ibid., t*.l40j on the basis of a commentary Saddhammpa.1 .i o- tika. dated 1080 A.D., as a road wherein the travellers had to ascend with the help of ropes and pegs (sanku) The later interpretation seems to be more correct.

Sabh^atta' ■ : One of the countries famous for diamond mines >h(M), II.150a].

Sabharatta or Sabharastra has been identified • • • • by Motichandra [Sarthavaha. ^’.87] with modern Berar.

Suvannabhumi : One of the covintries with which India had ■ ...... ♦ • '■ '■—■■I sea-trade. In the Vh(P) [^’•146] Carudatta is described to have sailed first to Cinatthana from Piyamgupattana, and then from Cinatthana he proceeded to Suva^abhumi. From here he sailed to South-East ports, cities and countries like Kamalapura, Javanadlva (i.e. Java) and Simhala [ibid*]. 707

In the same story of the Vh(P), it is told that Indian traders landed in a miraculaus way through the giant

Bharumda bird, in the 'island of jewels' (ravanadiva).

While returning they travelled through Suvannabhumi [ibid., 149 j.

Suvannabhumi is generally identified with the lower region of modern Burma [Jain, op»cit». t.3401 also see Motichandra, op»cit». ^’•134].

Soratthakula : 'Coast of Saurastra'. Referred to in the voyage of Carudatta to Western Countries. On his way back to India from the country of Babbara and Javana, Carudatta*s ship wrecked here because of fierce tempest [Vh(P), 146].

Author of the Periplus also notes that the coast near'Barygaza was dangerous to ships as it was impragnated with rocks.

Hunabhumi : In the Vh(P) the caravan of Carudatta is described to have gone to South-West of the river Simdhu and entered the lands of Hunas, Khasas and Cinas [Vh(P),l48j.

According to Motichandra this land was in the vicinity of Kashgar in Central Asia Sarthavaha. 133J* 7os

MQUMTAINS AND HILLS

Am.1 anagiri ; (l) Situated between cities Kusaggapxara and

Campa. Dhammilla, while going from Kusaggapura to Caiipa was approached by a person who was a resident of a palli situated on this hill [Vh(P), 56]. Not identified.

(2) In the Vh(M) Amjanagiri is referred to in similes. In,such instances, which are two, a pyre and a demon are compared to Amjanagiri, which it seems was very black [Vh(M), II.19a, 44bj* In the Avasvaka Curni. it is «■ said to be one of the five main peaks of the Himalaya range, from which big rivers are said to rise. It has been iden­ tified with the Sulaiman range. [Jain, op.cit.« t.26yj.

Asitagiri : *The black mountain’, (l) Situated in the Kosala country near village Ramanijjiya. Here a Jaina monk, who was previously the ruler of the Kosala country is described to have attained omniscience [Vh(P),283-^4J.

(2) Situated in the vicinity of the city of Ujjeni. Vasudeva is described, in the Vh(M), to have rescued the princess of Ujjeni from the clutches of a demon on this mountain [Vh(M), 11.81a].

Kalam.iara : While travelling from Vacchagumma to Kakamdi, Vasudeva crossed a river rising in the Kalamjara mountain. Was Kalamjara, it appears from the description,^situated near 7o;

the Vimjha forest [Vh(M), II.220aj. It was also near to the city of Kakamdl viiich was situated on the southern bank of the Gamga [Vh(M), II.234bj.

In the canonical literature also it has been described as being situated between the Gamga and the Mt. Vindhya [Jain, op«cit.. t*.29lj* In the description of the tirthas given in the Vanaparvan [83.53-54J of the Mbh. it appears between the Tungakaranya and the Mt« Citrakuta. It has been identified with a fort of the same name in the Banda district of Bundelkhand. [Jain, op»cit.. t.29lj*

t . Kikkimdhigiri : Situated somewhere between Vijanathana

and Lamka [Vh(P), 243J* It is the same as Kiskindya of

Ramayana, which lay far south of river Godavari, according to Pargiter [MP, ^’.342].

Kikkimdhamalaya : *The kikkimdha mountain*. The Vh(M) describes that in the times of Vasudeva, descendents of

Suggiva, who was associated with the story of Rama, lived here. In the description given in the story, the author of the Vh(M), imagines it to be virtually a Vasahara (Yarsa- dhara) pavvaya [Vh(M), Ii«76bj^i.e. one of the seven main mountain ranges of India* It is the same as Kikkimdhigiri

of the Vh(P). 710

Camdapaya : Situated in the country of Kosala (which is

identified with the Mahakos^al^ region) to the South-West of the Kosalapuri. As the Vh(M) describes, Vasudeva was

kidnapped on a magic horse and was brought to this region.

Here an attempt was made on his life by a VidYadhara called

C^dapava* To commemorate Vasudeva*s victory over Vidva- dhara Camdapaya, the mountain on which the combat was

fought was called Camdapaya [Vh(M), II.40a].

Culla-Himavamta : 'The minor Himavamta*. It has been described in the Vh(M) as a Vasahara pavvava [l.32a],i.e. one of the seven important mountain ranges of India and was situated to the north of Mt. Veyaddha, on way to the

Namdana forest [Vh(M),I.31bJ. It was full of the forest of

sandal trees and the desire-yielding trees. The Siddha- yatanakuda ^nd the Kanakapavvava were near to this mountain. [Vh(M), I.37aj.

The description [Vh(M),31b] that Vasudeva, though he had not taken food for three days, did not feel hvingry

or thirsty on this mountain, shows how Mt. Himalaya was virtually identified with h%^iven in ancient Indian litera­

ture.

Jamhuya : Another hill situated in the forest South-West

of Kosalapuri, where an attempt was made on the life of

Vasudeva. It was named after the Vidyadhara who was defeated by Yadsudeva [Vh(M) ,II.40a]. See Camdapaya. 711

Paddura i Mountain as famous as the Himavamta and the Malaya because of its forest >4iich yielded ingradients for the preparation of unguents [Vh(M), II.56a].

Nagubbheda : A sacred mountain situated near Mt. Simanaga.

Princess A^layasa brought her husband Vasudeva to protect herself and him from the wrath of Vidyadhara king Vayuraha [Vh(M), II.25a]. Not identified.

Mila : Situated in the forest of Bhimadavi of the country of Kalimga. Vasudeva, while telling about the various sources of jewels, describes that on the top of this moun­ tain was a block of stone, famous by name *vavadi sila^ from which veruliva (Skt. Vaidurya) jewels could be had [Vh(M), II.154aj. Not identified.

Mamtharagiri : Situated in Javana visaya. Famous as one of the find-spots of marakata (emerald) jewels [Vh(M), II. 153aJ. Not identified.

Mamdaragirl i Kakkedana jewels from this mountain are said to be the best [Vh(M), II.l$3bJ. Not identified.

Maiaura : (Mountain ?). Nagapura, the capital of the Damila country was situated here [Vh(M), II*18a]. Not identified. '~r\7-

Malaya i Situated in Dahina Bharaha on the shore of the southern sea [Dahina-samuddaj and formed a part of the Damila country [Vh(M), II.l$4a, 125a]. Its flanks are described to have been hit by the waves of the sea [Vh(M),

II.125J* Below it was situated also the Chaliya janapada [Vh(M), II.154aj* The forest on Mt. Malaya was full of various types of trees: Malaya, Sala, Lavali, Lavamga, Marica and Pattamga [Vh(M), 1 1 .56b, 125bj.Vidura, whence the Yeruliva jewels (Skt. Vaidurya) were collected was one of the pealfs of this mountain [Vh(M) ,II.125aJ.

Mahimda : It lay on the shore of the southern sea [Vh(M) II.124aJ and was famous as a source of Pulaka Jewels Vh(M), II.153bj. After becoming a Vidyadhara. Vasudeva visited this mountain. [Vh(M), II.49aj.

Revava : It was situated on the outskirts of the city of Dvaraka, which is associated with the legend of Kanha Vasudeva [Vh(P), 7 7 J. In the Puranas it has been counted among the famous hills of India [Markandeya Purana. 54*14J and has been identified with Girnar hill [Jain, Qp.cit. P. 326j, taking Revaya to be another name of Crjayat hill. Pargiter who takes both these hills to be different identifies Revaya with Barda hills near the coast of

Dvaraka [MP, t’.2S9J* “713

Vampadada : (Mountain ?) Famous for Pulaka jewels [Vh(M)

II.153b]» Not identified.

Yamsagiri : Situated near the city of Kamcampura. Prince of Kamcanapura used to send his servants to this hill to catch peacocks^ [Vh(P), 197J- Not identified.

Vanaramalaya : The descendants of the Vidyadhara king

Suggiva lived on the Kikkimdhamalaya mountain in the form of monkeys, and as such it was also called *the mountain of monkeys’/ [Vh(M), II.77bJ.

Vim.ihagiri : The river Gamga is described to have touched this mountain while on way to the country of Magaha from that of Kasi [Vh(P),305j. Pajjunna came across this moun­ tain during his travel from Bhojakada to Dvaraka [Vh(P), 100j. Agadadatta, while proceeding from Kosambi to the

Avamti country is described to have crossed this mountain Vh(P), 42]. To reach Kakamdi from the city of Vacchagumma, Vasudeva had to cross the Vindhya forest [Vh(M),II.219a]. This forest was infested with many settlements of robbers, who earned their livelihood by robbing the travellers and caravans [Vh(P), 7, 40, 114^ j.

According to Puranas Mt. Vindya is one of the seven main mountain-ranges (kulacala) in India [Markandeya Purana, 54.1lj. It is the same as the modern Vindhyan range. 7 l h

Vidura : A peak of the Malaya range, where Veruliva

(Skt. Vaidurya) jewels, are found in good quantity [Vh(M) II.126a]. Not identified.

Vipura : Famous for Yeruliva jewels, and situated above Chalaya janapada, in the Malaya range [Vh(M), II.l54aJ. Probably the same as Vidura.

Vebh^agiri i A hill in the vicinity of the city of Kusa- ggapura,i.e# Rayagiha [Vh(P), 74J* Dhammilla became a monk at the feet of the Jaina monk Dhammarui who was residing on this hill near Rayagiha.

The hill is sacred to the followers of the Jain religion [Jain, op.cit.. ^ > 3 5 3 and has been counted among the important hills, a list of vdiith appears in the Pur anas

[MP, t,286j. It is the same as the Vaibhara or Baibhara hill near Rajgir in Bihar.

Vevaddha : Carudatta, with his caravan, crossed the land of

Hunas, Khasas and Ginas and reached Mt. Samkupaha situated at the foot of Mt. Veyaddha [Vh(P), 14^]. Motichandra Hv.«- refers to the story of Carudatta in|^Sarthavaha. According to him Carudatta must have carried business transactions with the Hunas, Khasas and Ginas living in Central Asia, beyond which was Sankupatha and the Vaitadhya mountain. He equates Veyaddha with modern Tashkuragna [SarthavSha, ^*133]• 7 IS

Mt. Veyaddha has been referred to often in the

Vh as the mythical residence of the Yidvadharas. [Vh(P) 163-164; Vh(M), II.118b-119a, l67aj. From the description of the conquering expedition of Bharaha it becomes clear that Veyaddha mountain was to the south of the origin of rivers Gamga and Simdhu, both of which pierce through that mountain. At least, the mythical Veyaddha was not beyond the Himalayas in Central Asia, as Motichandra takes it to be.

Sammeva ; A mountain sanctified by the association (nisihiya) of twenty Tjrthakaras [Vh(P), 2I4 ], i.e. except Usabha, Vasupujja, Nemi and Mahavira [Jain, op»cit..300, and celebrated as a place of Salvation [parinivvana-bhumi. of nineteen Tjrthakaras [Vh(P), 309J* It was in the vicinity of Malaya janapada [Vh(P), 2I4 ]. Identified with Parasnath hill in Hazaribagh district of Bihar [Jain, op.cit.. t".330j.

Siripavvada : Famous as one of the soiarces of Marakata jewels (emerald) and situated in Javanavisaya [Vh(M), II.

153bj. Not identified. 716

XEANS

Kaloda * One of the two oceans which surround the two

Bharahas. It covered ninteen thousand yojanas of the coast of the Bharaha {-varisa ?)/ [Vh(P), llOj.

Dahina-samudda : Mt. Malaya situated in the southern

(dahina ) portion of Bharaha was on the shore of this oceau [Vh(M),II.154aJ. So also was Mt. Mahimda [Vh{M),II.124aj. Vasudeva was taken to the shore of this ocean when he was to be initiated for Gorivijja [Vh(M), II.174bJ. If the Mahimda mountain of the Vh(M) is to be identified with the Eastern Ghats then the ocean can be said to have covered some portions of the Bay of Bengal, the Indian ocean and the Arabian Sea.

cK. Paccacima-samudda : *The Western Ocean*. It is the same L as the portion of modern Arabian Sea into which Simdhu pours herself Vh(P), 314J*

Parakuli-udahi : Referred to in a simile. Members of an assembly of Vidvadharas are described to have made a noise similar to the tumult in Parakula-udahi [Vh(M),11.33aj.

Puraccima-samudda : ’The Eastern Ocean*. River Gamga pours herself into this ocean [Vh(P), 314J» It is the same Puvva-mahodadhi in the Vh(M) [ll«229aj. It can be said to have covered that portion of the Bay of Bengal which was to the north of the Eastern Ghats. (See Dahina-samudda)* 'I f* ■717

Puvva-mahodadhi : 'The Eastern Sea*. Referred to in a , _ the simile. Vasudeva and his wife princess Muttavalt have been compared to Puvva-mahodadhi and Mahagamga [Vh(M), II,229aj .(See Puraccima-samudda).

MahaHnava : *The great ocean*. When attacked by Prince

Amiyagati, a Vidvadhara. his enemies fled away from Mt. Veyaddha and entered *the great ocean* [Vh(P), I50]. Not identified.

Lavana-samudda : *The ocean of salt'. One of the two oceans vAiich surrounded the two Bharahas. It covered

six thousand yo.ianas of the coast of Bharaha [Vh(P),110j. Pulaka, a variety of precious stones, was usually found in the waters of this ocean (lavana-.iala) [Vh(M) ,II.l53b.

Sabarodadhi : The sea into vAiich river Simdhu pours herself [Vh(M),I.l8b]. [See Paccaccima-samuddaj.

PALLIS

Amavasumdara : Situated in the Vindhya forest on the way from Kosambi to Ujjeni [Vh(P), 48J.

Asanipalli : Situated on the way from Kusaggapura to

Campa (modern Bhagalpiir) [Vh(P), 56j. 7 /s

Ukkamuha : A settlement of thieves situated near the city of Sageya [Vh(P), 112-13J*

Visamakamdara : The palli was situated in the thick forest on the slope of a hill, and was surrounded by caves. It was very difficult to have an access to it. The chief of thieves had established suzerainty over the chiefs of the smaller tallis nearby [Vh(P), 75]•

Sihaeuha : *Cave of lion*, (l) A settlement of thieves established at the foot of Mt. Vindhya [Vh(P),114J. (2 ) Situated on the way from Kosambi to Ujjeni by the side of a mountain stream [Vh(P), 60]. (3 ) A settlement of thieves situated in Bila- vamtiya forest on the way from Vijayapura to Mathura.

[Vh(P), 285J.

RIVERS

Usuvega : Described to have arisen from Mt. Veyaddha.

In the Vh(P), river Usuvega has been described in the hazards experienced by trader Carudatta. The river has been described to be very difficult to cross.the current being so fast that whosoever tried to swim was sure to be carried away by the current. In the story of Garudatta it is described that his caravan crossed this river on its way from SanJcupaha to Ta^ana. As it was impossible tojbwim, the traders crossed the river by catching hold of the wind-bent bamboos growing on both the banks of the river [Vh(P), I48]. In the Puranas. Tanganas - Ta^anas of the Vh(P) - are described as people who had settled on the banks of river Vanksu. As such, Motichandra identifies Usuvega with Vanksu [Sarthavaha. 133J which is modern Oxus.

Eravai : Forest Bhuyaramanadavi is said to be on the bank of this river [Vh(P), 3 2 3 Eravai may be the same as Ac^ravati - modern Rapti in Audh -^or Iravati - modern

Ravi in the P\injab - of the Pur anas.

Kanagavaluva J On the bank of this river was a settlement called Samvaha ruled by the brother of the king of Campa ;Vh(P), 67-69J. Not identified.

Gamga : A story of the origin of the Gamga somewhat similar to a story appearing in the Puranas, has been given in the Vh(P). According to thi^tory, the sons of the universal ruler Sagara brought the river Gamga to the Atthavaya movintain around which a ditch was dug by the princes for its protection* When the ditch was filled with the waters of the Gamga, the settlement of the serpent-god Jalanappaha,' 1X0

which was situated nearby, was also flooded with water. The god, angry with the behaviour of the princes, burnt them to ashes with the fire-like poison of his eyes. As the province nearby the Atthavaya mountain was in danger

Prince Bhagirahi appeased the serpent-god with austerities and channelised the water towards Gamgasagara. The current of the Gamga has been described to have flowed through the Kuru country by the city of Hatthinaura; then to the north of Payaga; then to the south of the country of Kasi; then to the north of Magaha and thence to the south of the Amga country. In between Kasi and Magaha, the river is described to have passed by the Vimjha mountain [Vh(P), 302, 305]^.

In the description of the conquest of Bharaha, the stream of the river has been described as cutting through the mountain of Veyaddha [Vh(P), 164].

Two sacred spots on the bank of the Gamga are Kanayakhaladara [Vh(P),233j and Payaga, where rivers Gamga and Yamuna meet [Vh(P),192j.

1. Compare this with the list of Arva .ianapadas on the banks of the Ganga, as given in the Puranas-. Sircar, Studies in the Geography.etc.j^p. 58, 63-64. 721

The important cities associated with the Gamga are Hatthinaura [Vh(P),305],Varanasi [Vh(P),152j, Campa Vh(P),58] and Ilavaddhana [Vh(P),218j. Of these Campa was situated on the confluence of rivers Camda and Gamga [Vh(P),

Two other names of Gamga^viz. Janhavi and Bhagirahi are mentioned. Princes Janhu and Bhagirahi were responsible for a significant change in the course of the stream of the Gamga [Vh(P),305J.

Godavari : Seya janapada and its capital Poyanapura were situated on the bank of this river [Vh(P), 353j« It is the same as the present Godavari.

Camda : Campa, capital of the Amga janapada, was situated on the confluence of the Gamga and the Camda. Prince of the city of Campa was playing on the bank of the river

Gamga. Dhammilla^the hero of Dhammillahimdi j. is described to have been on the bank of river Camda at that time. He cut some leaf-decorations and floated them in the river.

Down stream the prince got the leaves [Vh(P), $8J. The river is the same as modern Chandan in Bhagalpur [Sircar, op.cit., ^•83”84.•

Jauna s Also Jamuna [Vh(P), 368], Sagara is said to have performed an Asvamedha sacrifice on the confluence of river Gamga and Yamuna [Vh(P), 192j. River Yamuna is also

associated with the legend^ of Krsna. • • • After Kanha’s • birth, the river is said to have given way to Vasudeva who was carrying him to a safe place across this river .Vh(P), 369]* The cities of Mathura and Soriyapura were situated on the banks of this river [Vh(P), 368j. The same as modern Yamxma.

Janhavi : Janhu, son of Cakkavatti Sagara, directed the current of the Gamga to a ditch dug around Mt. Atthavaya- Hence the river was known as Janhavi [Vh(P), 305J. The legend of Janhu, described in a different way, also appears in the Puranas [MP. ^^.303]*

Javananadi : In the bed of the river, which is said to be in the Dahinaddha Bharaha Kakkedana jewels, of red hot gold colour are said to be found [Vh(M), 153bj. Not identified.

Javfcti : Ascetic Ekasimga is described to be living on

the bank of this river [Vh(P), 261j. Not identified.

Tambakana ^?) : One of the ilources of pearls [Vh(M), II. 150bJ.

This is probably a mistake for Tambapanni [Skt.

Tamraparnij which has been given as a source of pearls by Varahamihira, and has been identified with fjord of 7-2

Manar by Motichandra [See Sarthavaha. 215j.

Nammada : Mount Kalamjara was in the vicinity of river Nammad:a [Vh(M), 235aj. The same as Narmada.

Bhagirahi : The \Gamgajriver) was so called as prince Bhagirahi - who was from the family of Usabha, and grand-

son of Cakkavatti^- was responsible for a change in the coiirse of the river [Vh(P), 305* For a similar legend in the Pur anas. see Sircar, op.cit., 58j.

Mahagamga : The river pours in the Puvvamahodadhi [Vh(M),

II.229J. The same as the Gamga.

Ravata(na)valuya ; A river flowing in the vicinity of the city of Campa [Vh(P), 134J* Probably the same as Ratnavahi, a river rising in the Rksapada mountain [Sircar, op»cit., t’. 48j of the P u r ^ as.

Vara : Situated to the North-West of the city of Varanasi Vh(P), 187b]. One of the tributaries of the Gamga. In fact, the name Varanasi is explained as a compound of two names i Varana and Asi, both being the names of rivers flowing near the city.

Varada : Also Varaga [Vh(P), 8O]. The city of Kumdinapura was situated on the banks of this river [Vh(P), BOj. The

same as modern Vardha, a tributary of the Godavari [Sircar, op.cit.. t*. 153]* Yaranicca ; A river (Mahanadi) flowing through Javana- visaya and yielding best maragata jewels [Vh(M),' II.153aj.

Varunodiva : A river (?) situated near Pumcanadi-samgama region [Vh(P), 250j. Not identified.

Vi.1 ava : The river has been referred to in the coiarse of the hazardous travels described in the story of Carudatta, in the Vh(P). Carudatta is said to have crossed this river after he had travelled the regions of Hunas, Khasas, and Cinas. Beyond this region, was Sa^hupatha, situated at the foot of Veyaddha [Vh(P), 14^J* Motichandra identifies river Vijaya with modern Sir Dariya [Sarthavaha. t’. 133J-

Veluvai : The river flowing by Pedhap\jra, capital city of ^abbhala janapada [Vh(M), II.749J» Its Sanskrit form would be Venumati or Vetravati.

Simdhu : Rises in the Himavamta, cuts through the Veyaddha [Vh(P), I86j and pours into the Western Sea Vh(P), 314j, which is also called »Sabarodadhi» [Vh{M), I.l8bj.

Sippa : The river flowing near the city of Ujjeni. [Vh(M), II.S2aj. Modern Sipra near Ujjain. 7^5

TIRTHAS

Kanayakhaladara : A holy place on the banks of the

Gamga and known to be an auspicious site for penance

[Vh(P), 225, 233j.

Kanakhala of the Furanas [PI, Vol.I., P.3O6J. flitipavaga : The same as Payaga or Prayaga. According to the author of the Vh(P), the place was so called because of the drinking at tM-s plae^ of the juice of soma plant which was crushed for the extraction of juice. The word *diti* is derived from Y^da^to crush. The author of the Vh(P) further notes that the place was called by ignorant people as Payaga^i.e. *a place of sacrifice* as they did not understand the meaning of the original name [Vh(P), 193J«

According to Jaina tradition, Payaga or Prayaga was sanctified due to the association of the monk

Amkaputta who attained omiiscience at this place [Jain, op»cit.. t*. 322].

Paitthana : In the Asvamedha sacrifice performed by king Sagara many beings were sacrificed near Payaga and

Paitthana.• • • [Vh(P), ' 192j.

According to the Puranic tradition, the city was given to Pxiruravas at the request of Vasistha by Ila»

It was situated near the confluence of the Ganga and , 7^c

the Yamuna, on the right bank of the Ganga [Markandeya

Purana, Chap. CXI, St. 17-18]. Jain accepts its identification with Jhusi opposite Allahabad across the Ganga [op.cit.. P.323J-

Fabhasa : Situated in Surattha Visaya[Vh(P), 79J* Referred to as a sacred place in the Western region of the

Bharahavasa. It was visited by Bharaha, and Samti d\iring their expedition of universal conquest for the title of Cakkavatti [ibid., 186, 340]» Princess Susima K. daughter of the king of the city of Arakk^i had visited this place for ablutions [ibid., 79J.

According to Jaina tradition, Prabhasa became holy because of the association of the princess Mati and Sumati, who were from Pandya Mathura [Avasyaka Curni

11.97, quoted by Jain, op.cit. t*. 137J. It is the same as Prabhas Pat an in Saxirashtra.

Pavaga : This was situated on the right bank of the Ganga [Vh(P), 305J. It was the same as Ditipayaga [ibid..

193J, but was so called by the ignorant people because of Sagara^s Asvamedha sacrifice, vdiich was performed in its vicinity [ibid.. 192j. It was a sacred place for the

Parivvayagas [ibid.. 43] as well as for the Jains.

Jain states that the place was holy to the

Jainas as monk Amkaputta attained omniscience at this place [op.cit.. 321J. It is the same as modern Prayag on the confluence of the Ganga and the Yamuna.

Magaha : This sacred place situated in the eastern region

of Bharahavasa, was visited both by Bbaraha and Samti during their expedition for universal kingship. The presiding deity of this sacred place paid homage to both these rulers [Vh(P), 186, 340j. Not identified.

Varad^a ; This sacred place, situated in the south of

Bharahavasa, was visited by Bharaha and Samti during their expeditions for the title of Cakkavatti. Varadama- kumara, the presiding deity of this place, honoured both these kings [Vh(P), 186, 340J* Not identified.

VILLAGES

Avalagg^a ; (l) Kavila, the son of a Brahmin, who was a resident of this village in the Magahi Janapada^, left the village for Rayanapura as he could not bear the insult

to which he was put to because of the low birth of his mother [Vh(P), 320j.

1. Jain refers to the Uttaradhvavana Tika [l8,t’.2/f.3. which is aware of a village of similar name in the Magaha janapada fop»cit.. t. 263]. (2 ) In Ayalagg^a Vasudeva is described to have married two maidens by name Mittsiri and Dhanasiri. The village was in the vicinity of Tilavatthuya, which was a Samnivesa, and Vedasamapura which was a capital city. .Vh(P), 19?J« Not identified.

Usiravatta ; Situated in the Campa janapada on its boundary (amtimasanna). The village had a good appearance, looked like a city because of gardens nearby and was a centre of trade [Vh(P), 145J* Not identified.

Giritada : In the Vh(P) [l93] it is narrated that Vasudeva married a Brahmin maiden, by name Somasiri, by satisfying the Brahmins in the village with his knowledge of the Vedas.

The village was given as a gift to the fore-fathers of Somasiri^ the king of Vedasamapura, a city which was nearby. Not identified.

Caduddaraya : A Samnivesa^ situated at a distance of seventy-five yo.ianas from the city of Yacchagumma on way to the city of Kakamdi. The Samnivesa was ruled, in the times of Vasudeva, by a chief called Susena, and was

1* Samnivesa has been defined as a small settlement which is protected by a mud-wall and provided with

a gate. 7^9

on the border of the region of a king adversary to

Bhanucamda, king of Kakamdi. The settlement which was near the Vindhyan forest as the description shows, was provided, as the name suggests, with four entrances

.Vh(M), 220bJ. Not identified.

Tilavatthuva : A Sa^ivesa, in the vicinity of the city of Vedasamapura. It was provided with a protective wall and a gate. The system of closing the entrance in the evening has also been referred to.Here Vasudeva performed his feat of killing a cannibal [Vh(P), 195-96J.

Paumunikheda : (1) A village in the vicinity of the city of Sihapura [Vh(P), 253-54J* Not identified.

(2) A village in the vicinity of Poyanapura

[Vh(P), 317j» See Poyanapura.

Palasag^a : A village in Magaha janapada [Vh(P), 29j.

Not identified.

Palasapura : A village in Magaha janapada [Vh(P), 114J*

Not identified.

Ramani.i.iiva : A village in SavatthI janapada.On a hill near this village, by name Asitagiri, a Jain monk attained omniscience .Vh(P), 283.. Not identified. 730

Vaddaj[a : A village in Magadha janapada. Story of Meru

headman of this village, appears in the Vh(P) in connec­

tion with the observance of five anuvvayas [Vh(P),295j- Not identified.

Samgama : A damnivesa in Kosala janapada. [Vh(P), 255J. Not identified.

Samvaha : A forest settlement (adavikabbada) situated on the bank of river Kanayavaluya. Here the brother of the king of Campa was ruling as an independent chief [Vh(P), 69-70 j. Not identified.

Salaguha ; A Sa^ivesa. The settlement was situated in a forest and was ruled by Abhaggasena, who had deserted the kingdom of Jayapura because of the differences with his prince-brother. The settlement was provided with a garden [Vh(P), 200, 206]. Not identified.

Saliggama : A village in Magadha janapada. Outside the village was a garden, called Manorama, wherein was a

Arine dedicated to Suman^akkha [Vh(P), 185j.

SugSna : A village near the city of Soriyapura [Vh(P),120.

Suggama : A village near Soriyaptira [Vh(P), 306].

Sudita : A samnivesa in Surasena janapada, situated near Mathura city [Vh(P), 232]. VISAYAS

Abhira : Capital Vacchagiunraa. When Vasudeva visited the capital he saw Maharatta and Abhira ladies [Vh(M),II.207bj.

Vasudeva was kidnapped by the minister of king Ayalaraya, who was ruling the Abira visaya [Vh(M),II*206-07J« Abhira country mentioned in the Vh(M) was connected with ancient

Maharastra is clear from another piece of information.

The capital city of Abhira, which was Vacc^gumma (Skt. L Vatsagulma) is referred to as Maharattanagara [Vh(M),II. 228aj.

Varahamihira, in his enumeration of the

countries, places the Abhiras in the South-West and calls

them ^Southern People* fBrhat Samhita. 14.12,18j. In the tradition as represented in the BrhatkathSfcosa [i^.89. Abhira country is said to have been situated in the

Daksinapatha and to have a cj.ty by name Tera.

Inscription of a certain Abhira king by name fsvaradeva is available from Nasik. The inscription,on palaegraphic grounds, has been dated to the beginning of the third century A.D. [See Bhandarkar, R.G., Vaishnavism,

etc. . 37J* Reference to Samudragupta subjugating the Abhiras along with others is made in the ^rasasti [Fleet,

op.cit.. P.8(1.22)J.

Ukkala : Referred to in the story of Carudatta of the 730^

Vh(P). On his way to Tamalitti, from a border village called Samvaha in the janavaya of Campa, Vasudeva visited the UkkalaVisaya. From Samvaha he took cotton and cotton- thread. He added to it some cartfuls of cotton from Ukkala and went to T^alitti [Vh(P), 145j.

In the Raghuvamsa [iVO^j Utkala is described to be situated between Vanga and Kalinga. Upadhyay [India in Kalidasa, t’. $lj places Utkala to the north of

Kalinga. According to him the word Utkala should be derived from the word ’Utkalinga’,i.e. *north of Kalinga*. Utkala Vdsaya has been referred to in the inscription of king Narasimha I, and according to law [HGAI, 1^.197J it comprised the region around modern Puri and Bhuvaneshwar in Orissa.

Kalimga : This visaya was one of the main sources of diamonds [Vh(M), II.150a j, Veruliva .jewels [Vh(M) ,II.154a j, and elephants of good breed [Vh(M), II.205bJ.

Best diamonds have been a tradition in Kalinga

[Arthasastra^ - • quoted by Motichandra, SSrthavaha. t^.215j These were probably exported to Rome in the time of Ptolemy [See^ Motichandra, Sarthavaha. t*. 128j.

Elephants from Kalinga were famous from the times of the Mahabharata [Motichandra, Geographical and Economic . etc 113-14. 733

^ml^na : Sopparaya was a city in this visaya [Vh(P),

2S4j. Sopparaya is modern Sopara in Thana Dist. near Bombay.

According to the Jaina tradition it was one of the non-Aryan countries [Jain, op«cit.. 299-300]. In the Pur anas Sxarparaka by itself appears as a janapada .See Sircar, op.cit.. t*. 31 j.

Cei : Capital Suttimati. King Vasu, known as Vasu

Uparicara in the Puranic tradition, was the king of this country [Vh(P), l89-90j. In this country, pesti­ lence (mari) had played havoc and brahmins of the country appeased the pestilence by performing sacrifices, because of which they were referred to as Samtikara^i.e. appeasers. [Vh(P), 192j.

According to the Jaina tradition, it was one of the twenty-five and a half Aryan countries at the time of Somprati. [See Motichandra, Sgrthavaha, In the ’Tortoise Geography' this is described to be in the South-East and in the right foot of the tortoise £

Shaferj^o£j_cit., i*. 133J identifies it with the region around Banda on the river Ken and in his map places Cedi close to the South-West of Vatsa country.

Javana : The kingdoms of Kosambi and Mathura had diplomatic relations with the Javana Visaya [Vh(P), 3^»292j 7 3 if

The king of Mathura is said to have received a golden anklet as a present from the king of Javana country [Vh(P), 296j. Kokkasa, a son of a carpenter (Kottka. or Sippiya) had a chance to visit Javana Visaya along with a trader from the city of T^alitti. During his short stay in this country, he learnt the art of carpentry, especially fashioning at^-ships [Vh(P), 62j. The ambassador who visited the city of Kosambi informs his host that in his country the blood of a young horse of good breed «as used as an antidote for leprosy [Vh(P), 38j. Javana Visaya has been said to be one of the sources of Marakata jewels [Vh(M), II.153aJ.

According to Motichandra [Sarthavaha, t*.272. the jewels mines in Yavana country referred to in ancient tho-fe- books on jewels, can be identified with^abel Jabarah desert on the shore of the Eurethrean Sea.

Takkhas^la-visava : Bahubali, son of Usabha Sami, was ruling the cities of Hatthinaiira and Takkhastla. Bharaha, in order to establish his military superiority over his brother, started towards the Takkhasila-Visaya

Vh{P), I86-87J.

This might have been the district around the city of Taxila.

Tamalitti visaya : In the story of Mahesaradatta, it is 7 3 5

related that his father Samudda became a buffalo in the district (visaya) around the city of T^alitti LVh(P), Uj.

This can be identified with the region surrounding modern Tamluk, in Bengal.

Paaduvada : The visaya has been described as a source of pearls from shells [Vh(M4-, II.l$Obj and those acquired from bamboos [ibid*. II*152aj.

Motichandra identifies this source of pearls with the region around Madurai [Sarthavaha. 275J*

Magaha : Jambusami was a resident of Rayagiha and was, it is described, virtually an ornament of the Magaha

Visaya [Vh(P), 3j. See Magadha janapada.

Matamga : One of the sources of Vajja jewels. [Vh(M), 1 1 .150]. Motichandra identifies the mines in Matamga Visaya with those around Golkonda [S5rthav5ha. t’. 215J in Andhra j^.

Simdhu : Kanha Vasudeva married princess Gori of this kingdom. The king Meru of this visava ruled at the city of Viibhaya [Vh(P), 7SJ-

One of the twenty-five and a half Aryan countries at the time of Samprati [Motichandra, SarthavSha, t’. 75j- 734

Sxirattha : Cities Pabhasa [Vh(P), 79] and Girinagara [Vh(P), 50] are said to have been situated in the

Surattha Visaya. S^ba, one of the sons of Kanha Vasudeva, when expelled from the city of Baravai, moved alone in the Surattha Visaya [Vh(P), 108J. ff,o- It may be identified with^region around modern Jiinagadh [See Girinagara].

Surasena : Kamsa was ruling this country [Vh(P), 366]. The capital of this Visaya was Mahura or Mahuripuri [Vh(P), 368]. It is the region around modern Mathura.