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INDEX

S. NO. CHAPTER PAGE NO.

1. ANCIENT - 1 a. STONE AGE b. I. V. C c. PRE MAURYA d. MAURYAS e. POST MAURYAN PERIOD f. GUPTA AGE g. GUPTA AGE h. CHRONOLOGY OF INDIAN HISTORY

2. MEDIVAL INDIA - 62 a. EARLY MAJOR DYNASTIES b. SULTANATE c. VIJAYANAGAR AND BANMAHI d. BHAKTI MOVEMENT e. SUFI MOVEMENT f. THE MUGHALS g. MARATHAS

3. MODERN INDIA - 191 a. FAIR CHRONOLOGY b. FAIR 1857 c. FAIR FOUNDATION OF I.N.C. d. FAIR MODERATE e. FAIR EXTREMISTS f. FAIR PARTITION g. FAIR SURAT SPLIT h. FAIR HOME RULE LEAGUES i. FAIR KHILAFAT j. FAIR N.C.M k. FAIR l. FAIR m. FAIR JINNAH 14 POINT n. FAIR C.D.M o. FAIR R.T.C. p. FAIR AUGUST OFFER q. FAIR r. FAIR Q.I.M. s. FAIR I.N.A. t. FAIR RIN REVOLT u. FAIR CABINET MISSION v. MOUNTBATTEN PLAN w. FAIR GOVERNOR GENERALS

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Ancient India

THE STONE AGE

The age when the prehistoric man began to use stones for utilitarian purpose is termed as the Stone Age. The Stone Age is divided into three broad divisions-Paleolithic Age or the Old Stone Age (from unknown till 8000 BC), Mesolithic Age or the Middle Stone Age (8000 BC-4000 BC) and the Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age (4000 BC-2500 BC).

The famous Bhimbetka caves near Bhopal belong to the Stone Age and are famous for their cave paintings. The art of the prehistoric man can be seen in all its glory with the depiction of wild animals, hunting scenes, ritual scenes and scenes from day-to-day life of the period. The exact date of these paintings is not certain, but the oldest paintings are as old as 12,000 years.

PALEOLITHIC AGE

The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865, and refers to a prehistoric era distinguished by the development of the first stone tools. The Palaeolithic period is characterised by simple bands of hunters. The human beings living in this Age were essentially food gatherers and depended on nature for food. They did not know how to grow crops and raise livestock, nor did they build houses.

Traditionally, the Paleolithic is divided into three periods, the Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic and the Upper Paleolithic; on the basis of the nature of stone tools made by human beings as well as due to the changes in the climate and environment.  The Lower Paleolithic is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. The tools of this phase include mainly hand axes, cleavers, choppers and chopping tools,  The Middle Palaeolithic tool pattern is based upon flakes. The dominant tool types being blades, points and borers  The Upper Palaeolithic is characterised by burins and scrappers.

MESOLITHIC AGE

The Mesolithic period is roughly dated between 10,000 BC to 6,000 and 4,000 BC. It was a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic age and the Neolithic age. Mesolithic Period is technologically characterized by microliths or small stone tools. In the Mesolithic Age, the stone tools began to be made more pointed and sharp. This age also saw domestication of cows, horses and other poultry and farm animals. Sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Partapgarh and Mirzapur are rich in Mesolithic art and paintings.

NEOLITHIC AGE

The Neolithic Age (4000 BC-2500 BC) or the New Stone Age was the last phase of the Stone Age. It is characterized by the use of polished stone tools and the beginning of cultivation of crops.

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La Excellence IAS IMPORTANT SITES OF THE STONE AGES

Sohan Valley W. () Burzahom Gufkaral Kashmir Belan Valley and Nevasa Sabarmati Valley Singrauli Uttar Pradesh Bagor Singhbhum Jharkhand Mayurbhanj Orissa Mehargarh Baluchistan Attirrampakam Killi Ghul Mohammad Baluchistan Didwana Rajasthan Hathnora Madhya Pradesh Bhimbetaka Madhya Pradesh Kurnool Caves Adamgarh Madhya Pradesh Chopani Mando Uttar Pradesh Sanganakallu Mahagarha Uttar Pradesh Chirand Chechar Bihar Brahmagiri Karnataka Tekkalkota Karnataka Sanganakallu Karnataka T.Narsipur Karnataka Hallur Karnataka Kupgal Karnataka Kodekal Karnataka Utnur Andhra Pradesh Nagarajunikonda Andhra Pradesh Piklihal Andhra Pradesh Poyampalli Tamil Nadu

CHALCOLITHIC AGE

The Neolithic Age quickly gave way to a number of small "cultures" that were highly technical. These people used copper and bronze to make a range of utilitarian tools. This phase or period is termed as the Age. A number of such sites have been found in the Chotta Nagpur Plateau region, the upper Gangetic basin, Karnataka and near the banks of river Narmada.

Chalcolithic Cultures of  BANAS or AHAR CULTURE (Southern Rajasthan)  KAYATHA CULTURE (M.P.)  CULTURE (M.P.)  SAVALDA CULTURE AND (MAHARASHTRA)

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La Excellence IAS THE ANCIENT INDUS CIVILIZATION

Charles Masson in his Narrative of Various Journeys in Baluchistan, and Punjab, 1826-1838, first described the ruins of but its significance was not realized until much later. In 1857, the British authorities used Harappan bricks in the construction of the East Indian Railway line connecting and Lahore. In 1912, Harappan seals with then unknown symbols were discovered by J. Fleet, which triggered an excavation campaign under Sir John Marshall in 1921/22, resulting in the discovery of a hitherto unknown civilization by Dayaram Sahani.

By 1931, much of Mohenjodaro was excavated, but minor campaigns continued, such as that led by Mortimer Wheeler in 1950. Following the partition of British India in 1947, the area of the IVC was divided between Pakistan and the Republic of India.

GEOGRAPHICAL SPREAD OF I.V.C

 SIND – Mohenjodaro, Amri, , Rehman Dheri, Sukkur, Allahdino, Chanhudaro  BALUCHISTAN–Mehargarh, Damb Sadaat, Rana Ghundai, Nal, Kulli, Dabar Kot, Balakot, Killi Ghul Mohammad  AFGHANISTAN – Mundigak, Shortu Ghai  WEST PUNJAB - Harappa, Jalilpur, Ganeriwala, Rehman Dheri GUJARAT - Dholvira, , Surkotada, Bhagatrav, Rangpur, Rojadi, Desalpur, Dabar Kot  UTTAR PRADESH – Alamgirpur  – Banawali, Rakhigarhi, Bhagwanpura  RAJASTHAN – Kalibangan  PUNJAB – Ropar  & KASHMIR – Manda  MAHARASHTRA – Daimabad

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF MATURE HARAPPAN SITES:

MOHENJODARO [SIND]

 It is the largest site of the Harappan civilization  Considered one of the capitals of the Indus system  In Sindhi , the word Mohenjodaro means “Mound of the dead”.  The Great bath of Mohenjodaro is the most important public place, measuring 39 feet (Length) 23 feet (Breadth) and 8 feet (Depth). Located at the center of the citadel, it is remarkable for beautiful brickwork. Its floor is made of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortar.  The Great Granary found here is the largest building, measuring 150 feet (Length) 50 feet (Breadth). It is located within the citadel  There is also present an oblong multi pillared assembly hall and big rectangular building which must have served administrative purpose.  Mohenjodaro along with Harappa has been hailed as the twin capitals and Kalibangan as its subsidiary centre.

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HARAPPA [PUNJAB, PAKISTAN]

 It was the First Indus sites to be discovered and excavated in 1921.  The Indus civilization was originally called Harappan civilization after the discovery of this site  The vast mounds at Harappan were first reported by Masson in 1826 and visited by Cunningham in 1853 and 1873  The granaries here are located outside the citadel but immediately next to it in the west.  Barracks or rows of single – roomed quarters are situated just below the walls of the citadel. They probably housed labouers.  A Red Sand Stone Naked Male Torso has been found which shows traces of .  Identified with Hariyupiya of Rig Veda (Book VI)  The location of Harappa has led several authors to conclude that it was a ‘Gateway city’

DHOLVIRA [GUJARAT]

 It is the latest Indus city discovered and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana.  The most unique feature of the site is its division into not two but three sections. Two of these parts were protected by strong rectangular fortifications.  The Middle Town in Dholvira is generally thought of as Rig Vedic Aryans contribution to town planning  The most startling finding at Dholvira are the Giant Reservoirs (The largest measuring 80.4 m by 12m and 7.5 m holding an amazing 2,50,000 cubic meters of water).

LOTHAL [GUJARAT]

 The most unique feature of Lothal was its Dockyard, measuring 77012015 feet in length, breadth and depth respectively [Served as a main sea –port of the Indus people]  Lothal has evidence for the cultivation of rice (1800 BC) [the only other Indus site where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmadabad]  Many tools, stone beads, and seals were found in Lothal; among them is the famous ‘Persian Gulf Seal’.  Metal Workers, Shell Ornament Makers and Bead Makers Shops have been discovered here also.  Lothal not only served long distance trade but also supplied the cities on the Indus with raw material such as cotton from Gujarat and copper from Rajasthan.

KALIBANGAN [RAJASTHAN]

 The settlement of Kalibangan is located in Rajasthan along the dried up bed of the river Ghaggar.  Literal meaning of Kalibangan is “Black Bangle”.

CHANHUDARO [SIND]

 It was the only Indus City without a Citadel  Archaeologists have discovered here Shell Ornament Makers, Bead Makers Shop and Metal Workers. (Metal used was gold, silver, tin copper, etc).

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La Excellence IAS  A small pot was discovered here which was probably an Inkpot but there is no conclusive proof about it.

BANAWALI [HARYANA]

 Located in Hissar district of Haryana

SURKOTADA [GUJARAT]

 The only Indus site where the remains of horse have actually been found

ROPAR [PUNJAB]

 First site to be excavated after independence  The evidence of burying a dog with the human burial is very interesting.

RAKHIGARHI [HARYANA]

 Situated in Hissar district  Termed as the ‘Provincial Capital’ of the Harappan civilization

BALAKOT [BALUCHISTAN]

 It was a major center of Shell Industry.

HISTORICAL VIEWS ON I.V.C

Mortimer Wheeler Indus civilization had foreign origin R.S.Sharma Merchants were rulers D.D.Koshambi Priests were rulers John Marshall Beginning of the civilization around 3300 B.C Mortimer Wheeler A building having monumental entrance at lower town in Mohenjodaro served as temple Mortimer Wheeler & Stuart Piggot Harappan towns had a remarkable unity of conception Mortimer Wheeler Indus civilization had a sudden end Mortimer Wheeler and Childe Decline of cities due to Aryan invasion Fairservis Deforestation, depletion of resources and ecological imbalances led to the decline G.F.Dales, K.M.Srivastava & Marshall Aryans were not responsible for decline Marshall & Maickey Decline was due to repeated flooding Raikes Tectonic movements were responsible for decline

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La Excellence IAS THE EXTENT OF THE CIVILISATION

The settlements of Sutkagendor on the Makran coast [Pak- Border] represented Western Boundaries of the Harappa. The Eastern Borderlands of the Harappan civilization is represented by Alamgirpur in U.P. Manda in Jammu represents the Northern Extremities of the Harappan in India. The settlement of Daimabad in Maharashtra is the Southern Frontier of the Harappan civilization.

Recent excavation in Rajasthan has revealed a 4,000-year-old village settlement of the chalcolithic age at Balathal, near Udaipur. According to the available Radio Carbon dates, the oldest known agricultural settlement in the Indian subcontinent is Mehargarh, while the oldest known village settlement in India outside the zone of the Indus civilization is Balathal.

RIVERINE LOCATION OF HARAPPAN SETTLEMENTS Mohenjodaro Indus (Right Bank) Harappa Ravi (Left Bank) Kalibangan Ghaggar (Left Bank) Daimabad Pravara Chanhudaro Indus Lothal Confluence of Bhogava and Sabarmati Manda Chenab Kot Diji Indus (Left Bank) Banawali Saraswati Alamgirpur Hindan Rangpur Bhadar Balakot Vidar Sutkagendor Dask Bhagwanpura Saraswati Rakhigarhi Ghaggar Ropar Sutlej

IMPORTANT SITES AND ARCHAEOLOGISTS Harappa 1921 Daya Ram Sahani Mohenjodaro 1922 R.D.Banerjee Amri 1929 M.G.Majumdar Rangpur 1931 M.S.Vats Chanhudaro 1931 M.G.Majumdar Sutkagendor 1931 Ropar 1953 Y.D.Sharma Lothal 1957 S.R.Rao Kalibangan 1959 B.B.Lal Balakot 1963 George.F.Dales Dholvira 1967 J.P.Joshi Surkotada 1970 Jagat Pati Joshi Banawali 1974 R.S.Bist Mundigak 1974 J.M.Casal Alamgirpur 1974 Y.D.Sharma

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DECLINE OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION – DIFFERENT VIEWS

External aggression Wheeler, Piggot, Gordan-childe Inundation M.R.Sahani Epidemic K.V.R.Kenedy Tectonic disturbances Marshall Sudden decline Wheeler Climatic Change R.L.Stein, A.N.Ghosh Deforestation, Scarcity of resources, Fairservis Ecological Imbalances Flood Marshal, S.R.Rao The destruction of Kalibangan due to G.F.Holes. change in course of river Ghaggar

POINTS TO REMEMBER

 Evidence for the cultivation of Rice comes only from Lothal and Rangpur (Gujarat).  Indus people were the first to produce Cotton in the world Greeks called it Sindon.  INTERNAL TRADE: Inter regional trade was carried on with Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, South India and parts of western U.P  EXTERNAL TRADE: With Mesopotamia or Sumerians and Bahrain  ITEMS OF IMPORT: Gold, Silver, Copper, Tin, Lapis lazuli, Amethyst, Agate, Jade, Shells  ITEMS OF EXPORT: Agricultural products – Wheat, Barley, Peas, Oil-seeds. Finished products – cotton goods, pottery, beads, shells, terracotta products, ivory products, carnelian, bone inlays, pearls and ebony  The weights followed a Binary System in the lower denominations: 1,2,4,8, to 64, then going to 160 and then in Decimal Multiples of 16,320,640,1600,3200 etc.  Weights made of chert, limestone, steatite, slate, jasper, alabaster, quartzite but mainly polished chert.  They were generally Cubical in shape  All exchanges were probably carried on through Barter.  The inland transport was done with Bullock Carts.  We have evidence of sea and river transport by and boats in several seals and terracotta models, apart from Dockyard at Lothal  A Terracotta model of ship, with a stick impressed rocket for the mast and eyeholes fixing , comes from Lothal  Solid wheels were in common use  From Harappa and Chanhudaro we have copper or bronze models of carts with seated drivers.  The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning, based on “Grid pattern” streets and lanes cutting across one another at right angles dividing the city into a number of rectangular blocks. Main streets ran from north to south and were as wide as 30 feet. The most famous street was called the “First street”, (10.5m) wide.  Entire city complex was bifurcated into two distinct parts; the fortified “Citadel” (West side) and the “Lower Town”.

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La Excellence IAS  Evidence of fortification of the lower towns were found from a few urban centres like Surkotada and Kalibangan and evidence of division of the city into three parts instead of two from Dholvira  Indus civilization was characterized by the large-scale use of Standardized Burnt Bricks. The width of each brick was twice as much as the height; and its length twice as large as its width (7.51530cms or 102040cm) and made from alluvial soil.  Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish, varieties of the human forms etc.  The chief male deity was the “Pashupati Mahadeva” (Proto ), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne and having of three faces and two horns. Surrounded by four animals (Elephant, Tiger, Rhino and Buffalo, each facing a different direction) and two Deer appear at his feet. This representation has at least three concepts, which are usually associated with Shiva TRIMUKHA, PASHUPATI and YOGISVARA.  The chief female deity was Mother Goddess. (Goddess of Earth), represented in terracotta figurines.  There is enough evidence for the prevalence of Phallic () worship, which comes to be closely associated with Shiva in later times.  Numerous stone symbols of female sex organs (Yoni worship) besides those of the phallus have been discovered.  Indus people also worshipped god in the form trees (Pipal etc) and animal (Humpless bull)  Further they believed in ghost and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them. Harappan people also used the Symbol  The “Great Bath” (Mohenjodaro) had some ritual significance  There are enough evidences to suggest the presence of specialized groups of artisans such as Bronze smiths, Gold smiths, Brick makers, Stone cutters, Weavers, Boat builders, Terracotta manufactures and others.  Silver makes its earliest appearance in India to date in the Indus civilization.  Balakot, Lothal and Chanhudaro were centres for Shell working and Bangle making.  Lothal & Chanhudaro were also centres for the manufacture of beads of carnelian and the like. [Bead makers shop along with their equipment was discovered in Chanhudaro and Lothal].  The majority of the pottery is plain, but a substantial part is treated with red slip and black painted decoration.  The seals were made of Steatite and cut out to shape with a saw.Seals are the greatest artistic creations of the Indus people.Made invariably of Steatite (Soft stone)  The images were made of soft stone such as Steatite, limestone and alabaster. The best specimens were – Steatite image of a bearded man from Mohenjodaro and nude male torso of red sandstone from Harappa  Few bronze sculptures were discovered at – Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Chanhudaro and Daimabad. The best specimen is the figure of a nude dancing girl from Mohenjodaro  Other good examples of skills in bronze working are model of bullock cart and Ikkas from Harappa and Chanhudaro. Recently, Four unique images of bronze have been discovered from Daimabad (Elephant, Rhinoceros, Buffalo and Chariot – each 60 Kgs)  Harappan pottery is mainly two types: Plain pottery (Of red clay) and Painted pottery (of red and black colours). [The plain pottery is more common than painted]

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La Excellence IAS KEY TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH I.V.C

 Prehistory – The period for which we do not have any written records and the only source of information is the archaeological remains.  Proto-history – The period for which we have written records, but have not been able to decipher the script, e.g., the Indus Valley Civilization.  Historic Period – The period for which we have written records in the form of inscriptions and other records, which has been deciphered  Paleography – The study of old writing used in inscriptions and other old records.  Numismatics – Study of coins  Epigraphy – Study of inscriptions  – Written from left to fight, it is used in most parts of India for Asokan Inscriptions and is considered to be the precursor of all the Indian scripts except the Indus script.  Kharosthi Script – Written poem right to left like the Aramaic script from which it is derived, is used only in N-W India for Asokan Inscription.  Pre-Harappan Culture – Those cultures which preceded Harappan culture  Proto-Harappan Culture – Those pre-Harappan cultures, which have, close similarities with the Harappan culture.

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La Excellence IAS THE GREAT ARYAN AGE

The world of Vedic India is known largely through its religious texts, The , which gave the period its name. The Vedas recorded not only the religion of the Vedic people, but also details of their lives that give us a look at their Political, Social and Economic pattern. Composed and transmitted orally, these texts, consist of hymns; spells; myths and rituals.

The Aryan people spoke an archaic form of , a language of the Indo-European language group and a close cousin to Greek and Latin. It is believed that these three , along with many others, shared a common ancestor, as did the people who spoke them. These nomadic horsemen (whose origins are still uncertain but may have come from Russia or ) swept across the ancient world, making appearances in Mesopotamia and Persia before journeying through the Khyber Pass and into the valley.

The word Aryan literally means of high birth, but generally refers to language though some use it as race.

Various Aryan tribes migrated to the Indian subcontinent in large hoards through the famous Khyber Pass. They rapidly spread to the area known as the Sapta Sindhu (the land of seven rivers), which included eastern parts of present-day Afghanistan, the Punjab (in Pakistan and also in India), and fringes of western Uttar Pradesh.

The Aryans soon mingled with the local people and adopted an agrarian way of life after settling down in small, organized communities. The knowledge of horse riding and their bellicosity was the main cause of the Aryans spreading rapidly into various regions in India, as they could easily suppress their rivals.

VARIOUS VIEWS ABOUT ORIGINAL HOME OF ARYANS

Sapta Sindhu Region A.C.Das Arctic Region B.G.Tilak Central Asia Max Muller German Plains/Scandinavia Prof Penka Tibet Dayanand Saraswati Foot of Pandit Laxmidhar Shastri

The theory of southern Russia or Eurasia being the original home of the Aryans seems more plausible than the others. From this region they moved to different parts of Asia and Europe. The main tribes known among the Aryan-speaking people are the Hittites, Indo-Aryans, Iranians, Kassites, Mitannis, and Greeks.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE VEDIC AGE

 The family or Kula was the basic unit of political organization and was headed by the Kulapa or Grihapati. The next unit Grama or village was headed by the Gramani. The Vis or a group of villages was headed by the Vispati

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La Excellence IAS  The highest unit, Jana or tribe, which consisted of a group of Vis, was headed by the Rajan or tribal chief  The tribal polity was not completely egalitarian.  The chief’s post was hereditary in most cases. Instances of election by Samiti is mentioned in Vedic Texts  In the Later the Political pattern changed replacing Tribal authority by Territorial authority. Royal power increased due to amalgamation of tribes and increase in the size of kingdom. King performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position.  In the Ratnahavimsi ceremony the king had to approach dignitaries who lived in permanent dwellings.  Aitareya enumerates ten forms of Government prevalent in different parts of the country.  The growing power of the King is attributed to divinity by the Atharva Veda and Shatapatha Brahmana  The term Visamatta (Eater of the people) used for the king shows that he lived on tributes collected from his kinsmen and other people.  The tribal assemblies of the vedic period were Vidata, Sabha, Samiti, Parishad

THE OFFICIAL DESIGNATION OF THE VEDIC AGE:

Purohita Priest Senani Commander-in-chief Vrajpati Head of the Posture land Spasa Spy Bhagadugha Tax Collector Sangrahitri Treasurer Gramani Head of the village Kulapa/Dampati Head of the family Purpatis Commanders of mud forts Mahisi Chief queen Taksan Carpenter Duta Messenger Suta Charioteer. Kshata Chamberlain (In charge of Royal household) Akshavapa Originally dice thrower, later Accountant Rathakara Chariot maker Palagala Messenger Sthapati Provincial head

Ratnins are 12 political functionaries who formed a kind of king’s council in the later Vedic period. References of Women recruited, as Ratnins are available. The 12 Ratnins were: Purohita, Rajan, Mahisi, Senani, Bhagadugha, Sangrahitri, Suta, Kshata, Govikartana, Gramani, Parivakti, and Akshavapa.

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La Excellence IAS ECONOMIC PATTERN OF THE VEDIC PERIOD

 Rig Vedic Aryans were dependent mainly on a Pastoral economy. Their main occupation was Cattle Breeding. Many linguistic expressions in the Rig Veda are associated with the Cow (Gau). Cattle raids were common. Gau is mentioned for 176 times in Rig Veda.  Other animals domesticated were Horse, Sheep, Goats, Dog and Ass. Wild animals known were Lion, Elephant and Bear. There are references regarding use of bulls to draw the plough (Sira), sowing of seeds in the furrows (Sita), cutting of the corn with the sickle (Datra) and use of Sieve (Titau) as well as winnowing fan (Supra)  Fire was used to burn down the forest cover and shifting agriculture was practiced.  Wheat (Godhuma) and barley (Yava) were the main staple diet. Cultivated fields were called Kshetra and fertile ones Urvara.  There were Carpenters (Takshan) who made chariots (Rathas) and boats (Nau).There were also goldsmiths (Hiranyakara), potters, barbers (Vaptri), Tanners (Charmamna) and physician.  The smith who produced objects of Ayas (copper) was called Karmara.  The Panis formed the great trading class. Condemned in several texts for their greed and hard heartedness.  Tribal conflicts led to the payment of tributes and presentation i.e. Bali, to the victorious chiefs by the defeated group.  Nishkas, Hiranyapindas and Manas were used as recognized pieces of weights and value.  The shift towards Gangetic valley in the Later Vedic Period made possible growth of agriculture. Pastoralism was no longer the main subsistence activity of the people. Mixed farming was the occupational norm  Shatapatha Brahmana describes the various stages of agriculture such as Ploughing, Sowing, Reaping and Threshing.  Satamana and Krishnala, beside Nishkas came to be used as units of value. But also these were gold ornaments or pieces and not coins.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF VEDIC AGE

RIG VEDIC SOCIETY:  The early Vedic society was a Tribal society in which social relations based on Kinship ties were predominant.  The Sukta Hymn of the Rig Veda clearly mentions the four-fold division of the society- Brahmin, Rajanya, Vaishya and Sudra. , Manu and the repeat the origin of the caste system in a similar manner as in Purusha Sukta.  The professions and crafts groups mentioned are Vapta (Barber), Tashta (Carpenter), Bhishaka (Medicine man), Karmara (Ironsmiths), Charmamna (Tanner), Rathakara (Maker of chariots), Kulala (Potter) etc.  Vratyas and the Nishadas were two groups of people, which existed outside the Varna system.

FORMS OF MARRIAGE:

The eight forms of marriages (listed below in the descending order of merit); as provided by the , were:

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Brahma Marriage in the same class with proper dowry Daiva Daughter given by the house-holder to the sacrificial Priest as part of his fees Arsa Bridegroom presents a cow and a bull to the parents of the girl in this form of marriage. Prajapatya Girl married without dowry. Marriage of a willing man and women, often clandestine Asura Marriage by purchasing the girl from her custodian Marriage by capturing the girl Paisacha Marriage by abducting the girl when she is asleep, drunk, mentally perturbed i.e. (Not in her full senses

Only the first four are approved and generally accepted form of marriage. These were collectively known as Dharmya. Two other forms of marriages were

 Anuloma Marriage: In which the wife is of an inferior caste) was permitted but not encouraged.  Pratiloma marriage: In which the husband is of an inferior caste) though tolerated early, was later on discouraged and banned.

EDUCATION DURING THE VEDIC AGE: Rig Vedic Aryans lacked the art of writing and reading. An effective Oral instruction and a highly systematic method of memorizing were developed by the Rig Vedic people. The word Samana frequently occurs in the Rig Veda. The Vedic Samana appear to have been popular institution as they attracted poet’s artists, archers, and skillful riders of horses. Women teachers like Maitreyi and Gargi were gifted scholars.

RELIGIOUS PATTERN OF THE VEDIC AGE RIG VEDIC RELIGION:  Personification of the forces of nature  Vedic religion was Henotheism or Kathenotheism.  Predominance of male god  Very few Goddesses find mention  Aim of worship was material gains  Cult of domestic hearth prevalent  Sacrifice was the pivot of Vedic religion

LATER VEDIC RELIGION:  New gods ( Rudra, Prajapati etc) come into prominence.  Rig Vedic gods (, Varuna etc) lost prominence  Sacrifices became more elaborate  Increase in the prestige and importance of priestly class.  Emergence of new philosophical concepts

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SACRIFICES PERFORMED IN LATER VEDIC PERIOD:

Rajasuya: Consecration ceremony which conferred supreme power on the king. The Rajasuya sacrifice consists of five major ritual or ceremonies. The most important being, Ratnahavimsi (throwing light on the Political organization of the later Vedic period and in which the different Ratnins or Jewel holders/Royal Official invoke different gods or goddesses)

Asvamedha: Horse sacrifice, which was meant to establish Kings Supremacy over his neighbours. The Aitareya and Shatapatha Brahmana mentions the names of some monarchs, who performed the Asvamedha sacrifice

Vajapeya: Chariot race, which was meant to re-establish his supremacy over his own people within the Kingdom. In the Vajapeya normally Seventeen charioteers, including the Rajan participated.

THE GODS WORSHIPPED DURING VEDIC AGE:

INDRA Also known as Purandhara (breaker of forts). 250 Rig Vedic hymns are devoted to him. Plays the role of Warlord and also considered as Rain God and also a warrior and a King. His white Elephant is Airavata AGNI Second most important and 200 Rig Vedic hymns are devoted to him. Known as Fire God. Acted as an Intermediary between gods and men. VARUNA Personified water and was supposed to uphold the Rta or Natural Order. Called the world sovereign or lord of human morality. Ethically the highest SOMA God of Plants. Third most important deity in the Rig Veda on the basis of number of hymns PRAJAPATI The Creator God. Supreme position during later Vedic Age

VARIOUS SAMSKARAS AND RITES

The Samskaras or Sacraments are believed to reform and sanctify the person for whom they are performed. The first systematic attempt at describing the Samskaras is found in Grihyasutras. The Sixteen important Samskaras are as follows:

Garbhadhana Ceremony for conception Pumsavana To secure the birth of male child Simantonnayana Parting the hair Jatakarman Natal rites (Ceremony for new born Child) Namakarana Ceremony for naming the child Nishkramana First outing (for showing sun) Annaprasana First feeding with boiled rice in the Six month Chudakarana Tonsure Karnavedha Piercing the ear lobes

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Vidyarambha Learning the alphabet Upanayana Holy thread ceremony Vedarambha First study of the Vedas Kesanta Cutting the hair Samavartana Graduation (Ceremony on returning home after completing studentship) Vivaha Marriage Antyesti Funeral

GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEGE OF ARYANS

 The Rivers mentioned in Rig Veda: Kubha (); Krumu (Kurram); Gomati (Gomal); Sindhu (Indus); Vitase (Jhelum); Asikni (Chenab); Parushni (Ravi); Vipasa (Beas); Sutudri (Sutlej); Ganga; Yamuna; Saraswati; Ghaggar (Drishadvati). The later Vedic texts mention more rivers such as Narmada, Chambal etc.  Shatapatha Brahmana mentions the Eastern and Western Seas (Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea).  The three later Vedas give three broad division of India viz Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhyadesa (Central India) and Dakshinapatha (Southern India).  Vindhyas (Southern mountain) are prominently mentioned. The ‘Himavant’ or Himalayan Mountain was also known  The texts also have references to the territorial divisions of India i.e.

DHRUVMADHYA MANDIS Region between the Saraswati and the Ganga (literally meaning ‘middle country’). BRAHMAVARTA REGION The region between the Sutlej and Yamuna BRAHMARSHI DESA The western part of the central India UTTARAPATHA North West India. APARANTA Western India. PURVADESA Eastern India TAMILAKAM The Tamil country

THE LITERATURE OF VEDIC PERIOD

THE VEDAS:

The term Veda is derived from the root Vid, which means to know, signifying knowledge par excellence. The Vedas are collection of Hymns, Prayers, Charms and Sacrificial formulae. Tradition maintains that these hymns were merely revealed to the sages and not composed by them. Vedas are called Apaurusheya (Not made by man) and Nitya (Existing in all eternity). The ‘’ to whom these books are ascribed are known as ‘Mantradrashta’ meaning inspired saints who received the hymns directly from the supreme creator. Apart from its literary significance the Vedas throw light on the Political, Religious, Social and Economic aspects of the Vedic period.

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La Excellence IAS RIG VEDA:

 Consists of 1017 hymns and divided into 10 Mandalas (Books)  The Mandala II to VII are the oldest and known as Family Books on account of their composition being ascribed to certain families of sages, viz Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaja and Vasistha.  In Mandala III, composed by Visvamitra, addressed to the solar deity Savitri, we find the famous Gayatri Mantra.  The latest mandala are I, VIII, IX and X.  The IX mandala is completely devoted to the Vedic god Soma.  The Xth Mandala contains the famous Purusha Sukta hymn.

SAMA VEDA:

 Collection of Hymn taken mainly from the Eighth and Ninth Mandalas of the rig Veda and set to tune for the purpose of singing  Known as the ‘Book of chants’ and the origins of Indian music are traced to it  The hymns of Veda were meant to be sung at the time of soma sacrifice by the Udgatri priests.

YAJUR VEDA:

 It prescribes the rituals for performing different sacrifices.  It is primarily a guide for the use of the Adhvaryu priests.  This Veda is in both Verse and Prose.  The two royal ceremonies of Rajasuya and Vajapeya are mentioned for the first time in this Veda.  It is divided into two parts: Yajur Veda (Black): Contains not only the hymns but also prose commentaries. Sukla Yajur Veda (White): Contains only hymns.

ATHARVA VEDA:

 The Atharva Veda (Book of magical formulae) contains charms and spells in verse to ward off evils and diseases.  Preserves many popular cults and superstitions.  Believed to be work of non-Aryans.  Contains 731 hymns.

THE BRAHMANAS:

They are treatise relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony. The Brahmanas, in fact, are elaborate commentaries on the various hymns in the Vedas to which they are related.  Brahmanas related To Rig Veda: Aitareya Brahmana and Kausitaki Brahmana  Brahmanas related to Sama Veda: Tandyamaha Brahmana and Jaiminiya Brahmana  Brahmanas related To Yajur Veda: Taittiriya Brahmana and Shatapatha Brahmana  Brahmanas related To Atharva Veda: Gopatha Brahmana

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The Brahmanas of the Rig Veda are intended for the use of the invoking priest (Hotri). Shatapatha Brahmana is the Lengthiest and the Most Important of all the Brahmanas. It throws light on the Geographical shift of the Aryans towards the eastern Gangetic plains during the Later Vedic period. The story of the Prince Videgha Madhava provides clear indication towards this Geographical expansion.

THE ARANYAKAS:

Aranyaka literally means ‘The Forest’ and therefore Aranyakas are also known as Forest Books. It deals with mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy. The Aranyaka contain Transitional Material between the mythology and ritual of the Samhitas and Brahmanas on the one hand, and the philosophical speculations of the Upanishad on the other. They lay emphasis on meditation and are opposed to sacrifices and many of the early ritual. Their stress is on moral values.

THE UPANISHAD:

Upanishads literally means, “Be seated at the feet of the Guru to receive the teachings”. The Upanishad imparts Philosophical Knowledge and Spiritual Learning. They are also called . Upanishad are said to be the first scriptures where the Law of appeared as taught by (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad). The philosophical principle of Shankara and are said to have been derived from the Upanishad. They are 108 .  Upanishads belonging to Rig Veda: Aitareya and Kausitaki Upanishad  Upanishads belonging to Sama Veda: Chandogya and  Upanishads belonging of Yajur Veda: Taittiriya, Brihadaranyaka, Katha, Svetasvatara and Isa Upanishad  Upanishads belonging to Atharva Veda: Mundaka, Prasna and Mandukya Upanishads.

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad provides the first reference of the idea of rebirth. Later the Idea appears in a slightly fuller form in the Chandogya Upanishads – one of the oldest Upanishads.

THE :

The Vedangas are called Smriti or literature handed down by tradition, because they are of human origin. There are six Vedangas:

Siksha Phonetics/Pronunciation Kalpa Sacrificial ritual Vyakarana Grammar Nirukta Etymology (Explanation of words) Chandas Metrics Jyotisha Astronomy

Of six Vedangas the first two were required for reading the Vedas, the third and fourth for understanding the Vedas and the fifth and sixth for the implementation of the sacrifice. The vedangas are written in the form of , i.e. condensed prose style intended for

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La Excellence IAS memorization. They help in the study of the Vedic literature. Of all the texts, only Kalpa Sutras have come down to us, and these are divided into three classes. SRAUTA SUTRA: Deals with the rituals of the Great Sacrifices of Agni, Soma etc. Attached to Srauta Sutra are the Sulva Sutra: - the oldest book on Indian Geometry GRIHYA SUTRA: Deals with the Domestic Ceremonies and sacrifices to be performed by the householder. SUTRA: Deals with the Laws, Manners, and Customs of people in general. Constitute the foundation of the Dharmashastras such as the law of Manu.

FOUR UPVEDAS:

DHANUR VEDA Archery / Warfare GANDHARVA VEDA Music SHILPA VEDA Sculpture / Architecture AYUR VEDA Medicine / Life

INDIAN SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

There are six schools of known as Shad-Darshans they are: -

NYAYA-DARSHAN Written by Gautama VAISHESIKA DARSHAN Written by SANKHYA DARSHAN Written by DARSHAN Written by PURVA MIMANSA Written by UTTARA MIMANSA Composed by Badarayana

IMPORTANT REFERENCES FROM VEDIC TEXTS

REFERENCES FROM RIG VEDA: Gayatri Mantra; Mention of the word Varna; Mention of the word Sudras; Four fold division of society (10th mandala); Purusha-Sukta hymn (10th mandala); Origin of the Universe (10th Mandala); Battle of ten kings (VII Mandala); Ganga (X, Mandala); Rajanya (10th Mandala); Jain “Rishabhdeo and Neminath”; Saraswati as Saubhagyadayini REFERENCES FROM ATHARVA VEDA: Mention of the word “Gotra”; Sabha and Samiti as the twin daughter of Prajapati; Sabha as Narishta; Women’s participation in Samiti; Reference of Pashupati REFERENCES FROM AITAREYA BRAHMANA: Origin of kingship; Sudras as the servant, to be expelled at will and to be stain at will REFERENCES FROM SATPATHA BRAHMANA: Elaborate description of “Upanayana”; Wife is half her husband and complete him; Mention of Eastern and Western seas;

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La Excellence IAS THE POST VEDIC AGE: 600 – 400 BC

THE MAJOR ; THEIR LOCATIONS AND CAPITALS

KASHI [BENARAS]

It was the most powerful Mahajanpada in the beginning. Its capital was , which has been referred to as the foremost city of India. Kashi was famous for its Cotton Textiles and market for Horses. It was finally annexed by under Ajatasatru.

KOSALA []

Though its capital was Sravasti, which is identical with Sahet-Mahet, Ayodhya was an important town in . Kosala annexed the kingdom of Kashi in its territory. The most popular king of Kosala was Prasenjit (contemporary of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru). He was a contemporary and friend of the Buddha. In the succeeding phases Kosala proved to be one of the most formidable adversaries of the emergent Magadhan Empire. The sister of Prasenjit was married to Bimbisara (King of Magadha) and Kashi was given to her as dowry. However Ajatasatru killed his Father, whose Wife, Sister of Prasenajita, died due to grief. In retaliation Prasenjit confiscated Kasi. A war broke out but finally ended in reconciliation. Prasenjit daughter Vajjira was married to Ajatasatru and Kasi was given as gift to Bride. After Prasenjit his son Vidudabha succeeded him. Latter on Kosala finally became a part of Magadhan Kingdom.

ANGA [EAST BIHAR]

Anga Mahajanpada was located in Bihar. Champa was the capital of Anga. In the middle of the sixth century B.C Anga was annexed by Magadha under Bimbisara.

MAGADHA [SOUTH BIHAR]

One of the leading Mahajanapadas and started the policy of imperialism by conquering most of the areas. The founders of the Kingdom were Jarasandha and Brihadratha. However its real founders were Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. Its initial capital was called Girivraja or Rajagriha. The capital was shifted to Pataliputra somewhere in the fifth century B.C.

VAJJI [NORTH BIHAR]

Vajji Mahajanapada was located in the Vaisali district of Bihar. The political system of has been described in the contemporary texts as Ganasamgha, which refers to republic or an Oligarchy. The Vajjis represented a confederacy of Eight clan of whom the Videhas, Licchavis and the Jnatrikas were the most well known. The Videhas had their capital at . Licchavis had their headquarters at Vaisali. The Jnatrikas were another clan. Siddharta, Father of (Jain teacher) belonged to this clan. Vaisali seems to have been the Capital of the entire confederacy. The Magadhan king Ajatasatru is supposed to

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La Excellence IAS have destroyed this confederacy. He sowed discord among the chiefs with the help of his minister Vassakara and then attacked the Licchavis.

MALLA [GORAKHPUR REGION]

The Mallas were another Kshatriya lineage referred to as Ganasamgha in ancient texts. The twin capital of was Pavapuri and Kusinagara. The Buddha died in the vicinity of Kusinagara and the Mallas performed his last rites. After the death of Magadha annexed it

CHEDI [NARMADA BELT]

The Chedi territory roughly corresponds to the eastern parts of the modern . Its capital was Suktmitati

VATSA []

Situated around the region of Allahabad, on the banks of river Yamuna. with its capital at Kausambi was one of the most powerful principalities of the sixth century B.C. The most powerful king of Vatsa was Udayana.

KURU [MEERUT-DELHI REGION]

It was situated around the Delhi-Meerut region. Its capital was Hastinapur\.

PANCHALA [UTTAR PRADESH]

The Mahajanapada was located in the and parts of Central . The ancient texts refer to the presence of two branches of the i.e. the Northern Panchalas and the Southern Panchalas with the river Bhagirathi forming the dividing line. The Northern Panchalas had their capital at Ahicchatra and the Southern panchalas had Kampilya as their capital.

MATSYA []

The Matsya Mahajanapada was located in the region of Rajasthan. Their capital was at Viratnagara (modern in Jaipur). It was absorbed in the Magadhan empire

SURASENA [MATHURA]

The Suresena had their capital at Mathura on the bank of the river Yamuna. They too had a Republican form of government. Magadha finally annexed it.

ASSAKA [GODAVARI]

The Assaka Mahajanapada was on the banks of the river Godavari near modern in Maharashtra. Paithan has been identified with ancient Pratisthana (Potana), the capital of the Assaka. Ikshvaku Kshatriyas ruled it. finally annexed it.

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La Excellence IAS AVANTI [MALWA]

Avanti Mahajanapada was located around the region of Ujjain district of Madhya Pradesh. Its capital was Mahismati. Chanda Pradyota was the most powerful king of Avanti. He was the contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira. Avanti became an important center of . King Pradyota was the follower of Buddhism. Sisunaga finally annexed it to the Magadhan Empire.

GANDHARA [PESHAWAR AND RAWALPINDI]

Gandhara Mahajanapada was situated at the North Western frontier of India. Its capital was famous for Education and Learning tradition in Ancient India. Gandhari (wife of Dhritrashtra) was the princess of this state.

KAMBOJA [NORTH-EAST KINGDOM]

Kamboja was located somewhere close to Gandhara. Its capital was Rajpur.

THE PERSIAN AND GREEK INVASIONS:

ACHAEMENIAN INVASION

The powerful Achaemenian king of Persia Cyrus (558-530 B.C) subjugated a number of principalities living to the south of the Hindukush Mountains. However, it was in the reign of Darius (552-486B.C) that we have positive evidence of the extension of Achaemenian rule in the northwestern part of India. Herodotus, the Greek historian, also known as the “Father of History” tells us that in 516 B.C Darius sent a naval expedition to explore the valley of the Sindhu River The Iranian ruler annexed the part of Punjab and Sind. This area was to form the Twentieth Province\Satrapy of Iran. The Indian soldiers also formed part of the Achaemenian army that conquered Greece in the time of Persian Ruler Xerxes (465- 456BC). Darius III also enlisted Indian soldiers and sent them to fight Alexander.

MACEDONIAN INVASION

The defeat of Achaemenian king Darius III in the hands of Alexander became a turning point. Alexander dismantled the Persian Empire, conquered most of the western Asia. After the conquest of the Persian Empire, Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 B.C. The history of Alexander’s campaign of India is reconstructed on the basis of accounts available in Greek and Roman sources. After crossing the Indus, Alexander proceeded towards Taxila. The King of Taxila Ambhi readily submitted, offered to help Alexander and recognized him as his sovereign. The most powerful among the northwestern Indians was the ruler of kingdom between the Hydapses (Jhelum) and the Akesines (Chenab) whom the Greeks call Porus. Porus fought bravely but was defeated and was led a captive before Alexander. The latter asked him how he would like to be treated “Like a king”, came the proud and prompt reply. Alexander secured the alliance of this brave king by restoring his Kingdom. Alexander also had to face strong resistance from many tribal chiefs and confederacy of Republics in India. Alexander’s advance was arrested on the bank of the Beas, for his soldiers mutinied and refused to proceed further. It is difficult to say whether this insubordination of the soldiers

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La Excellence IAS was due to merely war-weariness, or due to the fear inspired by the mighty empire of the Nandas.

Anyhow Alexander failed to persuade his soldiers to take up the new venture. His dream of an Eastern Empire remained unfulfilled. The king who had never known defeat at the hands of his enemies had to accept defeat from his own men. Alexander remained in India for about 19 months. While retreat he divided the whole territory from the Indus to the Beas into three provinces and put them under the overall charge of three Greek Governors. Some part of the Macedonian army was left behind to assist the Governors so as to maintain Law and Order. In September 325 BC, Alexander reached Patiala, and began his homeward journey. He proceeded with his army by land, but sent the under Nearchus. Alexander reached Susa in Persia in 324 BC and died there the next years.

RELIGIOUS ENVIRONMENT DURING THE PRE MAURYAN PERIOD

The changing features of social and economic life in the 6th century BC were closely linked with changes in another sphere, that of religion and philosophical speculation. The conflict between the established orthodoxy and the aspirations of the newly rising groups must have intensified this process, which resulted in a remarkable richness and vigour in thought, which was rarely surpassed in the centuries to come. Numerous religious sects arose in the middle Gangetic basin in the 6th century BC. We hear of as many as 62 religious sects in this period. Of these, Jainism and Buddhism were the most prominent and emerged as the most potent reform movements.

THE RISE AND SPREAD OF BUDDHISM

Personal Details of Gautama Buddha:

 NAME: Siddhartha; Gautama; also known as Sakyamuni or Thathagata.  BIRTH: Born in 563 B.C in Lumbini () in Sakya (Kshatriya) clan of Kapilavastu (Piprahwa in Basti district) or the modern Rumindei.  MOTHERS NAME AND DETAILS: Mothers name was Mahamaya or Maya she was a Princess from the Koshalan dynasty\Koliyan clan. Buddha’s mother died seven days after his birth.  FATHERS DETAIL: Fathers name was Suddhodana. He was the chief of the Republican Sakya clan.  WIFE: Wife name was Yashodhara, daughter of a neighbouring chieftan.

Other miscellaneous details:  Gautama was married at the age of 16.  Gautama had a son named Rahula.  Gautama was bought up by his Stepmother Mahapajapati Gautami  Channa was the name of his Charioteer and Kanthaka was his Horse. The Gotra of Buddha was Gautama (Gotama in Pali).  After 13 years of marriage he left his place at night, at the age of 29 in search of the truth. This departure is known as the “Great Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana)”.  The next Six years he spent as a wandering ascetic. At this time Gautama was under the guidance of two Brahmin religious Teachers. The first was Alara Kalama who taught him

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La Excellence IAS the technique of meditation and the teachings of Upanishads at Vaisali. The second was Rudraka Ramaputta who taught him at Rajagriha.  Initially he practiced rigid austerities and resorted to different kinds of self-torture to find the truth. Abandoning all this he went to Uruvela (Near Modern Bodh Gaya) took a bath in river Niranjana (Modern Lilajan) and sat under a Pipal Tree at modern Bodh Gaya.  On the 49th day of his continuous meditation he attained the supreme Knowledge (Enlightenment). He was 35 years old at this time. Revelation came to him that the great peace was within his own heart and he must seek it there. This is known as the Enlightenment () and since then he came to be known as the Buddha (The Enlightened one) or Thathagata (One who attained the truth).  Mora was the king of spirit and demons who troubled him at the time of his meditation.  Sujata was a farmer’s daughter who offered him rice milk at Bodh Gaya.  From here he proceeded to the Deer park at Sarnath (Isipatana) near Varanasi and gave his first sermon, which is known as “Dharmachakra Paravartana” (Setting in motion the wheel of Dharma). As a result five ascetics became his disciple – Asvajit, Upali, Mogallana, Sari-Putra and Ananda  He attained Mahaparinirvana (Death) under a Sal Tree at Kusinara (The capital of Mallas) in 483 B.C at the age of 80. Shortly before his death Buddha lived in Pavapuri in the hut of a poor smith named Chanda (Kanda), where he ate bad mushrooms and pork, which allegedly caused his death.  Buddha’s last teaching was heard by Subhadra and Ananda. His last words were; “Subject to decay are all component things. Strive earnestly to work out your own salvation”.

Famous Monks at the time of Buddha

ANANDA The constant companion of Buddha and the most devoted disciple. ANURADDHA The master of right Mindfulness. MAHAKASSAPA The president of the Buddhist council held at Rajagriha. MOGGALLANA He had the greatest super natural powers. SARIPUTTA Possessed the profound insight into the Dhamma UPALI Master of Vinaya

Names of Famous Buddhist Scholars

ASHVAGHOSHA He was the Contemporary of Kanishka. He was a poet, dramatist, musician, scholar and debater. He was a friend and contemporary of the Satavahana kings. He propounded the “Madhyamika” school of known as “Sunyavada”. ASANGA AND Who were brothers, flourished in the Punjab in the fourth century A.D Asanga was the most important teacher of the “” or “Vijnanavada” School founded by his guru, Maiteryanath. Vasubandhu’s greatest work, “Abhidharmakosa” is still considered an important encyclopedia of Buddhism.

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BUDDHAGHOSHA Who lived in the fifth century A.D., was a great Pali scholar. The commentaries and the “Visuddhimaga” written by him are a great achievement in the Post-Tripitakas literature. DINNAGA The mighty intellectual of the fifth century, is well known as the founder of the Buddhist logic. Lived in the seventh century A.D was another great Buddhist logician. He was a subtle philosophical thinker and dialectician.

Five great events of Buddha’s life and their Symbols

Birth Lotus and Bull Great-Renunciation Horse (Mahabhinishkramana) Enlightment (Nirvana) Bodhi Tree First Sermon Wheel (Dharmachakra Paravartana) Death (Mahaparinirvana) Stupa

The First Buddhist Council  The first Buddhist Council was held in 483 B.C, under the patronage of Ajatasatru, in the Saptaparni cave near Rajagriha just after the death of Buddha.  Mahakassapa presided over the assembly.  The purpose was to compile the Dhamma (Religious Doctrines) and the Vinaya (Monastic Code).  All the teachings of Buddha were divided into Two Pitakas, i.e. Vinaya Pitaka (Monastic code) – under the Leadership of Upali and Sutta Pitaka (Buddha’s sayings) – under the leadership of Ananda

The Second Buddhist Council  The second council was held at Vaisali, under the patronage of Kalasoka (Sisunaga Dynasty) in 383 B.C.  Presided over by Sabakami. The Second Council was held to discuss some Vinaya rules, and no controversy about the Dhamma was reported.  The council ended in a permanent split of the Buddhist order into Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas.  The former upheld the orthodox Vinaya Pitaka while the latter favoured the new rules and their further relaxation.

The Third Buddhist Council  Held at Pataliputra, under the patronage of Asoka. At this Council differences of opinion were not confined to the Vinaya, but also concerned the Dhamma.  Presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa (also known as Upagupta), who compiled a book called the Kathavatthu which refuted the heretical, false views and theories held by some sects occurring at the time.  In this council the Philosophical Interpretation of the doctrines of Buddha were collected into the Third Pitaka called Abhidhamma Pitaka.

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La Excellence IAS  An attempt was made in this council to free the Buddhist order from the dissidents and innovations. The teaching approved and accepted by this Council became known as Sthaviras or Theravada, "Teaching of the Elders".  It also led to the establishment of the Sthaviravadins as the true followers and expulsion of 60,000 heretical monks.  After the Third Council Asoka sent missionaries sent to different parts of world.

The Fourth Buddhist Council  Held in Kashmir in first century A.D, under the patronage of Kushana ruler Kanishka.  Presided by who was helped by Ashvaghosha (Author of Buddhacharita).  Purpose was to settle the differences among all the 18 sects of Buddhism and to compose the commentaries. Its results were:  Division of all the Buddhists into two major sects with Sarvastivadins (Popular in Kashmir and Mathura region) and Mahasanghikas together forming the Mahayana (Follower of the Greater Vehicle), and the rest including Sthaviravadins, forming the Hinayana (Followers of the lesser Vehicle)  Codification of the sarvastivadins doctrines as Mahavibhasa  Spread of Buddhism to other countries – Mahayanism in central Asia, China and Japan, Hinayanism in Ceylon, Burma, Thailand and other parts of South East Asia.

The Scriptures of Buddhism TRIPITAKAS OF BUDDHISM: The Pali canons were first codified at the First Council held at Rajagriha. Ananda recited the Dhamma while Upali recited the Vinaya. The Third in the series i.e. “Abhidhamma Pitaka” was added in the Third Buddhist Council. These Three are collectively known as Tripitakas. THE SUTTA PITAKA: A collection of Buddha’s sermon. Divided into 5 groups (Nikayas) i.e. Digha Nikaya; Majjhima Nikaya; Samyutta nikaya; Anguttara nikaya and Khuddaka nikaya. The important texts of Khuddaka Nikaya includes: THE JATAKA: A collection of over 500 poems, which describes the previous birth of Buddha THE BUDDHAVAMSA: Contains legends of in verses about the twenty-four Buddhas who preceded Gautama in earlier times. THE VINAYA PITIKA: It contains the rules and regulation of Monastic Discipline for Monks. The important texts of Vinaya Pitaka includes: MAHAVAGGA (GREAT SECTION): Describes in detail the gradual development of the Sangha. Lays down rules for admission to the monastic order, the mode of life during the rainy season, regulation on dresses and personal hygiene etc. CHULLAVAGGA, (SMALLER SECTION): Contains duties for monks and nuns, method of settling disputes for monks and nuns, method of settling disputes among monk, expiation and penances. THE ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA: Ascribed to Moggaliputta Tissa, president of the third council, it contains the profound philosophy of the Buddha’s teachings. Deals with the same subject as the Sutta Pitaka but in a more scholastic manner

THE RISE AND SPREAD OF JAINISM

The origin of Jainism is shrouded in mystery. The jainas believe that their religion is the product of the teaching of the Twenty Four (Prophets or guru) all Kshatriyas and belonging to royal families. Of these, the first Twenty-Two are of doubtful historicity. The names of two Jain Tirthankara, Rishabha and Arishtanemi are found in the Rig Veda.

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La Excellence IAS The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagavat Purana describe Rishabha as an incarnation of Narayana. The Twenty Third Tirthankara, Parsvanatha was the son of king Asvasena of Varanasi.

He abandoned the throne at the age of 30 and became an ascetic. He received enlightenment after 84 days of penance. He died at the age of 100 nearly 250 years before Mahavira.

Personal details of Mahavira  Name and Titles: The real name was Vardhamana. He got some titles such as: Mahavira (Great Hero), Jina (the conqueror); Jitendriya (One who has conquered his senses), Nirgrantha (Free from all bonds) e.t.c.  Birth: Born in 540 B.C in Kundagrama near Vaisali (Bihar) in a Kshatriya family.  Mothers Name and Details: Mother name was Trisala who was sister of Chetaka, the most famous of the Lichchhavi prince. The daughter of Chetaka named Chellana was married to Bimbisara (the ruler of Magadha). In this context the Mahavira’s family was connected with the royal family of Magadha.  Fathers Name and Details: Fathers name was Siddharta who was the head of a Kshatriya clan called the Jnatrikas

Other miscellaneous details  Yasoda was the wife of Mahavira and Anojja was their daughter. The Son-in-law of Mahavira was Jamali (He is said to have became the first disciple of Mahavira).  At the age of 30, after the death of his parents, Vardhamana left his home and became as ascetic.  For two years he was a member of an order founded by Parsvanatha, but left it and later roamed for the next 10 years.  He spent the first six years of his wandering with Makkali Gosala (the third religious chief of Ajivikas, who popularised this sect).  In the thirteenth year of his asceticism outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama (on the bank of river Rijjupalika) he attained the supreme knowledge.  After attaining Kaivalya (Perfect Knowledge) under a Sal tree at an age of 42, he preached for 30 years.  He wandered for eight months in a year and spent the four months of the rainy season in some famous town in eastern India.  He preached his doctrine in Kosala, Magadha e.t.c. He often visited the court of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru.  He died at the age of 72 in 468 B.C at Pavapuri near Rajagriha, by self starvation “”

Teachings of Mahavira The basic facets of the philosophy of Jainism are associated with reality. According to Mahavira the soul is in bondage due to the assimilation and influx of Karma, which is ultimately the result of man’s activities and it includes the activities of body, mind and speech. The emphasis is therefore upon the freeing of soul. In this context the influx of Karma is to be counteracted by religious discipline and the existing stock of Karma was to be exhausted through severe austerity, self-torment and self-mortification. This result in the liberation the soul, whereby the soul is divested of all that is alien to his nature and reach its pristine purity. Mahavira also emphasized upon the ethical code that takes two principle

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La Excellence IAS form which differ in degree of rigour of practice. The householder had to observe the following five vows:  Non-Injury.  Non-stealing  Non-adultery  Speaking the truth and  Non-possession. It was also prescribed that a householder should feed cooked food to the needy everyday. He preached that lay worshipper should not take to agriculture, since this involved the destruction of plants and animals. A monk had to observe certain strict rules. He also had to abandon all worldly possession. He had to root out every hair of his head by his own hand. He could walk only during the day, taking care that he did not kill or injure any being. He also had to train himself so as not to be affected by objects of the senses

Unlike Buddha, Mahavira focused upon renunciation and monastic life. He considered it important for liberation and therefore stressed upon the futility of worldly affairs. In Jainism enlightenment is Kaivalya. It can be achieved through three means i.e. Right Belief, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct, termed collectively as Tri-Ratna of Jainism. Non-violence occupies a significant and conspicuous status in the philosophy of Jainism. The concept is all encompassing in nature. The followers of Mahavira were to pursue non-violence in absolute terms.

Another important aspect of the philosophy of Jainism is Sallekhana i.e. the concept of voluntary death. It is not considered as cowardice or sin but relinquishment of body being inspired by lofty ideals. It is an experience to accept detached death i.e. to accept death as value where dying is considered as much an art as living.

Mahavira shows atheistic outlook and negated the idea of God. According to him the creation is not the product of God and the world exist in its eternity. The being par excellence is Jina and the God is lower than that. According to Jainism man is the creator of his own destiny and he could attain by pursuing a life of purity, virtue and renunciation. Mahavira advocated a life of severe asceticism and extreme penance for the attainment of nirvana or the highest spiritual state. In Jainism the devotees () have been classified in five categories, in the descending order

 Tirthankara: who has attained salvation  Arhat: who is about to attain nirvana  : the head of the ascetic group  Upadhayaya: teacher or saint; and  Sadhu: class which includes the rest

Mahavira thought that all objects, animate and inanimate had a soul. He believed that they feel pain or the influence of injury. He rejected the authority of Vedas and objected to Vedic rituals and supremacy of the Brahmanas. Other important aspects of the philosophy of Jainism are Nyayavada, Saptavanginayaya and Syadvada Nyayavada: The object of knowledge is highly complex and cannot be fully conceived by a man. Therefore the man’s conception is valid only from a particular stand point. Saptavanginayaya: There are 7 points of view and none of the 7 views are comprehensive. So man’s statement is conditional i.e. not fully true. Syadvada: To quality each statement the term “Syat” should be used.

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The First Jaina Council  Held at Pataliputra, under Sthalabahu, at about 300 B.C  Resulted in the compilation of 12 (Sections or limbs) to replace the lost 14 Purvas (former texts).  These texts were accepted by only the Svetambaras

The Second Jaina Council  Held at in 512 A.D  Presided over by Devardhi Kshamasramana  The purpose of this council was to collect the sacred texts and write them down systematically.  The council resulted in the final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas (Minor sections)

The major schism in Jainism took place with the division of the Jainas into (Sky clad or Naked) and Svetambaras (White clad). The background of the division lies in the Famine at Magadha and the resultant migration of jainas to south under the leadership of . Some stayed at Magadha with Sthalabahu as their leader. The changes that took place in the code of conduct of the followers of Sthalabahu led to the division of the Jainas into Digambaras (Sky clad or Naked) and Svetambaras (White clad).

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La Excellence IAS THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

The period of the Mauryan Empire marks a new epoch in the . It is said to be a period when chronology becomes definite. It was a period when politics, art, trade and commerce elevated India to a glorious height. A period of unification of the territories, which lay as fragmented kingdoms Moreover, Indian contact with the outside world was established effectively during the period.

SOURCES OF MAURYAN HISTORY

EPIGRAPHICAL EVIDENCE  James Princep deciphered the Brahmi script of Ashokan rock edicts in 1837.  The Edicts were mainly inscribed on Rocks and Pillars, hence known as Rock edicts and Pillar edicts  These inscriptions were installed in prominent places. The Pillar edicts were installed to commemorate events of some significance. The Rock edicts are generally found in prominent places such as major travel routes, near towns and religious sites so as to catch the attention of people at large.  The Buddhist Ceylonese chronicles, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, helped in identifying Piyadassi as King Ashoka.  Firuz Tughlaq apparently shifted the Topra and Meerut pillars to Delhi. The Allahabad pillar was originally located at Kausambi. The Bhabra/Bairat pillar was moved to Calcutta by Cunningham.  The language most commonly used for inscriptions is and the script is Brahmi. However in the North West the script was Kharosthi and in the extreme West (Kandahar) the script was Greek and Aramaic.  The edicts of Ashoka provide us direct information about his administrative, religious, ethical, foreign and domestic policies and indirectly they tell us about the extent of the Mauryan Empire.

Fourteen Major Rock Edicts Inscribed on large boulders, they represent an exposition of Ashoka’s principle of government and ethical system. These edicts cover a very large scope, defining the nature and broader application of Dhamma. Two separate edicts were located in Kalinga. Sometime called Edicts XV and XVI, they substitute for three Edicts i.e. XI on charity and kinship of mankind, XII on religious tolerance and XIII on the Kalinga war and the change of heart. Girnar seems to be an important site for edification as inscriptions of Skandagupta and Rudradaman have also been found here. The inscriptions at Mansehra and Shahbazgarhi are in Kharosthi script.

Minor Rock Edicts Minor rock edicts are concentrated in the South and Central parts of the Empire. They highlight Ashoka’s activity as Buddhist lay disciple i.e. personal history of Ashoka and also represent the summary of Dhamma. The Edict found at Kandahar is bilingual, being inscribed in Greek and Aramaic. Minor Rock Edict III (Bairat) is addressed to the Buddhist clergy. The title most commonly adopted by Asoka in his edicts is Devanampiya Piyadasi (Beloved of the Gods). The name Ashoka is explicitly mentioned in Minor Rock Edicts at Maski, Gujjara, Nittur and Udegolam.

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La Excellence IAS Seven Pillar Edicts The Pillar edicts are found at Delhi-Topra, Delhi-Meerut, Rampurva, Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh and Allahabad-Kosam. The Ashokan pillar at Allahabad contains two later inscription (One of the Gupta ruler Samudragupta – Prayaga Prasasti written by poet Harisena describing his conquests and another of the Mughal emperor . The complete set of Seven Edicts is found on only one- Topra. All the pillars were carved out of Chunar Hills and from here they were dispatched to the different parts of the Empire. The pillar edict VII is the last edict to be issued by Asoka.

Other edicts and inscription  Queens Edict: On the Allahabad Pillar. Reference regarding Karuvaki, Mother of Tivala\Tivara, the second Queen  Bhabra Edict: Found at Bairat in Rajasthan. It reflects Ashoka’s reverence for Buddhism and his faith in Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.  Nigalisagar Pillar: An important reference that the Stupa of Buddha Konakamana (Kanakamuni) was enlarged.  Rummindei pillar: Ashoka visited Lumbini (The birthplace of Buddha) and reduced the Land tribute to the 1\8 of the produce.  Schism Edict: At Kausambhi (the Allahabad Pillar), Sanchi and Sarnath. All dissenting Monks and Nuns were expelled.

Of all the events mentioned in various Buddhist sources, the division of Sangha is the only one to be corroborated by Asokan inscriptions. Two separate Kalinga Rock edicts, which supplement the series of 14 rock edicts, are found at Dhauli and Jaugada (Orissa). These edicts describe Ashoka’s paternal concept of . The Sohgaura Copper plate inscription (Gorakhpur district) and Mahasthan inscription (Bogra district) deal with the relief measures to be adopted during a famine, these inscriptions were probably issued during the reign of . The cave inscriptions of Ashoka have been found in the Barabar hills (Known as Khalatika hill during the time of Asoka) near Gaya. They tell about the donation of these caves by Ashoka to the sect of the Ajivikas. The latest discovery of three more Asokan minor rock edicts was made from Sannati village in district of Karnataka.

LITERARY SOURCES  gives an analysis of political and economic conditions under the Mauryas. It is a treatise on statecraft and public administration. It deals with the kingship, government, state, war and peace and diplomacy in 15 parts.  The Jataka stories of the Buddha’s previous lives tell us about the prevalent social economic order.  The Ashokavadana and Divyavadana contain information about Bindusara, Ashoka’s expeditions to Taxila to suppress a rebellion and about his conversion to Buddhism  The Dipavamsa (Compiled between 3rd century B.C and 4th century A.D) and Mahavamsa (Written in the fifth century A.D) are Sri Lankan chronicles, which describe in detail the role-played by Asoka in spreading of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.  A commentary on Mahavamsa Known as Mahavamsatika or Vamsatthapakasini composed in about the 10th century A.D contains information about the origin of the Mauryas.

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La Excellence IAS  The Jaina work Sthaviravali Charita or Parisisthaparvan of (A biography of ) provides very interesting information on Chandragupta Maurya, such as his early life, conquest of Magadha, famine in Magadha and conversion to Jainism.  Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadatta (Fourth century A.D.), a drama in Sanskrit, gives an account of the prevailing socio economic conditions. It also mentions Chandragupta Sabha (Council). It says that Chandragupta was “the King all over Jambudvipa”.  of , Kathasaritasagar of Somadeva and Brihatkathamanjari of also provide information about the Mauryas.

Megasthenes compiled his account about Mauryan India in Indica. Megasthenes had two great difficulties, which he failed to overcome. Firstly he lacked in critical judgment and secondly being ignorant of Indian language, he failed to grasp the true meaning of certain Sanskrit words and fell into confusion.

The Arthashastra This work, in Sanskrit, is a comprehensive treatise on statecraft and public administration. The work is attributed to Kautilya, the Prime Minister of Chandragupta. It is the most important literary source for the Mauryas as it provides clear and methodological analysis of economic and political conditions of the Mauryas. It is divided into fifteen Adhikaranas or books, 150 chapters, 180 Prakaranas (chapters) and six thousand verses in all.

Foreign Literary Sources  The Indica of Megasthenes, who was the Ambassador of Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta Maurya  Strabo (64 B.C to 19 A.D) wrote important geographical work. He also refers to the matrimonial alliance between Seleucus and Chandragupta Maurya and women bodyguards of Chandragupta.  The work of Diodrous (1st century B.C) is the earliest available Greek account of India. His accounts on India are taken from Megasthenes.  Pliny, the elder (1st century A.D.), the author of Natural History (75 A.D.) gives the account of India based on Greek sources and reports of western merchants.  Plutarch (45-125 A.D) mentions Chandragupta as Androcottas and states that Chandragupta had met Alexander  Arrian (130-172A.D) provides the best available account of Alexander’s expedition and India’s geography and social life.  Justin (2nd century A.D) mentions Chandragupta as Sandrocottus and gives in account of Chandragupta Mauryas rise to power.

THE DYNASTIC HISTORY OF MAURYAS Emperor Reign start Reign end Chandragupta Maurya 321 BC 298 BC Bindusara 298 BC 273 BC Asoka The Great 268 BC 232 BC Dasaratha 232 BC 223 BC Samprati 224 BC 215 BC Salisuka 215 BC 202 BC Devavarman 202 BC 195 BC Satadhanvan 195 BC 193 BC Brihadratha 193 BC 187 BC

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Chandragupta Maurya (321 – 298 B.C.)  Chandragupta, at the young age of 25, dethroned the last Nanda ruler (Dhanananda) and occupied Pataliputra in 321 B.C with the help of Brahmana Kautilya also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta (this fact finds mention in Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadatta).  According to Plutarch, Androcottas (Chandragupta was known by this name) had met Alexander and advised him to attack Magadha.  The Jaina work Parisisthaparvan describes that Chanakya made Chandragupta enter into an alliance with a neighbouring king Parvataka. The allied armies besieged Pataliputra and brought the valley under control.  The Buddhist work Milinda Panho describing the tale of war between the contending forces of the Mauryas and Nandas, mentions that its General Bhaddasala led the Nanda Army.  In 305 B.C Chandragupta again moved towards northwest for a campaign against Seleucus Nikator, which ended with the treaty of 303 B.C in favour of the Mauryas. Chandragupta gave 500 elephants to Seleucus and in return Seleucus gave him eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the area west of the Indus. According to Appain there was a matrimonial alliance between Chandragupta and Seleucus. Seleucus sent an ambassador called Megasthenes, according to Athenacus.  The Girnar record refers to Chandragupta viceroy or governor, Pushyagupta (brother in law of Chandragupta) who is said to have constructed the famous Sudarsana Lake.  There are some epigraphic evidences about Chandragupta control over the parts of Karnataka.  According to the Jaina tradition (Parisisthaparvan of Hemachandra) Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in favour of his son, Bindusara.  Chandragupta went south with Bhadrabahu, the Jaina saint. At Sravana Belgola, he spent rest of his life and died in the orthodox Jain way by stow starvation (Sallekhana).  According to the chronology of the Mauryas given in the , Chandragupta ruled for 24 years and his rule ended in either B.C 301-300 or 298-97.

Bindusara (298-273 B.C)  Chandragupta Maurya was succeded by his son Bindusara. In a Chinese text he is mentioned as Bindupala.  Bindusara was known to the Greeks as Amitrochates (derived from the Sanskrit word Amitraghata or slayer of foes) or Amitrakhada (Devourer of foes). Strabo calls him Amitrochates.  According to Romila Thapar Bindusara extended Mauryan control in the peninsular region of India as far south as Mysore  According to Taranatha, the Tibetan Buddhist monk who visited India in the 16th century Bindusara conquered 16 states, comprising the land between the two seas: (Presumably the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal).  The description of early Tamil poets of the Mauryan chariots thundering across the land, probably refer to his reign. The far south however only recognized the Mauryan suzerainty and did not actually form a part of it.  Bindusara had contacts with Antiochus I, the Seleucid king of Syria whose ambassador, Deimachus was said to have been at his court.  Bindusara wrote to Antiochus I asking for some Sweet wine, dried figs and a Sophist to be sent to the Mauryan court. Antiochus sent all except the Sophist, explaining that Greek law forbid a sophist to he sold.

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La Excellence IAS  Pliny mentions that Ptolemy Philladelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius as his ambassador to the court of Bindusara.  Bindusara religious leanings are said to be more towards the Ajivikas.  Ajivika fortuneteller, Pingalavatsa (at Bindusara court) prophesied at the birth of Ashoka, that he would become king.  Bindusara appointed his eldest son Sumana or Susima as Viceroy of Taxila and Asoka at Ujjain. The Divyavadana/Ashokavadana tells the story of a revolt in Taxila, during the time of Susima. Bindusara deputed Ashoka to restore order.

 Buddhist sources suggest the death of Bindusara around 273-272 B.C. After his death there was a struggle for succession among his son for about four years. Ultimately, around 269-268 B.C Ashoka was crowned Bindusara successor.

ASHOKA (268-232 B.C)  In the Puranas he is referred to as Ashokavardhana. According to V. Smith “Ashokavardhana” was the personal name of Asoka and Piyadasi his title.  In the Girnar inscription of Rudradaman (AD 150), he is mentioned as Ashoka the Maurya.  In the Calcutta-Bhabra inscription Asoka refers to himself as Piyadasi Raja Magadha i.e. Piyadasi, the king of Magadha. In this edict he states his acceptance of the Buddhist creed, the faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha.  According to Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa Asoka captured power after killing his ninety- nine brothers, including his elder brother Susima (whom Bindusara wished to appoint as King) and only Tissa, remained unhurt. But Taranatha states that Asoka killed only six of his brothers.  In Rock Edict V, Asoka mentions officers’ superintending the welfare of the families of his brothers, sisters and other relatives.  According to the Buddhist sources like Ashokavadana, Ashoka’s mother was Subhadrangi. Sri Lankan chronicles mention Ashoka’s mother as Dharma.  According to Mahavamsa Ashoka’s chief queen for most of his region was Asandhimitta. After the death of Asandhimitta, Tissarakkha\Karuvaki (Responsible for injuring the Bodhi tree) was raised to the rank of chief queen.  Karuvaki is mentioned in the Queen’s edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad (In which her religious and charitable donations are referred). Karuvaki is described as the mother of the prince Tivara (The only son to be mentioned by name in the inscription). Rajatarangini mentions Jaluka as another son of Asoka.  Padmavati (Mother of Kunala) is referred to in the Divyavadana as the Queen of Asoka.  Sanghamitra and Charumati are mentioned as the Daughter’s of Ashoka. Charumati is said to have married (a Kshatriya of Nepal).  Samprati (Son of Kunala) and Dasaratha finds mention as the Grandsons of Asoka  After ascending the throne, Asoka spent several years in extreme pleasure and came to be called “Kamasoka”. This was followed by a period of extreme wickedness, which earned the name of “Chandasoka”. Finally his conversion to Buddhism earned him the name “Dhammasoka”.  The war with Kalinga (260B.C) eight years after consecration of Asoka was one of the most important events of his life. The 13th Major Rock Edict describes the horrors and miseries of this war and the deep remorse it caused to Asoka.  The Bhabra inscription, states that two years, after the war, Asoka become an ardent supporter of Buddhism, under the influence of a Buddhist monk, Upagupta

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La Excellence IAS  Mahavamsa states that after Third Buddhist council Asoka sent Buddhist missions to various regions.

Country name Missionary name Kashmir and Gandhara Majjhantika Mahisamandala (Mysore) Mahadeva Vanavasi Rakkhita Aparantaka (Northern Gujarat, , Kachch and Sind) Yona Dhammarakkhita Maharattha (Maharashtra) Mahadhammarakkhita Yona (Greece) Maharakkhita Himavanta (Himalayan region) Majjhima Suvarnabhumi (Myanmar/ Thailand) Sona and Uttara Lankadvipa (Sri Lanka) Mahinda and Sanghamitra

 Asoka visited Bodhi tree in 11th regnal year. Barabar Hill cave inscription (12th Regnal year) refer to Ashoka’s gift to Ajivikas.  Asoka began to issue his major rock Edicts in his 13th regnal year. Asoka visited Rummindei in the 21st regnal year.  Ashokan inscriptions, particularly Major Rock edict II, refer to the southernmost kingdoms, viz Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras as the Prachamta (border) states and clearly distinguish them from the Vijita or Raja-Vishaya (Imperial dominions).  According to Kalhana’s Rajatarangini Kashmir was a part of the Mauryan Empire and Asoka built the city of .  There was very close relationship existing between the Mauryas and Ceylon, whose ruler, Tissa, appears to have modeled his rule on Asokan ideals.  Asoka sent a branch of the original pipal tree (Under which the Buddha had received enlightenment) to Ceylon.  Tusaspa is referred to as the Governor of Asoka in the Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman  Asoka in his Major Rock Edict XIII mentions many of his contemporaries in the Hellenic world with which he exchanged missions. The kings mentioned in this context are: Antiochus II Theo’s of Syria; Ptolemy II Philladelphus of Egypt; Antigonus Gonatus of Macedonia; Magas of Cyrene and Alexander of Epirus  The empire of Asoka extended from Bengal in the East to Afghanistan in the West, foothills of Himalayas in the North to Mysore in the South.

Successors of Asoka or Later Mauryas  Jaluka, son of Asoka, is famous in Kashmir history as a propagator of and persecutor of Buddhists.  Puranas mention that the Mauryan Empire lasted 137 years (90 years for first three Mauryas)  The division of the Mauryan Empire followed Ashoka’s death.  Kunala (son of Asoka), according to Buddhist legends was rendered blind. Dasaratha, like Asoka is said to have adopted the title of Devanama-Priya.  Samprati (grandson of Asoka) mentioned in Matsya Purana, was converted to Jainism by Suhastin.  Samprati had managed to unite the empire in 223 B.C and ruled from Ujjain and Pataliputra.

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La Excellence IAS  According to Puranas Salisuka succeeded Samprati. Gargi Samhita states that his rule was very oppressive.  The successor of Salisuka, mentioned as Somavarman or Devavarman, ruled for seven years.  The last two kings of the Mauryan dynasty were Satadhanvan and Brihadratha.  Bana’s -Charita and Vishnu Purana both mention the treacherous assassination of Brihadratha (The last Mauryan ruler who ruled for seven years) by Pushyamitra Sunga. This marked the end of Mauryan Empire in 185-84 B.C.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF MAURYAS

The state, according to Kautilya, is constituted of the Saptanga or the seven elements viz Svamin (King); Amatya (Minister or high officials); (Territory or population); Durga (Fort); Kosa (Treasury); Bala (Army); and Mitra (Friend or ally). The Mauryan Empire had many major administrative units like the Centre and the Provinces, which had various sub-units down to the Village, and all came under the purview of central administration. The Central administration can be classified under the following head.  The King  The council of Ministers  The city Administration  Army  Espionage network  Law & justice  Public welfare  Revenue administration

The King  He is considered as the soul among all the seven elements of the state  Necessary qualities for the king mentioned in Arthashastra are: Birth in a high family; Capability to keep under control various small kings and officials; Sharp intellect; Truthfulness and Upholder of Dharma etc.  An important development in the king’s position was the emergence of a paternal attitude towards his subject.  In the Dhauli inscription (Major rock Edicts VI) Asoka says: “Savve munisse paja mama” (All men are my children), which shows his paternalistic attitude towards the people.

The Council of Minister  Ministry forms an important limb of the body politic. According to Arthashastra, the King alone unaided by a ministry is like a chariot to move on one wheel only.  The Girnar rock Edicts of Asoka mentions about the functions of the council  Rock Edict III mentions that the Parishad was expected to see that administrative measures were carried out by different categories of officials  Rock Edict VI mentions that the minister can discuss the policy matters, suggest amendments and decide upon any important matter, which the king has left to them.  However the primary role of the Parishad remained that of an advisory body.  Kautilya also lays down criteria or the qualification for appointment of ministers. The purest of all (Sarvopadasuddha) should be appointed as mantrins.

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La Excellence IAS The Bureaucracy

Tirthas were the highest categories of officials. They were eighteen in number Mahamantri Chief Minister Purohita Chief priest Senapati Commander – in – chief Yuvaraja Crown Prince

The above four were the highest functionaries among the eighteen Tirthas Dauvarika Chamberlain Prasastri Inspector General of Prison Sanidhatta Incharge of Treasury Nayaka City Constable Vyavaharika Chief Judge Mantri Parishadadhyasha Secretary incharge of the Office of ministers Chief of the Home Defence i.e. warden of the Duvara Pala palace to control entrance and exit Antarvesika Chief of the Harem Samaharta Tax Collector General Pradeshtri Divisional Commissioner Paura Governor of the Capital Karmantika Chief of the industries Dandapal Police chief Antapal Chief of the Frontier Defence

Adhyakshya’s were high-ranking official next to Tirthas concerned mostly with economic functions and some military duties. Kautilya in his Arthashastra gives an account of the working of nearly thirty-two Adhyakshya’s. Some of the Important Adhayaksas were:

Akshapataladhyaksha Accountant general Sitadhayaksha Incharge of Crown Lands Akaradhyaksha Superintendent of Mines Lavanadhyaksha Salt Superintendent Navadhyaksha Incharge of state Boats Panyadhyaksha Controller of state trading Sulkadhyaksha Collector of Custom or Tolls Suradhyaksha Superintendent of Excise Pautavadhyaksha Superintendent of Weight And Measure Bandhanagaradhyaksha Superintendent of Jails Ayudhagaradhyaksha Ordnance Superintendent Kosthagaradhyaksha Incharge of Warehouse Pattanadhyakshya Superintendent of Ports Devatadhyaksha Incharge of religious institutions Samsthadhyakshya Superintendent of Market Suvarnadhyakshya Superintendent of gold Hastyadhaysha Incharge of Elephant force Kosadhyaksha Incharge of treasury Kupyadhyaksha Incharge of forest produce

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Madradhyaksha Passport incharge Ganikadhyaksha Incharge of courtesan Lakshanadhyaksha Superintendent of mint Dhyutadhyaksha Controller of Gambling Go-adhyaksha Superintendent of crown Herds Lohadhyaksha Superintendent of metal Khanyadhyaksha Superintendent of mines Pattyadhyaksha Commander of infantry Sunadhyaksha Protector of animal Sutradhyakha Textile Commissioner Vivitadhyaksha Controller of pasture land

Mahamattas were higher ranking officials irrespective of the duties assigned to them. There are references to them as a minister of advisory council as well. The Arthashastra uses this term in the sense of a minister. Some important Mahamattas were:

Amtamahamattas Officer incharge of frontier areas Dhamma Mahamattas Officer incharge of propagating Dhamma Donamapakamahamatta Assessment officer Sabbatthakamahamattas Chief Minister Senanaya Mahamattas Military officer Itijhakamahamattas Officer incharge of women harem Vaharikamahamatta Judicial Officer

Amatyas were some sort of administrative personnel or civil servant who filled the highest administrative and judicial appointments. They acted as present day secretaries. The Amatyas may be compared with the “Seventh caste” of Megasthenes, which consisted of counselors, and assessor of the king

City Administration  Megasthenes calls the town officials Astynomoi.  According to Megasthenes the city council was divided into six boards of five each.  The First board was to look after everything relating to industrial arts.  The Second board was required to attend to the entertainment of foreigners.  The Third board was entrusted the job of registering birth and death.  Regulation of trade and commerce was under the Fourth board.  The Fifth board supervised manufactured articles, which they sold by public notice.  The Sixth board collected the title on the prices of goods sold and evasion of this tax was punishable with death.

Army  According to Megasthenes Chandragupta had at his disposal a formidable army numbering about 6, 00,000  According to Pliny Chandragupta army consisted of 6,00,000 Infantry, 9000 Elephants, 30000 Cavalry, and 8000 Chariots.  According to Plutarch Mauryan army consisted of 2,00,000 foot soldiers, 6000 elephants, 80,000 horses.  According to Justin the Mauryan army was composed of band of robbers.

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La Excellence IAS  Megasthenes says that there was a war council comprising of thirty members, divided into six sub councils of five members viz the Infantry, Cavalry, Elephant, Chariots, Transport and Admiralty (navy)  There was a separate department to look after the production and maintenance of a variety of armaments whose chief was known as Ayudhagaradhyaksha.  Megasthenes informs that the weapons used in fighting included Broadsword, Javelins, Bows and Arrows.  Kautilya refers to different types of warriors such as the hereditary (Maula), the mercenaries (Bhritakas), soldiers supplied by forest tribes (Atavivala) and those furnished by the allies (Mitravala).  According to Kautilya the officers and soldiers were paid in cash. The Senapati received a salary of 48,000 Panas per year, followed by 24,000 for Prasasta, 12000 for Nayaka, 8000 for Mukhya, 4000 for Adhyaksha and 500 for Ordinary soldiers.

Espionage  Pulisani were public relation officers, who gathered public opinion and reported to the king.  Pativedaka were special reporter, who had direct access to the king at any hour.

Law and Justice  The chief justice, called Dharmadhikarin presided over the Supreme Court.  There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals, division and district under Amatyas and Pradeshtri.  Mention is also made of different kinds of punishment such as fines, imprisonment, mutilation and death.  Megasthenes account seems to indicate that theft was a rare occurrence in the Mauryan Kingdom.  Police headquarters were found in all principal centres i.e. Sthaniya in the midst of 800 villages, a Dronamukha in 400 villages, a Kharvatika in 200 villages and a Sangrahana in 10 villages.

Revenue Administration  Kautilya has listed different resources from where revenue flowed into the state treasury. Arthashastra provides references of about 21 types of Taxes. Samaharta supervised revenue collection from the entire Kingdom.  The revenue collected was mostly spent on the maintenance of the Army, war, Public works, religious donations and gifts, official’s salary, Kings personal expenses e.t.c  Gamblers had to part with five per cent of their winnings to the state.  Merchants had to pay when their weights were tested and certified by state officials.  Revenue also came from Armament industry and Salt trade (Both were monopoly of state).  The state was also empowered to impose taxes in case of emergency.  Sanidhatta was in charge of the treasury.

Provincial and Local Administration  The head of the provincial administration was Kumara.  Mahamattas and a council of ministers in turn assisted the Kumara.  Governors administered certain areas within the province.  The Junagarh inscription mentions Tusaspa, a yavana as a governor of Junagarh area during the time of Asoka.

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La Excellence IAS  The council of ministers at the provincial level acted as check on the local governor.  Gopa and Sthanika were two types of officers acting as intermediaries between the district and village level administrative units. Their function included: demarcating village boundaries, maintaining records of land used for various purposes.

CONTENTS OF MAJOR ROCK EDICTS:

1st Major Rock Edict:  Prohibition of Animal sacrifice and holding of Festive gatherings  Killing of Three animals (two Peacock and a Deer) in the Royal kitchen 2nd Major Rock Edict:  Mentions the land of Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras  Social welfare measures  Medical treatment for men and animals construction of roads, wells, trees planting etc. 3rd Major Rock Edict:  Liberality towards Brahmanas and Sramanas  Respect to mother and father, friends and relatives etc  The officers such as Yuktas, Rajjukas and Pradesikas to go on tour every Five years, in order to instruct people in Dhamma Such tours referred to as “Anusamyana” (tour of inspection) 4th Major Rock Edict:  It speaks about the successful results achieved by the practice of Dhamma in society and its impact in the creation of harmony 5th Major Rock Edict  Appointment of Dhamma-Mahamattas for the first time in the 12th year of his reign These special officers were appointed by the king to look after the interests of all sects and religions and spread the message of Dhamma  Mention of the Greeks and other people of the West (, Gandharas, Risthikas, Pitinikas etc)  Promotion of the welfare of prisoners and release of those who have children’s, are afflicted or are aged.  Welfare of the King’s brother and sister’s and those of other relatives 6th Major Rock Edict  Instruction to Dhamma Mahamattas to bring their report to the king any time  Speedy and efficient administration and transaction of smooth business  King’s idea of promoting happiness and welfare of the whole world  King’s wish that his ideals of kingship should be followed by his successors 7th Major Rock Edict  Plea for toleration amongst all the sects  King wishes that all men should develop self-control, purity of mind, gratitude and firm faith 8th Major Rock Edict  Mentions of the Asoka visit to Bodhi tree  Mentions of Dhammayatras in place of pleasure tours to promote general welfare of the people 9th Major Rock Edict  Attacks expensive and meaningless ceremonies performed and pass a censure against ceremonies observed by wives and mother. Asoka instead lays stress on the practices of Dhamma.

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 The Girnar version states that the gift of Dhamma is emphasized as one through which heaven can be gained.  Regard for Slaves and Servants, respect for Teachers, restrained behaviour towards living beings, and donation to Brahmanas and Sramanas. 10th Major Rock Edict  The king desires fame and glory only to the extent that his people may obey Dhamma and follow the way prescribed in it. 11th Major Rock Edict  Further explanation of the policy of Dhamma  Respect to elders, abstaining from killing animals and liberality towards friends and relatives  Good behaviour towards Son and Servant, obedience towards Mother and Father and generosity towards Sramanas and Brahmanas. 12th Major Rock Edict  Appeal towards toleration among sects 13th Major Rock Edict  Largest Ashokan Edict and is of paramount importance in understanding the Ashokan policy of Dhamma.  Pleads for conquest by Dhamma instead of war  Mention of the Kalinga war and the Kings remorse over the war and large-scale killing, and his subsequent adoption of Dhamma  Mention of names of five Greek kings (Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas and Alexander)  Mention names of a number of tribes within the territory of the empire  Mention of Cholas and Pandyas

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La Excellence IAS THE POST MAURYAN PERIOD: 200 B.C. – 300 A.D.

SUNGAS

 The founder of Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga who assassinated the last Mauryan king Brihadratha in 180 B.C. this is corroborated by Bana.  The capital of Sungas were at Pataliputra and Vidisha  The Sungas are usually regarded as Brahmin belonging to the Bharadvaja clan  The next important king was Vajramitra who was succeeded by Bhagavat, who is identified with Kasiputra Bhagabhadra of Vidisa (Besnagar) Pillar Inscription. Heliodorus, the ambassador of the Greek king Antialcidas stayed in his court.  Devabhuti was the last Sunga king who, according to Banabhatta (author of Harshacharita) was murdered by his Brahmana minister Vasudeva (75.B.C)

CHETAS

 The first known king of this dynasty was Mahameghavarmana  The greatest and the most powerful king of the dynasty was Kharvela, the descendent of the Mahameghavarmana. His capital was Kalinganagara  Kalinga rose to power under king Kharvela  The only source of information about the king Kharvela is the Hathigumpha inscription  The inscription has 17 lines out of which only four are legible which records the first 13 years of the reign of Kharvela  In the fifth year of his reign, Kharvela extended the old canal constructed by the Nandas.  Kharvela is said to have recovered an image of a Jaina saint from Magadha, which had been previously carried away from Kalinga. He is also credited with the construction of a magnificent temple at Bhuvaneshwar.  In the 13th year of his region Kharvela undertook many welfare schemes like building caves for the Jaina monks in the Udaigiri hills.

SATAVAHANA DYNASTY

 The Satavahanas appeared as the successors of the Mauryas in Deccan.  Simuka was the founder of . He was the immediate successor of Asoka and there are references that he built many Buddhist and Jaina temples.  Gautamiputra Satakarni (A.D 80-104) also called ‘Ekabrahmana’ is regarded as the greatest king of the Satavahanas dynasty. His achievements are recorded in glowing terms in the Nasik prasasti by his mother Gautami Balasri.  The last Satavahana king of the main line was Pulamayi IV

INDO GREEKS

 Greek expansion in India was definitely the work of Demetrius I. He was perhaps the first foreign king after Alexander who carried Greek arms into the interior of India.  Demetrius I advanced towards India along with his second son Demetrius II and his general Menander.  However Menander is best known from the Pali work Milinda Panho (Question of Milinda) which is in the form of a dialogue between Milinda, the king of Sakala (Sialkot) and Nagasena

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La Excellence IAS SHAKAS

 The Saka’s succeeded the Indo-Greeks or the Bactrian in India  The Saka’s are referred as Aniravasita (Clean Sudras) in Patanjali’s Mahabhashya.  Rudradaman was the greatest ruler among the Saka’s. According to the Junagarh rock inscription men of all castes considered him as protector and that he won for himself the title of mahakshatrapa. The Junagarh inscription testifies that Rudradaman twice defeated Satakarni, the lord of the Deccan but spared his life because of family relation. Rudradaman is called Bhrastaraj Pratisthapak in this inscription.  The same inscription makes a mention of repair of Sudarsana Lake of Saurashtra by Rudradaman governor in Saurashtra Sutivashakh, the expense was borne completely by king’s exchequer.  The last known ruler Rudrasimha III, who ruled up to 388 A.D, has been mentioned in Bana’s Harshacharita as having been killed by the Gupta monarch Chandragupta II.

PARTHIANS

 The rule of the Saka and Parthians was simultaneous in different pockets of north – western and Northern India.  In the middle of first century A.D the Parthians supplanted the Saka rule in parts of Gandhara  Gondophernes was however the greatest Indo-Parthian monarch. He ruled from 19-45 A.D (Based on Takht –I – Bhai inscription).  There is a tradition which suggests that, St Thomas traveled from Israel and came to the court of Gondophernes.  Marco Polo who died in 1324A.D wrote that St. Thomas was buried in Southern India.

KUSHANS

 Kanishka is regarded as the greatest king of his dynasty. He is credited for starting the Saka era. This era beginning A.D 78 also came to be described as the “Sakakala” or “Saka-Nripa-Kala”.  Kanishka ruled from his capital Purushapura or Peshawar. This has been testified by Hiuen Tsang  Kanishka established a city named Kanishkapura in Kashmir.  Kanishka also attained fame due to his association with the Buddhist religion. On the advice of Parsva he convened the fourth council of the Buddhists at Kundalavana in Kashmir whose president was Vasumitra and vice President was Asvaghosha.  According to another tradition the council was held at Jalandhar.  The Buddhist writers, Nagarjuna, Asvaghosha, Parsva and Vasumitra lived at his court.  Charaka the exponent of was his court physician and Mathara was his minister.  Kanishka’s successor was Vasishka (101-105 A.D).  Vasudeva was the last king of the dynasty. He assumed the title Shaono Shao Vasudevo Keshono. His name suggests that by this time the Kushanas were totally Indianised. His coins bear the image of Shiva and his Bull Nandi. Vasudeva’s reign ended in or about 220 A.D.

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La Excellence IAS DEVELOPMENT OF ART: 200 BC to 300 AD

The period witnessed the development of a sophisticated kind of sculpture, which came to be associated with three different regions i.e. Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati. Sculptural art was never shown in this form and this quality before. Even after this phase, the Sarnath School of sculpture during the Gupta period is the only sculpture art form, which parallels the sculpture art of this period. Religion played a Great role in the development of this art. The subject matter and content was provided by religion.

In the case of Gandhara school the style was foreign (Hellenistic/Greek) but the subject matter and content was indigenous. In the case of Mathura as well as Amravati both the subject matter and style was indigenous.

THE SANGAM LITERATURE

It refers to the literature compiled in the Tamil academics in the early countries of the Christian era. The Sangam was a college or assembly of Tamil poets held under Royal patronage. It is said that 3 Sangams were held under royal patronage in . It lasted for 9,990 years, was attended by 8598 poets and had 197 Pandyan kings and Patrons. The word Sangam was first used by Tirunarukkarasu Nayannar also known as Appar. The Sangam literature has been divided into two major parts i.e. Narrative (Melkannakku or 18 major works) and Didactic (Kilkanakku or 18 minor works). The narrative text consists of heroic poetry in which heroes are glorified and perpetual wars and cattle raids are frequently mentioned. The didactic tests prescribe a code of conduct not only for the king and his court but also for various social groups and occupation. The Sangam literature gives important information’s regarding the political, social and economic condition of south during the period.

Two important Tamil texts are (a). Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar: It deals with grammar and poetics. (b). Tirukkural by Tirruvalluvar: It deals with philosophy and wise maxims. It is considered as the Bible of Tamil Land or 5th Veda.

Three Tamil epics are (a). Silappadikaram written by Illango Avadigal: It is considered to be the brightest gem of early Tamil literature. It deals with the story of Kovalan (a merchant of Puhar) who falls in love with a dancer\ courtesan called Madhavi (of Kaveripattanam) and ignores his wife Kannagi. The Kovalan was killed by a Pandyan king and Kannagi took the revenge of the death of Kovalan and becomes a goddess. With her begins the Kannagi/Patni cult. (b). Manimekalai written by Sattanar (Grain merchant of Madurai): It deals with the story of Manimekalai (The daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi), her efforts to preserve her chastity and her Conversion to a Buddhist nun. (c). Sivaga Sindamani/Jivaka Chintamani written by Tiruttakkadevar (A Jaina by religion): It deals with the story of Sivaga/Jivaka who possesses superpowers and wins a new bride for his harem. At the end of his life he becomes a Jaina monk. These three Tamil epics throw light on the social and economic life of the Tamil land up to about the 6th century A.D.

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La Excellence IAS THE GUPTA AGE: A.D. 320-550

The Kushanas power in came to an end around AD 230 and then a good part of central India fell under the rule of the Murundas, who were possibly the kinsmen of the Kushanas. The Murundas continued to rule till AD 250. In about AD 275, the Gupta dynasty came to power. Their origin is obscure. The first two kings of this dynasty – Sri Gupta and Ghatotkacha – were satisfied with the title Maharaja.

THE DYNASTIC HISTORY OF GUPTAS

CHANDRA GUPTA (320 AD – 335 AD):

Ghatotkacha was succeeded by his son Chandra Gupta I (In about AD 320), who assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. Like Bimbisara he strengthened his position by matrimonial alliance with the Lichchavis – then controlling portions of Bihar and Nepal. The Lichchavi princess Kumaradevi must have brought to the Guptas enormous accession of power and prestige, as the Guptas were probably Vaishyas and the Lichchavis were a very old family of Kshatriyas. Much prominence has been given to the Lichchavi princess in the genealogies of later Gupta kings, and special coins were minted to commemorate her marriage to Chandra Gupta I who possessed fairly large domains including the regions of Magadha and Kosala. Chandra Gupta I started the Gupta Era in AD 320, which marked the date of his accession. An important act of this king was the holding of an assembly of councilors and members of the royal family at which Prince Samudragupta was formally nominated successor in about AD 335.

SAMUDRA GUPTA (335 AD – 375 AD):

It would seem that there was some trouble over succession to the throne after Chandra Gupta I, and the coins of an obscure prince Kacha suggest that Samudragupta had a rival whom he finally overcame. Samudragupta has been called the ‘Indian Napoleon’ by V.A. Smith because of his extensive military conquests about which we know from the eulogic inscription (Prayag Prasasti), composed by his minister and court-poet Harisena, on an old Ashokan pillar at Allahabad. According to the inscription, all his life was spent in military campaigns. He subjugated five kingdoms in lower Bengal, upper , Nepal and the territories farther west, as well as a number of republican clans including the Malavas, the Yaudheyas, the Arjunayanas, the Abhiras in Punjab and Rajasthan, and several minor ones in Madhya Pradesh. They paid homage and taxes to the Gupta emperor but enjoyed internal autonomy. Samudragupta also advanced through the forest tract of Madhya Pradesh to the coast of Orissa and then moved up to Kanchi, the capital of Pallavas. The inscription at Eran (Madhya Pradesh) is also a useful source of information about his campaigns. It would appear that Samudragupta directly ruled over a vast territory in north India, extending roughly from the Brahmaputra to the Chambal, surrounded by a number of tributary states immediately to the north, east and west. The Shakas and Kushanas, who ruled in Punjab and Gujarat, though independent, had to be submissive to him. Beyond the he exercised some sort of suzerainty over at least twelve states in the Deccan and South India. Harisena describes Samudragupta as the hero of a hundred battles.

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La Excellence IAS Some of the coins of Samudragupta represent him as playing on the vina. He also performed Asvamedha sacrifice. Though a follower of the Brahmanical religion, he was tolerant of other faiths – he granted permission to the Buddhist king of Ceylon, Meghavarman, to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya. He assumed the tiles of Vikramanka and Kaviraja.

CHANDRA GUPTA II (375 AD – 412 AD):

Samudragupta was succeeded by Chandra Gupta II around AD 375. However, some historians put Ramagupta between Samudragupta and Chandra Gupta II. In the play Devichandraguptam of Visakhadatta, Gupta is the elder brother of Chandra Gupta II. It was during the rule of Ramagupta that Shakas attacked . Finding his position precarious, Rama Gupta agrees to surrender Queen Dhruvadevi to a Shaka ruler. Chandra Gupta II objects to it and saves the honour of the family by killing the Shaka chief and rescuing Dhruvadevi. He later on marries her. However, the Gupta records to not refer to Rama Gupta. Political marriages occupied a prominent place in the foreign policy of the Guptas. Chandra Gupta II followed the same policy when he conciliated the Naga chieftains of the upper and central provinces by accepting the hand of the princess Kubernaga and allied himself with the powerful family of the Vakatakas of the Deccan by marrying his daughter Prabhavati with Rudrasena II.

Then Chandra Gupta II invaded the Shaka kingdom of Gujarat and Kathiawar, killed the Shaka chief Rudrasimha III and annexed the kingdom about AD 409. This helped him to extend the empire up to the shores of the Arabian Sea in the west which facilitated direct cultural and commercial relations with the western world. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief city Ujjain which was probably made the second capital by Chandra Gupta II. The iron pillar inscription near Qutub Minar enumerates the exploits of a king called Chandra. If this king were Chandra Gupta II, he might have established Gupta Authority in north-western India and Bengal. Chandra Gupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya. The court of Chandra Gupta II at Ujjain was adorned by many scholars like Kalidasa and Amarsimha. During his reign the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hein (399-414) visited India.

KUMARA GUPTA I AND SKANDA GUPTA

Dhruvadevi’s son Kumara Gupta I Mahendraditya succeeded his father around AD 415. He kept the empire intact, which now extended from north Bengal to Kathiawar and from the Himalayas to the Narmada. He performed the Asvamedha sacrifice. A number of inscriptions shed light on Kumara Gupta’s efficient administration and the deep love that the people had for him. But in the last years of Kumara Gupta I, the peace and prosperity of the empire was disturbed due to internal dissensions and external invasions. Among the chief enemies were the new invaders called Hunas The Hunas were a Central Asian people known to Byzantine writers as Hephthalites or White Huns, and they are today considered a branch of the great group of Turko-Mongol peoples, who were threatening Europe at about the same time. Certain modern scholars, however, claim that they were in no way related to the Huns of Attila, but were of Iranian stock. The Hunas had occupied Bactria some time before, and

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La Excellence IAS now, like the earlier Greeks, Shakas and Kushanas, they crossed the mountains and attacked the plains of India. During the war with the Hunas, Kumaragupta died, and Skandagupta (454-467) assumed power, though not born of the chief queen and therefore not the regular heir to the throne. He succeeded in re-establishing the Gupta Empire, and by the end of 455 it was again at peace. But after his death the great days of the Guptas were over. The empire continued but central control weakened, and local governors became feudatory kings with hereditary rights. To the west of Varanasi the Gupta emperors now exercised little more than titular control. In his religious outlook, Skandagupta was a Vaishnava, but followed the tolerant policy of his predecessors.

THE GUPTA ADMINISTRATION

The period of Guptas has often been described as the golden age of ancient India, at least in north India. There was consolidation of a large part of northern India under one political umbrella, and it ushered an era of orderly government and progress. An efficient administration was established in the Gupta Empire. All the powers were concentrated with the king. Often an element of divinity was attached to the kings and they were looked upon as Gods. Though the king possessed extensive powers he did not rule in a tyrannical manner. A council of ministers and several civil officials assisted the king. The king acted as the fountainhead of justice and decided all disputes. In general, punishments were light and mild. During the Gupta period income was from 18 sources; the greater part of it was spent on works of public welfare. Land revenue which was the chief source was generally fixed at one-sixth of the produce. The police arrangements were so efficient that travelers experienced no difficulty or danger from thieves on their journey. The Gupta rulers had organized a huge army. The country was divided into a number of districts (Visyas). The local units enjoyed much liberty and independence. The king adopted pompous titles such as Parameshvara, Maharajadhiraja and Parambhattaraka. This implies that they ruled over lesser kings. Kingship was hereditary but there was not a firm practice of primogeniture. The goddess is represented invariably on the Gupta coins as the wife of Vishnu with whom the kings were compared by the Brahmanas. The king’s standing army was supplemented by the forces occasionally supplied by the feudatories. Chariots receded into the background, and cavalry came to the forefront. Horse archery became prominent in military tactics. For the first time civil and criminal law were clearly defined and demarcated. The most important officers in the Gupta Empire were the Kumaramatyas. Several offices came to be confined in the hands of the same person, and posts became hereditary. The royal seal bore the imprint of . Started in the Deccan by the Satavahanas, the practice of granting land and fiscal and administrative concessions to priests and administrators became regular affairs in the Gupta times.

IMPORTANT OFFICIALS AT THE CENTRAL LEVEL 1. Mahabaladhikrita Commander-in-Chief 2. Mahadandanayak Chief Justice 3. Mahapratihar An official to maintain the royal palace 4. Mahasandhivigrahak/ An official for post-war conciliation Sandhivigrahak 5. Dandapashika Head of the Police department

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6. Bhandagaradhikreta Head of the royal treasury 7. Mahapaksha-Patalik Head of the account department 8. Vinaysthitisansathapak Head of the education department 9. Sarvadhyaksha Inspector for the all central departments 10. Mahashvapati Controller of cavalry 11. Mahamahipilupati Controller and executor of elephant force 12. Vinaypura Official to present different guests at king’s court 13. Yuktapurusha Office to keep account of war booty 14. Khadyatpakika Inspector of royal kitchen 15. Ranabhandagarika Officer-in-Change of army stores 16. Mahanarpati Head of foot soldiers (Infantry)

THE ECONOMY DURING GUPTAS

In ancient India, the Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins, which were called Dinaras in their inscriptions but they were not a common currency. After the conquest of Gujarat, the Gupta issued a good number of silver coins, mainly for local exchange. Cowries, according to Fa-Hein, became a common medium of exchange. In contrast to those of the Kushanas, the Gupta copper coins are very few.

GUPTA ART AND CRAFTS

In art, architecture, sculpture, painting and terracotta figurines, the Gupta period witnessed unprecedented activities and development all over India. That is why the period is also referred to as the ‘Golden Age of ancient India’. In architectural types, it ushered in a new age which is particularly noticed a creative and formative period for the foundation of a typical Indian temple architecture. The brick temples of the Gupta period include those of Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur and Deogarh in Jhansi. The Buddhist University at was set up in the fifth century, and its earliest structure, made of brick, belongs to this period. In the history of temple architecture, the Gupta period is the formative and creative age heralding the two important styles, Nagara and Dravida. Of the stupas built during this period, the one at Mirpur Khas in Sind and Dhamekh at Sarnath deserve mention. Of the tall Stupa of Sarnath near Varanasi, now little more than the inner core remains. It was once a most imposing structure of beautifully patterned brick-work with a high cylindrical upper rising from a lower hemispherical one, and with large images of the Buddha set in gable ends at the cardinal points. The rock-cut architecture of the period is represented by the two conventional types – the Chaityas and the Vihara. They are mostly found at Ajanta, Ellora and Bagh. The most characteristic feature of the Chaitya is its emphasis on the colossal image of Buddha seated between two standing attendants. The Vihara was planned in the form of rows of cells round a central court. The most numerous viharas are to be found at Ajanta. While retaining the essential features of the past, these caves are remarkable for the variety and beauty of the pillars as well as the fine paintings with which the walls and ceilings are decorated. It is in the domain of sculpture that the Gupta period marked great development. The Gupta sculpture suggests simplicity and serenity. An over two-metre high bronze image of the Buddha has been recovered from Sultanganj near Bhagalpur. According to Fa-hein there was an over 25-metre high image of the Buddha made of copper, but it is not traceable

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La Excellence IAS now. In the Gupta period, beautiful images of the Buddha were fashioned at Sarnath and Mathura. For the first time in the Gupta period we get images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other Hindu gods. In the art painting, the Gupta Age attained a high degree of proficiency. The specimens of Gupta paintings are preserved in the and the . The Ajanta caves adorned with best fresco paintings were constructed between the first and seventh centuries AD. Paintings in six of the 29 caves have survived the ravages of time. The subjects of these paintings are threefold, relating to decoration, portraiture and narration. The decorative designs include an infinite variety of animals, trees and flowers. Of the portraits the central figures are those of the various Buddha’s and . The narrative scenes mostly portray Jataka stories. The murals of Ajanta vividly portray in panorama the whole human and natural drama – the princes in their palaces, ladies in their harems, coolies carrying burdens over their shoulders, beggars, peasants and ascetics, the flowering trees, beasts and birds. The paintings at Bagh epitomize the Ajanta School. The chief characteristics of Gupta art are refinement, simplicity of expression, and religious virtuosity.

GUPTA ARCHITECTURE  Gupta age marks the beginning of the main style of temples architecture in India namely the Nagara style and Dravida Style.  The finest example of temple architecture is the Dasavatara temple at Deogarh. It is also an example of early stone temple with a Shikara.  It has a square grabhagriha with exquisitely carved doorway.  The Bhitragaon temple of Kanpur is made entirely of bricks.  Other examples of temple architecture are Parvati temple at Nachna Kuthara, Shiva temple at Koh, cave temple at Udaigiri etc.

AJANTA PAINTING  The greatest specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta times is provided by Ajanta paintings. They depict the various events in the life of Gautama Buddha and previous Buddha’s, of Jataka stories.  Bagh caves had the folk culture as the basic theme.  The paintings in the cave no. 9 and 10 belong to the first and second century B.C  Cave No. 10 belongs to the early Gupta Age, approximately 350 A.D.  Painting in the cave no. 16,17 and 19 belong to the later period approx to 650 A.D  Painting of the Cave No. 1 and 2 belong to the post-Gupta period.  The finest examples of paintings of this period are found in the rock-cut cave number 1, 16, and 19 at Ajanta.  The wall painting of the in cave 1 is the finest example of Gupta art.  The outstanding examples are the frescoes or wall-paintings.

THE GUPTA LITERATURE

The growing influence of Brahmanical religion gave an impetus to the development of Sanskrit which displaced Prakrit as the popular language. Most of the inscriptions now began to be written in Sanskrit, which became the official language of the Gupta Empire. To this period belong the 13 plays of Bhasa and those of Kalidasa. Most of the plays of this period had happy endings. The higher classes are given dialogues in Sanskrit, while the

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La Excellence IAS lower classes speak Prakrit in these plays. Kalidasa Abhijnanasakuntalam is considered to be one of the best hundred literary works in the world. The two great epics, the and the Mahabharata, were compiled in this period. Of the Puranas, the earlier ones were finally compiled in the Gupta times. The period also saw the compilation of various Smritis or the law Books written in verse. The period is particularly memorable for the compilation of Amarakosha by Amarsimha, who was a luminary in the court of Chandra Gupta II, and the Panchatantra. Sanskrit language developed an ornate style. From this period onwards we find greater emphasis on verse than on prose.

IMPORTANT LITERARY WORKS DURING THE GUPTA PERIOD

Epics: Ramayana Valmiki Mahabharata Ved Raghuvansa Kalidasa Ritusamhara Kalidasa Meghaduta Kalidasa Ravanabadha Batsabhatti Kavyadarshana Dandin Dasakumarcharita Dandin Kiratarjuniyam Bharavi Nitishataka Bhartrihari

Dramas:

Vikramovarshiya Kalidasa Malavikagnimitra Kalidasa Abhijnanasakuntalam Abhijnanasakuntalam Mrichchakatika Sudaraka Swapnavasavadatta Bhasa Charudatta Bhasa Pratignayaugandharayana Bhasa Mudrarakshasa Visakhadatta Devichandraguptam Visakhadatta

Eulogy:

Prayag-Prasasti: Harisena

Philosophy:

Sankhyakarika (based on Shankhya Philosophy): Ishwar Krishna Padartha Dharmasangraha (based on Acharya Philosophy) Prashastipada Vyasa Bhasya (based on Yoga Philosophy): Acharya Vyasa Bhasya (on Nyaya Philosophy): Vatsyayana

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La Excellence IAS Grammar:

Amarakosha Amarsimha Chandravyakarana Kavyadarsha Dandin

Narrative Story:

Panchatantra and Hitopadesha: Vishnu Sharma

Mathematics and Astronomy:

Aryabhattiya Aryabhatta Brihatsamhita Varahmihira Panchasidhantika Varahmihira Suryasidhanta Brahmagupta

Miscellaneous Works:

Nitisara Kamandaka Kamasutra Vatsyayana Kavyalankara Bhamah

Ramayana and Mahabharata were given the final shape during this period

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Mathematics and Astronomy: In the field of mathematics, we come across during this period a work called Aryabhattiyam written by Aryabhatta, who belonged to Pataliputra.

It seems that this mathematician was well versed in various kinds of calculations. A Gupta inscription of Allahabad suggests that the decimal system was known in India at the beginning of the fifth century AD. In the field of astronomy a book called Romaka Sidhanta was compiled. It was influenced by Greek ideas, as can be inferred from its name.

Aryabhatta was the first to use the decimal system. He formulated the rule for finding out the area of triangle which led to the origin of trigonometry and calculated the value of pie (π). He laid the foundation of algebra in his Aryabhattiyam. The most famous work of this time was Suryasiddhanta. Brahmagupta in 7th century AD began to apply algebra to astronomical problems. The three major contributions of the Gupta period in the field of mathematics were: the notational system, the decimal system and the use of zero.

Astronomy: Prominent astronomers were Aryabhatta and Varahmihira. The former found out the causes of lunar and solar eclipses; calculated the circumferences of earth; was first to reveal that the sun is stationary and the earth revolved round the sun. Varahamihir’s well known works are Brihatsamhita and Panch Siddhantika. Brahmagupta, wrote the Brahma Sphuta in verse and laid the foundation of the law of gravitation.

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Medicine: The two great physicians of this period were Sushruta and Charaka. The Sushruta Samhita describes the methods of operating cataracts, stone diseases and various other ailments. Charaka is considered to be the father of Indian medicine. Vagabhatta, a well-known physician, wrote Astanghridaya.

Metallurgy: The technology of metallurgy was well-developed under the Guptas. The iron pillar found near Mehrauli in Delhi and the huge copper statue of Buddha from Sultanganj (Now kept in British Museum are proof of the metallurgical skill of the Gupta period.

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La Excellence IAS THE POST-GUPTA ERA: UP TO 750 AD

THE POLITICAL CONDITION OF NORTH INDIA

The Gupta Empire disintegrated at the close of the fifth or beginning of the sixth century. The recurring invasions of the Hunas from abroad into the Gupta territory and internal disruption marked by the independence of provincial governors who established numerous independent principalities in different parts of northern India were the main cause of the eclipse of the Gupta empire. With the decline of the imperial Guptas, Magadha and its capital, Pataliputra, which since the sixth century BC had been the centre of political activity in North India, lost their importance. After the fall of the Guptas, five major centres of power emerged in North India. A brief description of these powers is given below.

The Hunas: The Hunas were a barbarous race which came to India from Central Asia. Hunas invaded India for the first time during the reign of Kumaragupta. They could not succeed in India under Kumaragupta and Skandagupta but under weak Guptas they could penetrate into India. They established their supremacy in North India. Toramana was their ablest ruler and Mihirakula, the most uncultured one. Mihirakula was defeated by Magadha king and had to fly to Kashmir, where he died.

The Maukharis: They held the region of western Uttar Pradesh around , had conquered a part of Magadha. Isanavarman and his son Sarvavarman were powerful rulers of this dynasty and had adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja.

The Maitrakas: They established a kingdom in Saurashtra with Valabhi as capital. Under the able guidance of Bhatarka, Valabhi not only became a seat of learning and culture, but also a centre for trade and commerce.

The Pushyabhutis: The capital was at Thaneswar. The most important ruler of the dynasty was Prabhakaravardhan. He assumed the title of Parambhattaraka Maharajadhiraja. He married his daughter Rajyasri with the Makhauri King, Grahavarman. The marriage alliance strengthened the two empires. Harshavardhana belonged to this family.

The Gaudas: They ruled over a territory in Bengal and were quite lesser known of the four kingdoms. Its most powerful and ambitious ruler was Sasanka. He invaded Makhauri’s, killed Grahavarman and imprisoned Rajyasri. He even treacherously murdered her brother Rajyavardhan, the ruler of Thaneswar.

Of the five dynasties that followed the Gupta rule, the Pushyabhutis dynasty became the most powerful under Harshavardhana who shifted his capital to Kannauj. Kannauj remained the centre of political activity in North India till Turkish conquests at the end of the twelfth century.

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La Excellence IAS HARSHAVARDHAN (606-647 AD): Some important historical sources of information about the reign of Harshavardhana are Hieun Tsang account in his book, ‘Si-Yu-Ki’, Bana’s Harshacharita, inscriptions, coins and Harsha’s own writings i.e. Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda. The news of the death of Rajyavardhan reached his younger brother Harshavardhana, who now coronated himself in 606 AD and proceeded to avenge his brother’s death and release his sister. His first expedition against Gaudas was a failure, but he was soon to extend his authority. Harsha is generally regarded as the last great Hindu emperor of India, but he was neither a staunch Hindu nor the ruler of the whole country. His authority was limited to the north India except Kashmir. Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were under his direct control, but his sphere of influence spread over a much wider area. Mostly, the feudatories seem to have accepted his suzerainty.

 Harshavardhana convened a grand assembly at Kannauj to popularize the doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism  Harshavardhana is said to have been defeated by Pulakesin II on the Banks of River Narmada  The Chinese ruler, T’ang, sent three embassies to Harsha’s court

Administration under Harsha: Harsha shifted his capital from Thaneswar to Kannauj. He governed his empire on the same lines as the Guptas’ did, except that his administration had become more feudal and decentralized. Land grants continued to be made to priests for special services rendered to the state. In addition, Harsha is credited with the grant of land to the officers by charters. In the empire of Harsha, law and order was not well maintained. It is proved by the fact that Hieun Tsang was robbed.

IMPORTANT OFFICIALS IN THE HARSHA ADMINISTRATION Mahasandhi Vigrahak Officer to decide about war and peace Mahabaladhikrita Highest official of the army Baladhikrita The Commander Vrihadeshwawar Head of Cavalry Ayuktak Ordinary Officer Katuka Head of Elephant Brigade Uparika Maharaja Provincial head

The Harsha empire was divided into provinces called Bhuktis. Bhuktis were further sub- divided into Vaisayas (Districts). Vaisayas were divided into Tehsils or Pathaks and Pathaks into villages or Grama.

Religion: Harsha was primarily a worshipper of Shiva, though his ancestors were worshipper of Sun. He was extremely devout and assigned many hours of each day to devotional exercises. But he was tolerant to other religions as well. He endowed the land grants to the priests of both Hindu and Buddhist religions. In his later life, he became a great patron of Buddhism. He convened a grand assembly at Kannauj to widely publicize the doctrines of Mahayana.

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La Excellence IAS At the end of every five years, Harsha used to celebrate a solemn festival in Prayaga (Today’s Allahabad) named as Prayaga festival. Whatever wealth was accumulated in the previous five years, he used to distribute it to the poor during the Prayaga festival.

Hieun Tsang’s Visit to India: In 629 AD, Hieun Tsang, a Chinese pilgrim, started off a journey from China to India to study in the Buddhist University, Nalanda. He spent many years in the court of Harshavardhana and influenced the king to convert to Buddhism. He also reported what he witnessed in his book Si-Yu-Ki which means My Experiences. It is also called Records of the Western World. : Kumara Gupta, the Gupta king founded Nalanda University in the 5th century A.D. which became the principal seat of learning during Harsha’s time. served as vice-chancellor of this university during Harsha’s time. Harsha, the great scholar: Harsha was a lover of literature and he himself wrote three dramas: Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarshika. He patronized Bana, a great scholar who wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari. Haridatta and were also patronized by Harsha.

Death of Harsha and its Impact: Harsha ruled for about fourty-one years till his death in 647 AD. His death facilitated the growth of petty territories to become states. He also does not seem to have left any heir to the throne of Kannauj which was usurped by his minister after his death.

THE KINGDOMS OF DECCAN

After the decline of the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas and Ikshvakus rose to power.

The Vakatakas: The Vakatakas came to control parts of the Deccan and central India till the rise of the Chalukyas. It is probable that they originally belonged to Bundelkhand. The founder of this dynasty was Vindhyasakti. His son, Pravarasena I, ruled over territories extending from Bundelkhand to Andhra Pradesh. His successor, Prithvisena, was probably a contemporary of the great Gupta emperor, Samudragupta. Chandragupta II Vikramaditya is said to have given his daughter, Prabhavati, in marriage to the Vakataka king, Rudrasena II. Harisena, who belonged to a minor branch of the Vakataka dynasty, reigned towards the close of the fifth century AD. He is said to have made extensive conquests. The Vakataka power was destroyed by the Kalachuris and the Kadambas towards the middle of the sixth century AD. The Vakatakas patronized art and literature to a great extent. It is probable that some of the Ajanta cave fresco paintings were excavated during their rule.

Ikshvakus: After the fall of the Satavahanas, there arose the Ikshvakus in the eastern part of the Peninsula. They built monuments at and Dharanikonda. They began providing lands as grants in the Krishna-Guntur region, where their copper-plate charters have been found. Their rule ended with their conquest by the Pallavas.

Chalukyas: The Chalukyas grew powerful in the Deccan towards the middle of the sixth century AD. They were probably Kshatriyas from Ayodhya. The dynasty had two branches, viz., Vatapi (Badami) and Kalyani. The Chalukyas of Vatapi ruled during 550-753. After a lapse of

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La Excellence IAS 200 years, the rule of the second branch of the Chalukyas of Kalyani began. Their reign lasted for about 200 years (793-1190).

There were many Chalukya dynasties. Of them, the four most important were: the Chalukyas of Badami (Karnataka) or Vatapi (also known as early Western Chalukyas); the Chalukyas of Vengi (Andhra Pradesh) (also known as ); the Chalukyas of Kalyani (Andhra Pradesh) (also known as Western Chalukyas) and the Chalukyas of Gujarat.

Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami): The rule of this dynasty began in the early sixth century AD, and its first two rulers were Jayasingha and Ranaraja. But the first independent ruler was Pulakesin I (535-566). He got built the fort of Vatapi in district of Karnataka. The most famous ruler of the dynasty was Pulakesin II (611-642), also known as Satyasraya, who was a contemporary of Harshavardhana. From the inscription in Sanskrit it comes to light that there was much external and internal disturbance which he overcame with little effort. Pulakesin II established his influence over the whole of Deccan from the Narmada to the Kaveri. He entered into a matrimonial alliance with the Gangas and thus strengthened his position. The greatest achievement of Pulakesin II was his victory over Harshavardhana in 620. The Chalukyas were involved in a long battle with the Pallavas over Vengi. Pulakesin II defeated the Pallava king, Mahendra Varman I. He was able to unify a large part of south India. He made himself the master of three great kingdoms – Maharashtra, Konkan and Karnataka. He was probably killed by the Pallava king, Narasimhavarman in 642. With death followed a temporary decline of Chalukyas power. His son, Vikramaditya (655-681 AD), succeeded in recovering his paternal dominions from the grip of the Pallavas. Vikramaditya II (733-746) once more defeated the Pallava kings. But his son Kirtivarman II (746-757) lost Maharashtra to the Rashtrakuta chief, Dantidurga, and the sovereignty of the Chalukyas came to an end in about 757. Their long struggle with the Pallavas exhausted the strength of the Chalukyas and led to their ultimate fall.

Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi: This dynasty was founded by Pulakesin II’s brother, Kubja-Vishnu-Vardhana, who transferred his capital from Pishtapura to the ancient city of Vengi in Andhra. Hostilities between the Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas of Vengi were strong. Vijayaditya III (848-892) is credited with victories over the Pallavas, the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas. The power of the Eastern Chalukyas was weakened in the tenth century AD and they became the allies of the Cholas. Kulottuna Chola annexed the kingdom in 1076.

Western Chalukyas of Kalyani: The later Chalukyas who ruled over Kalyani claim descent from the main line of Chalukyas of Vatapi. The kingdom was reestablished by Taila II in A.D. 973, when he defeated the last Rashtrakuta ruler IV. During his rule (973-997), he brought under his control extensive territories, including southern part of the Paramara Kingdom of Malwa. Somesvara I (1043-1068) was involved in a protracted war with the Cholas and was finally defeated by the Chola ruler, Virarajendra, in the battle of Kudai. Somesvara II (1068-1076), a tyrannical ruler, was overthrown by his brother, Vikramaditya II Tribhuvanamalla (1076-1126) – the hero of Bilhana’s Vikramankadeva-charita. He was undoubtedly the greatest ruler of the Western Chalukyas.

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La Excellence IAS He introduced the Chalukya-Vikrama era (1076 AD). He successfully fought against the Chalukyas of Anhilwara, the Cholas and the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana. He is said to have sent an embassy to Ceylon. With the death of Jagadekamalla II, the Chalukyas power was eclipsed and the throne was usurped by the Kalachuri minister of war, Vijjala or Vijjana. With the rise of the Yadavas of Devagiri and the Hoyasalas, the Chalukyas dynasty ceased to exist by the middle of the thirteenth century.

Achievements of the Chalukyas: The Chalukyas kings were great patrons of art and letters. Much of the paintings and sculptures of the Ajanta and were completed during their reign. The Chalukyas style of temple architecture equated with the Vesara style is seen as an admixture of the Dravida and Nagara styles of temple architecture. The temples are characterized by plastic ornamentation on their external surfaces and intricately carved pillars, ceilings and door frames. Like the Dravida style, the Chalukyas style of temples has two principal components – the Vimana and the Mandappa. Famous temples include the Virupaksha temple at , near Badami, the Vishnu temple of Badami, the Siva temple of Maguti and the Kashi Visveswara temple of Lakhundi. The Chalukyas kings patronized learning and literature also. The famous scholars of their time include Bilhana, a Sanskrit writer of works such as Vikramankadeva-charita and the poem, Chaurapanchasika, and Vijnanesvara who wrote the Mitaksara.

The Chalukyas, who ruled Deccan from the sixth to eighth centuries AD and again from the tenth to the twelfth centuries, occupy an important place in the history of the Deccan. Their importance may be summarized as follows.  They checked Harshavardhana from marching towards the south.  They repulsed and checked the Arab intrusion into India.  Although the followers of Brahmanism, they maintained religious harmony.  They built several magnificent temples in Aihole and other places. Aihole is called the cradle of Indian temple architecture.

The Gangas: The Gangas are believed to have belonged to the line of Ikshvakus, or associated with the river Ganga or with the Kanvas. The kingdom of the Gangas included the greater part of Mysore and was called Gangavadi. It was founded by Didiga (Konganivarman) and Madhava sometime in the fourth century AD. Its early capital was Kuluvala but later the capital was transferred to Talkad by Harivarma. A notable Ganga ruler was Durvinita who distinguished himself in warfare with the Pallavas. But in the eighth and ninth centuries, they had to encounter conflict with the Chalukyas of Vengi and the Rashtrakuta ruler, Dhruva. Later, the Gangas were involved in fighting with the Cholas and by 1004, Talkad was captured and Ganga sovereignty ended. Most of the Ganga rulers were devotees of Jainism. It was during the reign of Rajamala IV (977-985), that his minister and general, Chamundaraya, a devoted Jain, erected the celebrated image of Gomateshvara at Sravanabelagola in A.D. 983. The 58-feet-high status occupies a special place among the sculptures of the world.

The Yadavas: The Yadavas are believed to be the descendants of the Yadu race to which belonged the Mahabharata hero, Krishna. It was after the decline of the Chalukyas of Kalyani that they rose into prominence. The first noteworthy figure of the dynasty was Bhillama V. He made Devagiri his capital. But he was defeated by Vira-Ballala I Hoysala at the Battle of

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La Excellence IAS Lakhundi. His successor was Jaitrapala I (1191-1210) who killed the Kakatiya ruler, Rudradeva. The most energetic ruler of this dynasty was Singhana (1210 to 1247). It was during the reign of Mahadeva and Ramachandra that the great Brahman minister, Hemadri, renowned for his Hindu Dharmashastras, flourished. His most important work is the Chaturvarga-Chintamani. He is also said to have introduced a special form of temple architecture in the Deccan. It was during the reign of Ramachandra that the army led by Alauddin Khalji, then governor of Kara, invaded Devagiri in 1294. The Yadavas rule came to an end when Harapala was killed at the behest of Mubarak.

The Kakatiyas: The Kakatiyas were at first feudatories of the later Chalukyas, after whose decline they rose to power in Telengana. Their seat of power was shifted from Anmakonda to . Their first prominent ruler was Prolaraja, who distinguished himself in warfare against the Western Chalukyas and ruled for a long time. Under Ganapati, who ascended the throne in 1199, the Kakatiyas rose into prominence. He was succeeded by his daughter, Rudramba, in 1261. She ruled sagaciously and assumed the male title of Rudradeva Maharaja. She was succeeded by her grandson, Prataparudradeva, who has been immortalized by Vaidyanatha’s Prata-Parudriya – a work of poetics dedicated to him. Prataparudra ultimately had to submit before the Muslim invader, Malik Kafur. The Kakatiyas were eventually overpowered by the Bahamani of the Deccan.

The Silaharas: There are three branches of the Silahara family known to history. They remained subordinate to the Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas and Yadavas, while ruling over Konkan. , Thana and Kolhapur were their various capitals. The most notable monarch of this line was (1175-1210), after whom the kingdom was conquered by Singhana, the Yadava ruler.

The Kadambas: The Kadambas were . It is believed that the founder of this dynasty was Mayurasarman who, being annoyed by the Pallavas, established his rule in Karnataka with Banavasi as his seat of government. It was during the reign of Kakusthavarman that Kadambas dominion and influence grew considerably. The next ruler was Ravivarman, with his capital at Halsi. The rise of the Chalukyas of Vatapi gave a severe blow to Kadambas ambitions and Pulakesin I and Pulakesin II conquered large parts of their dominion. But the family re-emerged after the decline of the Rashtrakutas in the last quarter of the tenth century AD.

The Hoyasalas: The founder of this dynasty was probably a Kshatriya named Sala. The Hoyasalas emerged into prominence in about the beginning of the eleventh century AD. The Hoyasalas attained a dominant position with the rule of Bittiga Vishnuvardhana (1110- 1140). He transferred his capital from Velapura to Dwarasamudra (Halebid) and made himself independent of the Chalukyas suzerain, Vikramaditya VI. He is believed to have humbled the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Kadambas. The next important ruler of this house was Vira-Ballala I (1172-1215), who was the first to assume the little Maharajadhiraja. The last Hoysala ruler was Vira-Ballala III. The kingdom was ravaged by Malik Kafur (1310). Thus the Hoysala line came to an end around the middle of the fourteenth century AD.

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La Excellence IAS The Hoyasalas were great temple builders, supreme examples of which are the Kesava temple at Belur (In ) dedicated to Vishnu and the Hoysaleswara temple dedicated to Siva at Halebid (Or Dwarasamudra). Continuing the Chalukyas style, rich decorations in the form of sculpted panels showing a panorama of life adorn the temples, indicating a close integration of life with religion. The ground plan was star-shaped or polygonal. The temple was built within this on a raised platform.

 The Chalukyas king Pulakesin I performed a horse sacrifice (Asvamedha)  The Aihole inscription of Pulakesin is written in Sanskrit  Vikramaditya II, Tribhuvanamalla was the greatest ruler of Western Chalukyas  Hieun Tsang visited the country during the time of Pulakesin II

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La Excellence IAS CHRONOLOGY OF INDIAN HISTORY

2300-1750 BC: The Indus Valley Civilization or the 'Harappan Culture' in Punjab, Sind and areas of Rajasthan and Kathiawar discovered in the 1920s, suggests a highly 'urbanized' civilization noted for its town-planning. 1500 BC: The arrival of the Indo-Aryans, a branch of the Indo-Europeans in the north-west. A pastoral, cattle-breeding people they settled in the Punjab and the Gangetic valley as far south as the Vindhyas. The Rig Veda, a collection of songs of prayers, hymns and ritual prescriptions, originates from this period. 600 BC: This period sees the rise of and republics in northern India. Various religious sects also arise with acquiring the status of major religions. 321 BC: The Mauryan Empire, the first form of 'imperial' government in India takes root. Chandragupta Maurya establishes power and hegemony in central and north-west India. 273 BC: Ashoka, one of India's greatest monarchs, ascends the throne. After his successful conquest of Kalinga, he denounces war and embraces Buddhism. A variety of sources suggest a centralized, highly efficient administration and bureaucracy and flourishing trade and craft. 200 BC-200 AD: A series of Indo-Greek invasions take place. Indo-Greek King Menander conquers areas in Punjab and Mathura near Delhi. An intermingling of Greek and Indian cultures leads to the famous Gandhara School of Sculpture. 180 BC: Mauryan power declines. Its disintegration gives rise to a number of small kingdoms such as the Sunga dynasty in Magadha and central India and Kalinga under its ruler Kharavela. 1001 AD: Sultan begins his raids from the northern frontier. He attacks 70 times in a period of 17 years and paves the way for the rule of the Turks and Afghans in India. Ghori also conducts vigorous campaigns of expansion into northern India towards the end of the 12th century. 1206 AD: Muhammad Ghori is murdered and his general Qutub-ud-din Aibak assumes control of his Indian possessions. This lays the foundation of what is known as the . 1211-86 AD: Aibak's son-in-law Iltutmish rules. To him goes the credit of firmly establishing the Turkish rule. He completes the famous monument Qutab Minar. 1266 AD: Balban ascends the throne and consolidates the power of the Delhi Sultanate. 1296-1316 AD: Alauddin Khalji rules. His reign marks the highest point of the Sultanate's political power in terms of extent of empire and authority of the Sultan. He lays the foundation of the second city of Delhi, Siri. 1320 AD: Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq wrests power and establishes a new dynasty, the Tughluq’s. The third city of Delhi, Tughlaqabad, is raised by him. 1325-51AD: Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq reigns. An innovative ruler, he is regarded by historians as a visionary whose fantastic ideas were out of tune with the times. He builds , the fourth city, between Lal Kot and Siri. 1351 AD: Firuz Shah Tughlaq, known for his benevolent measures, succeeds to the throne. He builds Firozabad, the fifth city, on the western banks of the Yamuna. After him the power and influence of the Sultanate start to decline. 1398 AD: Timur, the dreaded Turk, attacks India and strikes the last blow to the . The Tughluq’s are succeeded by the Saiyyid who only just manage to keep the Sultanate going. 1451-1596 AD: The Lodis of Afghan descent rule. This period sees inter-tribal rivalries which finally lead to the eclipse of the dynasty.

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La Excellence IAS 1526 AD: , a descendant of Timur, invades India. He lays the foundation of the Mughal rule in India. 1540 AD: Babur dies and is succeeded by his son who establishes the foundation of the sixth city, Dinpanah, at the site of Shergarh, Sher Shah's city. 1556 AD: becomes the emperor and the Mughal dynasty soars to new heights. The greatest of the Mughal kings, he abolishes Jaziya, a religious tax and marries a princess, Jodha Bai, the sister of Raja Man Singh, in an effort to bring different religious groups together. Twenty-six years after assuming power, he begins construction of his famous capital, , and promulgates his religion, Din I Illahi. 1600 AD: The London is granted charter. Other colonial powers make inroads into India. 1605 AD: The United East India Company of the Netherlands is formed and four years later the Dutch Company is established at Pulicat in Tamil Nadu. In 1613, Jehangir grants Firman to the English East India Company and they begin trade with Bengal soon after. 1630 AD: , the greatest of the rulers, who would later harass both the British and the declining , is born in Maharashtra. 1638 AD: , the fifth Mughal ruler, lays the foundation for Shahjahanabad, the seventh city, with the at Delhi as its citadel. 1666 AD: The greatest of the Mughal architects, Shah Jahan, who constructed the beautiful at and the Red Fort at Delhi dies. In 1707, with the death of his son , the Mughal Empire begins to disintegrate. 1739 AD: Nadir Shah, a Persian ruler, invades Delhi and takes away the Mughal Peacock throne amidst much violence and killing. 1744 AD: Frenchman Joseph Francois Dupleix is appointed governor of in the south. In east India, the English capture Chandernagore. With the battle of Arcot near Madras in 1751 the domination of the French is broken. In 1757: is appointed governor of Bengal. 1769-70 AD: The great Bengal famine occurs. The estimates of dead vary from three to ten million. 1773 AD: British rule in India gains ascendancy. The Permanent Settlement of land revenue, whereby a fixed amount is taken as tax from the peasants, is signed between the rulers of Bengal and the British. 1801 AD: Karnataka becomes part of the British Empire. 1839: Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Lahore known as 'Lion of Punjab' dies after founding a Sikh kingdom. 1853: Railway link from Bombay to Thane introduced in India for the first time and also for the first time Indians are allowed to sit for the Indian Civil Service in open competition with the British. 1857: Sepoy revolt at Meerut breaks out. It is the first experession of unrest by the supressed Indians which spreads all over north India. 1876: Queen Victoria is proclaimed Empress of India. 1885: The is formed. A British civil servant, A.O. Hume, founds the party, W.C. Bonnerji, a Calcutta barrister, is appointed its first president. Several prominent Indians like Dadabhoy Naoroji attend the Bombay meeting. 1905: The British partition Bengal in an effort to break the national movement but are unsuccessful and cannot cope with the patriotic upsurge. , 18, gives vent to the growing anti-British feelings by throwing a bomb which kills two British women in Bengal in 1908. He is sentenced to death. 1911: King George V holds a coronation durbar at Delhi and proclaims the shifting of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi.

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La Excellence IAS

1930: The anti-British campaign gathers momentum in India. A is held in Dandi, Gujarat, to break salt laws and many people are arrested. Gandhiji begins the Civil Disobedience Movement and is arrested. A round table conference is held in England to discuss India's Independence. 1940: M.A.Jinnah in a presidential address at the Lahore session of the All India Muslim League demands a separate home-land for and passes a resolution for creation of Pakistan. 1942: Quit India Resolution is passed by the Congress Working Committee. In Bangkok, Subhash Chandra Bose forms the and General Mohan Singh is appointed commander-in-chief. 1945: Interim government is formed in India but Jinnah reiterates his demand for a separate Muslim state and refuses to join the interim government. 1947: results in a blood-bath. The Indian dominion is established at midnight August 15 and is appointed first prime minister. 1948: 'The father of the nation,' , is shot dead at a prayer meeting by Nathu Ram Godse. The nation is plunged into gloom. Lord Louis Mountbatten, India's first governor-general, leaves for England and Dr C. Rajagopalachari is appointed in his place. 1950: India is proclaimed a Sovereign Democractic Republic on January 26. Dr. becomes president of the Indian Republic. 1962: In October, China launches a massive attack on India in and other north- eastern areas. On November 21, a ceasefire is announced. India suffers a humiliating defeat and she decides to strengthen her armed forces. 1964: Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first prime minister, dies. is elected leader of the Congress Party and sworn in as the second prime minister.

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La Excellence IAS

Medieval India

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La Excellence IAS EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA [750 to 1200 AD]

THE MAJOR RULING DYNASTIES OF EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD

KANNAUJ AFTER HARSHA

Little is known of the kingdom of Kannauj after the death of Harsha. The political unity crumbled on Harsha’s death and the process of emergence of numerous centres of power started in different parts of North India leading to multi-state system. It was in this context that Ishwari Prasad described “India [during the period] was nations within the nation.” In the south, similar situation prevailed after the decline of the Pallava power till the Cholas created an empire.

Chachnama, a work of rather late period, while narrating the history of Sind, mentions four kings ruling at Kannauj. These four kings are Rasil Rai, Sayar, Sahiras and Rai Harachander, who ruled during a period of seventy years following the death of Harsha. After these obscure rulers, about AD 730, we find a famous monarch named Yashovarman ruling at Kannauj.

YASHOVARMAN

He was the famous monarch who ruled Kannauj about AD 730 and defeated many kings. His vast empire extended from north Bengal to the N-W Frontier Province. Some historians are of the opinion that a large portion of North-Western Frontier Provinces, Haryana and Punjab were included in Yashovarman’s empire. A large number of his coins have also been found in the Punjab.

He is supposed to have founded the city named Yashovarmapura (near modern Biharsharif in Bihar). His invasion of Gauda (Bengal) formed the subject matter of the Prakrit poem Gaudavaho by Vakpatiraja, Yashovarman’s court-poet.

Vakpatiraja is said to have composed a poem Madra-mahi-vijaya at Kannauj in the court of Yashovarman’s son Ama. D.C.Ganguly is of the opinion that this poem describes the conquest of Madra by Yashovarman himself.

The Chinese chronicles refers to Yashovarman as i-cha-fon-mo and mention him as the king of Central India, who is said to have sent his minister Song-po-ta to the Chinese court in AD 731.

Kalhana mentions that Lalitaditya attacked Gadhipura (Kannauj) and finally uprooted Yashovarman. After Yashovarman, Harachandra ruled for a while under Lalitaditya at Kannauj.

Yashovarman is said to have written a play named Ramabhyudaya. The Rajatarangini mentions that the poets. Vakpatiraja, Bhavabhuti and others adorned the court of Yashovarman. Bhavabhuti was the author of three well-known Sanskrit plays Malatimadhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttararamacharita.

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La Excellence IAS After Yashovarman’s dynasty, three rulers, who are popularly known as Ayudhas rulers, ruled over Kannauj between the close of the eight century till the second decade of the ninth century. It was during the rule of these Ayudhas rulers that the struggle for Kannauj seems to have begun.

AYUDHA RULERS OF KANNAUJ:

Vajrayudha was the first king who was defeated by Jayapida Vinayaditya of Kashmir. The next in the line was Indrayudha during whose reign; Dhruva Rashtrakuta invaded the Doab and defeated the Kannauj King. Indrayudha was also defeated by Dharmapala of Bengal who, instead of annexing this distant territory, deposed Indrayudha and seated his protege Chakrayudha to the throne of Kannauj. The Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III defeated Dharmapala and Chakrayudha. However finally the Nagabhata II Pratihara defeated Chakrayudha and usurped the throne of Kannauj.

KANNAUJ AND THE

The tripartite struggle that continued for nearly a century refers to the struggle between the three important dynasties of the period i.e. the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Bhinmal (Rajasthan), the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (Maharashtra). The struggle probably started during the rule of Dharmapala of the Pala dynasty and ultimately ended in favour of the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Nagabhata II who founded the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom at Kannauj which survived for nearly two centuries. The Causes for this conflict were:

 To acquire the supremacy over Kannauj, a symbol of prestige and power during the early medieval period  To get control over the rich resources of the Gangetic valley  To get control over Gujarat and Malwa, whose nearness to the coast was very important for foreign trade  Lust for war booty, and important resource for maintaining a huge army  Desire to impress the smaller kingdoms with the sense of their power and demand respect

GURJARA – PRATIHARA OF BHINMAL

The Pratiharas were a branch of the famous Gurjara tribe who came in large numbers to India during the Hunas invasion from central Asia. Some Rashtrakuta records confirm the association of the Pratiharas with the Gurjara lineage. The most important testimony is that of Kanarese poet Pampa, who calls Mahipala as ‘Gurjara-raja’

The Pratiharas (literally means ‘door-keeper’) claimed that they were called so because their ancestor Lakshmana served as a door keeper to his brother Lord Rama. An inscription found from Jodhpur says that Pratiharas descended from Lakshmana. Similarly Rajashekhara, the dramatist, calls his patron Mahendrapala I, as Raghukulitilaka and Raghugramani.

However, the modern Historians are of the opinion that the name was derived from one of the kings of the line holding the office of Pratihara (a high dignity) in the Rashtrakuta court.

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La Excellence IAS There were many branches of Pratiharas, who initially founded various kingdoms in Rajasthan and Gujarat and paved the way for the formation of Gurjaradesa. The earliest Pratihara dynasty was founded by Harichandra, near modern Jodhpur in the middle of the Sixth Century AD. The advent of this Gurjara kingdom in the region was not to the liking of Prabhakaravardhana (father of Harsha), the ruler of Thaneshwar and resulted in conflict. The struggle was not decisive, but Banabhata eulogized Prabhakara as “a troubler of the sleep of Gurjara”

Another important Pratihara ruling dynasty (family) was founded by Nagabhatta I, at Malwa with its capital at Ujjain. The early history of this branch of Pratihara is preserved in the inscription of Bhoja the seventh king of the dynasty. The inscription also mentions that King Nagabhatta defeated a powerful Mlechchha king ().

NAGABHATTA-I

 Founder of the dynasty  Defended western India from Mlechchha king (Arabs) and reached upto Broach, bringing this line of Pratihara into prominence in the middle of the eight century AD.  Died in AD 760 and was succeeded by his brother’s son, Kakustha or Kakkuka (i.e. one who always laughs) and Devaraja, both of whom were non entities.

VATSARAJA (775-800)

 Grand nephew of Nagabhatta I. He was the son and successor of Devaraja. He defeated Indrayudha (ruler of Kannauj) and the Pala Ruler, Dharmapala He however suffered a major defeat at the hands of Rashtrakuta King Dhruva  With this defeat Pratiharas lost their hold upon Malwa. was forced to take shelter at Rajasthan which henceforth formed the centre of his political authority and the chief seat of the Pratihara family, until sometime later when it was finally transferred to Kannauj.  He was succeeded by his son Nagabhatta II, who made Pratiharas the most formidable power of North India.

NAGABHATTA-II (805-33)

 About AD 816 he defeated and deposed Chakrayudha, Dharmpala’s protege and made Kannauj (Mahodaya) the capital of Pratiharas. The Pala King Dharmapala was Defeated at Munghyr.  Tried to revive the fallen fortunes of his family. But he was as unfortunate as his predecessor in suffering defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakuta King, Govinda III  The limits of the Pratihara Empire under him may be roughly defined as comprising parts of Rajputana, a considerable portion of modern Uttar Pradesh, Central India, northern Kathiawar and the adjacent territories.  Was succeeded by his son , who proved to be a weak ruler. During his brief reign of three years the Pratihara power eclipsed owing to the aggressive policy of the Pala emperor, Devapala.

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La Excellence IAS MIHIRA BHOJA (836-80)

 Son and successor of Ramabhadra and the greatest Pratihara king. With his accession the Pratihara power reached to its celestial point.  Reestablished the supremacy of his family and was the most famous ruler of Pratihara  The Daulatpura Copper Plate of Bhoja refers to the victories of the king in the central and eastern Rajputana.  Adopted the titles of – “Prabhasa” “Adivaraha” and “Mihira”  Defeated Narayanapala, the successor of Devapala and annexed the Western part of the Pala kingdom  Defeated Rashtrakuta Krishna II on the banks of Narmada and reoccupied Malwa  Ruled over the vast empire with his capital at Kannauj  His achievements find mention in Rajatarangini  Defeated Kalachuri King Kokkalla I  His tutelary deity was goddess Bhagavati  His coins are known as ‘Adi-varaha-dramma’  The Arab merchant Sulaiman (851A.D) described him as the “greatest enemy of the Muhammadan faith” He further says that the king maintains numerous forces and no other Indian princes has so fine cavalry. About the Pratihara kingdom he writes that “there is no country in India more safe from robbers”  Bhoja had a long reign of more than 46 years. At the end his empire included nearly the whole of north India excepting , Kashmir, Bihar, Bengal and parts of central India.  Inscribed the famous Gwalior inscription  Was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala I

MAHENDRAPALA I – (880-910 A.D)

 The most notable achievement was the conquest of Magadha and northern Bengal. Thus he not only maintained intact the vast empire but even probably extended its boundaries, especially in the east.  Also known as “Mahendrayudha” “Nirbhaya-narendra” or “Nirbhaya- Raja”  The famous poet and dramatist, Rajashekhara was his ‘Guru’ (Teacher). Distinguished works of Rajashekhara are – “Karpuramanjari”, “Kavyamimamsa”, “Bala-Bharata”, “Bala-Ramayana”, “Bhuvana-” and “Haravilasa”.  Had two queens – Dehanagadevi and Mahadevi. He was followed by weak rulers like Bhoja II and Mahipala

MAHIPALA

 The Arab traveler Al Masudi who visited India in A.D 915-916 refers to the wide extent of the Pratihara Empire and rich resources of its ruler. He mentions that the king was rich in horses and camels and maintained four armies in four directions.  Rashtrakuta Indra III invaded Pratihara Empire conquered Ujjaini and devastated the city of Mahoba (Kannauj).  Towards the close of his reign Mahipala also faced the invasion of Krishna III Rashtrakuta.

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La Excellence IAS LATER RULERS:

 Mahendrapala II, son and successor of Mahipala was able to maintain the strength of his empire intact. But it received a shattering blow during the reign of Devapala. The process of decline of the empire which began during Devapala accelerated with the reign of . The empire finally declined by the middle of 11th Century AD.  Rajyapala succeeded Vijayapala when Mahmud Ghazni invaded India. In 1018 when Ghazni invaded Mathura and reached Kannauj, Rajyapala due to fear left the kingdom and fled away.  The Chandella ruler of Bundelkhand, or his son Vidyadhara, who tried to check the Mahmud’s forces, killed Rajyapala, for his disgraceful failure to resist Mahmud, in AD 1018 and placed his son Trilochanapala on the throne.  Yashpala is said to be the last ruler of the line of Pratiharas. His name finds mention in the inscription of the year 1036.  On the ruins of the Pratiharas numerous independent kingdoms like Kachhapaghatas of Gwalior, Chalukyas of Anhilwada, and Paramaras of Dhara etc came into being.

THE PALAS

The province of Bengal, from AD 650 to 750, after the death of Harsha, was subjected to internal disorder, anarchy and confusion referred to as Matsya nyaya (the rule of strong devouring the weak). This gave birth to a revolution by the people, in which the local chief Gopala was elected (Grahita) by the leading men of Bengal. The Dynasty founded by Gopala ruled for nearly four centuries

Scholars have not yet been able to locate their capital with certainty, but it may have been Mudgagiri (Munghyr), from where the Pala kings issued several grants. The Palas were great patrons of art and literature. Vincent Smith has mentioned the names of two artists, Dhiman and his son Vitapala, who “Acquired the highest fame for their skill as painters and sculptors

The Palas were earnest followers of Buddhism which developed newer Tantric forms and was revived under their patronage. Monasteries were generously endowed; being the most effective agencies for the promotion of learning and religion. One of the monks, the famous Atisa, is known to have gone to Tibet on a Buddhist mission about the middle of the eleventh century. Srijanana in his later years went to Java and learnt Buddhist scriptures there, as mentioned in the Tibetan work of Kalyan Mitra Phyag-sopra. The Palas were, however, by no means unfavourable towards . They freely made gifts to , and even constructed temples in honour of Hindu gods. A Buddhist monk

GOPALA (750-770)

 The founder of the pala dynasty. Proved his valour and capability as a leader. Was the elected king and consolidated his authority over almost the whole of Bengal.  He was the ardent supporter of Buddhism. According to Tibetan lama, Taranatha, Gopala built the celebrated monastery at Odantapura (Modern Biharsharif)  Constructed Vihara at Nalanda.

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La Excellence IAS DHARMAPALA (770-810)

 Son and successor of Gopala who raised the Pala kingdom to greatness.  Soon after his accession Dharmapala got involved in a struggle with the two main powers of the time i.e. the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas. He was one of the party to tripartite struggle (Others were Vatsaraja Pratihara and Dhruva Rashtrakuta)  Defeated Indrayudha and installed Chakrayudha as his own nominee on the throne of Kannauj  Dharmapala was defeated by Vatsaraja and Dhruva. Despite these reverses he fairly extended the , after the retreat of the Rashtrakutas and the defeat of the Vatsaraja by Dhruva  Was a Buddhist and in said to have founded the famous Buddhist establishment (university) at (Bhagalpur district). He is also created with the construction of a Vihara at Somapura (Paharpur)  According to Taranatha (Tibetan Lama), he founded fifty religious institutions and was patron of the great Buddhist author .

DEVAPALA – (815-855)

 Considered as the mightiest Pala king. A great patron of Buddhism and he constructed Temples and Monasteries in Magadha.  The Gurjara adversary of Devapala may be identified with Mihir Bhoja (836-885)  Balaputradeva, the Sailendra ruler of Sumatra sent an ambassador to Devapala asking for a grant of 5 villages in order to endow a monastery at Nalanda. The Monastery was built by Balaputradeva. The request was granted by Devapala.  ‘Restorer of Buddhism’ – according to Taranatha  Made Viradeva, the president of the Nalanda University  Buddhist poet Vajradatta, the author of Lokesvarasataka was in his court  Sulaiman, an Arab merchant who visited India and wrote his account in A.D 850, refers to the Pala Kingdom as Ruhmi  However the glory of Palas suffered irretrievably with the death of Devapala. The rule of his successors was marked by a steady process of disintegration.  Devapala was succeeded by Vigrahapala. After a short reign of three or four years, Vigrahapala abdicated the throne.

NARAYANAPALA

 The son and successor of Vigrahapala.  The Bhagalpur inscription records that in the seventeenth year of his reign he granted a village to the shrine of Shiva and built one thousand temples in the honour of the same deity  Magadha along with north Bengal (Varendra) passed into the hands of Gurjara Pratiharas during his reign. This has been indicated by the several inscriptions dated in the reignal years of Mahendrapala I.  East Bengal came under Chandras and, the Pala authority was limited to western and southern Bengal  Was succeeded by his son Rajyapala who was succeeded in turn by his son Gopala II. The rule of these two rulers proved disastrous for the Pala power. A series of invasions led by the Chandellas and the Klachuris dismembered the Pala Empire.

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La Excellence IAS MAHIPALA

 He was the son of Vigrahapala II. Ascended the throne in AD 980  Rajendra Chola invaded his state and defeated Mahipala. The Tirumalai inscription of Rajendra records the detail of his conquest in the north. The invasion however did not lead to the establishment of the Chola suzerainty over Bengal.  Considered as the restorer of Pala prestige. Pala power had once more revived under him. He succeeded in reestablishing his authority over north, west and east Bengal and in extending his territories upto Benaras in west. In this he has also been called as the founder of the second Pala Empire.  Some scholars are of the opinion that the success of Mahipala was in a large manner due to the repeated invasions of Sultan Mahmud which must have exhausted the strength and resources of the Rajput powers in northern India.  Revolt of Kaivartas took place during his period.  After his death the Pala power declined on account of internal dissensions and external invasions.  His successors were weaklings. Thus, by the middle of the twelfth century, the Pala power had faded.

RAMAPALA

 Expeditions against Kaivartas – suppressed them and captured their chief.  Finds mention in Sandhyakara Nandi’s book Ramcharita which is the biography of Ramapala

KUMARPALA

 Revolt of Kamroop took place which was suppressed by his minister Vaidyadeva

MADAN PALA

 The last ruler was expelled by Vijayasena who founded the new

There were many Chalukya dynasties. Of them, the four most important were: the Chalukyas of Badami (Karnataka) or Vatapi (also known as early Western Chalukyas); the Chalukyas of Vengi (Andhra Pradesh) (also known as Eastern Chalukyas); the Chalukyas of Kalyani (Andhra Pradesh) (also known as Western Chalukyas) and the Chalukyas of Gujarat.

THE RASHTRAKUTAS

The ascendancy of the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan from about 753 to 975 AD constitutes one of the most brilliant chapters in the history of the Deccan. Literally, the term, Rashtrakuta means designated officer-in-charge of territorial division called ‘Rashtra’. The Rashtrakutas Originally belonged to Lattalura, (Modern of Maharashtra). They were of origin and Kannada was their mother tongue. Initially they were the feudatories under Chalukyas of Badami. The was founded in the early eight century

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La Excellence IAS by Dantidurga, also known as Dantivarman, who after defeating the Chalukya ruler Kirtivarman II established his control over the greater portion of the Deccan and laid the foundation of a lasting empire.

DIFFERENT THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE RASHTRAKUTAS:

 The Rashtrakutas belonged to the Dravidians of Andhra Pradesh – Burnell  The Rashtrakutas were connected with the Rathors of the north-Fleet  The Rashtrakutas belonged to Maharashtra- Dr. Pathak  The Rashtrakutas originally belonged to district and were Kannada-speaking people- Dr. A.S.Altekar  The Rashtrakutas were a main branch of the Kshatriyas – R.G.Bhandarkar  The Rashtrakutas belonged to the Yadu clan to which Lord Krishna belonged – inscriptions of the Rashtrakuta kings.

DANTIDURGA

 Established capital at Manyakhed/Manyakheta/Malkhed  Also known as Dantivarman, he assumed the title Maharajadhiraj-parmeshvara- parambhattaraka after defeating the Badami Chalukya, Kirtivarman II  Two inscriptions i.e. Samangad plates and Dasavatara caves inscriptions of Ellora describes his victorious career  After his victorious campaign in Malwa (being ruled by Gurjara Pratiharas) he performed the Hiranyagarbhadana ceremony at Ujjain in which Gurjara-Pratiharas kings acted as door-keepers (as claimed in inscriptions)  By 750 AD he was the master of the whole of Madhya Pradesh and the central and southern Gujarat.  Dantidurga daughter Reva got married to Pallava king Nandivarman. Reva became the chief queen of Nandi and her son succeeded his father on the Pallava throne.  Supported Pulakesin II in driving out the Arabs  Dantidurga died childless and was succeeded in 750 AD by his uncle Krishna I.

KRISHNA I

 Succeeded to the throne in 756 AD and was called Subhatunga and Akalavarsha. His first task was to completely uproot the Chalukyas, which he did in 757 AD, the last known date of the Chalukya Kirtivarman II. Thus he gave final blow to the power of chalukyas of Badami.  He also forced the Chalukyas of Vengi to acknowledge his supremacy.  Built the rock-cut monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora. Inscriptions records that Krishna constructed many Siva temples resembling the Kailasa Mountains.  Krishna is believed to have died between AD 772- 775

GOVINDA II

 The eldest son and successor of Krishna I. he adopted the titles like Prabhutavarsha, Vikramavaloka and Prabhutunga as well as .  Dethroned by his brother Dhruva in AD 779

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La Excellence IAS DHRUVA (779-794)

 Made an attempt to control the North Indian politics, a feat in which no Deccan power had succeeded since the days of Satavahanas.  Was the first Rashtrakuta ruler to decisively intervene in the tripartite struggle being waged for the supremacy of North India and defeated both the Pratihara Vatsaraja and Pala Dharmapala  After successful campaign in the north, he added the emblem of Ganga and Yamuna to his imperial insignia.  Declared his son Govinda III as his successor and installed him as Crown Prince.

GOVINDA III (793-814)

 Had to defeat his eldest brother Stambha, a contender for the throne.  Defeated and shattered the confederacy of Gangas, Chera, Pandya and Pallava rulers

AMOGHVARSHA OR SARVA (814-78)

 The son and successor of Govinda III.  The greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty  Popular by the name of Sarva  Had leanings towards religion and literature. Was a great builder and author  Adopted Jainism – followed Syadavada  , the Jaina author of repute was his chief preceptor and guru.  Patronised Mahaviracharya the author of Ganitasara- Samgraha and Saktayana the author of Amoghavritti  Wrote ‘Kavirajmarga’ the earliest work on poetics in the Kannada language  Also wrote Prasnottara Ratnamalika  There is a description of his renouncement of the throne in ‘Prasnottara Ratnamalika’.  Built the city of Manyakhed also known as Manyakheta and adorned it with an excellent Palace. This being the capital of Rashtrakutas  Adopted the titles – Nripatunga, Vira Narayana, Atishandhijital  Sacrificed his finger to please Mahalakshmi so as to ward off an impending disaster. The Sanjan plates compared this act to the sacrifices of Dadhichi, son of Jimutaketu, by borrowing from the legend.

KRISHNA II

 Son and successor of Amoghavarsha  Made an attempt for a friendly relation with the rising Chola power by marrying his daughter with the Chola ruler, Aditya I  He was the follower of Jainism.

INDRA III (915-27)

 Grandson of Krishna II.  Defeated Pratihara king Mahipala I and plundered his capital Kannauj

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 The Arab traveler Al-Masudi, who visited India during this period, calls him – “the greatest king of India.”

KRISHNA III (939-65)

 Fourth in succession from Indra III (Amoghavarsha II, Govinda IV and Amoghavarsha III ruled in between)  Fought the battle of Takkolam (North Arcot district) against the Chola king Parantaka I and conquered Kanchi and Tanjore. He also defeated the and the Pandya kings.  Established his control over Tondaimandala consisting of Arcot, Chinglepat and Vellore districts. Assumed the title Kanchchiyum-Tanjaiyum-Konda  Built temples like – Krishnesvara and Gandamartandatiya and also a pillar of victory at Ramesvaram  Like his predecessors, he also meddled in the affairs of Vengi whenever there was an opportunity to do so.  Led an expedition to northern India and brought Vengi under his control. Occupied Ujjain after defeating the Parmara ruler Harsha Siyaka.

KOTTIGA

 Parmara king Siyaka defeated Rashtrakutas and sacked the capital Manyakheta modern malkhed, Maharashtra)

KARKA II

 Was the last Rashtrakuta ruler  His feudatory Taila II (Tailapa) defeated him and founded the dynasty of Western Chalukyas of Kalyani

ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF RASHTRAKUTAS:

Kingship was hereditary. The empire consisted partly of vassal states and partly of directly administered areas. Though feudatories enjoyed autonomy in their respective areas but they had to attend the imperial court and were bound to pay regular tribute and furnish a stipulated number of troops.

Administrative division of Rashtrakuta Kingdom in descending order:  Province – Rashtra  Vishayas- District  Bhukti- a group of 50-70 villages, the Bhukti’s were further subdivided into smaller group of 10 to 20 villages each. The village was the basic unit of administration.

A group of ministers consisting of Prime minister, the foreign minister, the renenue minister, the treasurer, the chief justice, the commander in chief and the purohita helped the king in carrying out the administration of the empire. Some important members of the Bureaucracy were:  Rashtrapati: head of the administration of the provinces  Vishayapati: district officers

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 Bhogapati: in charge of Bhukti were appointed directly by the central government  Nalgavundas or desagramakutas: hereditary revenue officers

The village administration was carried on by the village headman and the village accountant, whose officers were usually hereditary. The village assemblies or councils played an effective role in the administration of the village. The assemblies were divided into number of sub-committees, in charge of a specific subject like the village tank, village temple, roads and the like. Rashtrakuta records refer Vishayas – mahrattas (Elders of the district) and rashtra-Maharathas (Elders of the province), which indicates towards the presence of popular bodies at the district and provincial headquarters.

RASHTRAKUTAS CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT OF ART, CULTURE AND LITERATURE

They were tolerant in religious matters and patronized not only Shaivism and , but Jainism as well. In the Rashtrakuta Empire, the worship of Siva and Vishnu was prevalent and epigraphs contain frequent references to these deities. Rashtrakuta seals show either Siva or Garuda (vahana of Vishnu), seated in a posture of yoga. Brahmanical sacrifices were performed quite often.

Buddhism had declined during this period. Jainism, though not exactly flourishing, had its adherents; Amoghavarsha I, Indra IV, Krishna II and III were the patrons of the Jaina faith. Actually, the Jainas claim that Amogha was one of the most ardent followers of the faith. But there is nothing to indicate that he abandoned the Brahmanical religion and became a Jaina.

Temples were constructed for purposes of worship. The rock-cut cave temples at Ellora – Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain – are the symbols of their religious toleration and are one of the splendours of . The Rashtrakuta genius for Dravida type temple construction found its expression in the Kailasa temple at Ellora, unparalleled anywhere else.

The Rashtrakuta rulers were even tolerant of . They permitted the Muslim merchants to settle, build their and preach their religion in the Rashtrakuta dominions. Their tolerant policies gave great impetus to trade and commerce.

Kannada was the language of the Rashtrakutas; their inscriptions were mostly engraved in this language. Sanskrit literature, however, was widely patronised. State records were generally written in Sanskrit. In the field of literature also their tolerant spirit is visible. They equally patronised Prakrit and Apabhramsa, a forerunner of many modern Indian languages.

There were many scholars in the Rashtrakuta courts. Trivikrama, the author of the Nalachampu, flourished in the early 10th century. The Kavirahasya of Halayudha was composed in the reign of Krishna III. As the Rashtrakutas were patrons of Jainism, it is natural that Jaina literature should have made considerable progress. and Vidyananda wrote Ashtasati and Ashtasahasri, two commentaries on the Aptamimansa. In the field of logic Manikyanandin wrote Parikshamukhasastra in the latter half of the 8th century. He also wrote an independent work called Nyayakaumudichandrodaya.

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Amoghavarsha I reign saw the high point of Jaina literature in the Rashtrakuta period. Harisena the spiritual preceptor of Amoghavarsha I composed the Harivamsa. He could not complete the Adipurana which relates the life stories of various Jaina saints. It was completed by his disciple . Jinasena’s Parsvabhyudaya is a biography of Parsva in verses. Amoghavarsha’s reign saw the composition of two other works – Amoghavritti of Sakatayana, a work on grammar, and the Ganitasarasamgrahaka of Viracharya, a treatise on mathematics.

The Rashtrakuta period witnessed the beginning of the Kanarese literature, Amoghavarsha I himself was the reputed author of the Kavirajamarga, the first work of Kanarese on poetics. Pampa I, the earliest and the greatest of the Kanarese poets and author of Vikramarjunavijaya, flourished during the first half of the 10th century. Ponna, another famous poet and author of the Santipurana, flourished in the third quarter of the 10th century.

The Rashtrakuta contribution to Indian art is note-worthy with the rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta holding the place of pride. The ancient Indian rock-cut architecture reached its zenith under the Rashtrakutas. The Kailasa temple, built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I, is an unrivalled and stupendous piece of art. The Kailasa temple at Ellora was hewn out of a rocky hillside in the eighth century. The four main parts of the temple are the main shrine, a gateway for entrance, the pavilion of Nandi, and a courtyard with cloisters surrounding it. Supplementary shrines apparently were excavated at a later date. The sculptured panels depicting Dasavatara, Bhairava, and shaking the mount Kailasa, dancing Siva, and Lakshmi and Vishnu listening to music are exquisitely crafted.

THE SENAS OF BENGAL

The Sena family ruled Bengal after the Palas. Samantasena is the first historical figure of the dynasty. He called himself as Brahma- Kshatriya and is regarded as the founder of the dynasty. The title Brahma- Kshatriya shows that Samantasena was a Brahmin but his successors called themselves Kshatriyas. The origin of this dynasty may be traced to the south and some historians are of the opinion that Senas were of Kannada origin

VIJAYASENA

 The real Founder and the greatest ruler of the Sena dynasty. His victories have been described in the Deopara inscription composed by the poet Umapatidhara.  Brought the family into limelight during his long reign of about 70 years and laid the foundation of the greatness of his family by conquering nearly the whole of Bengal.  Had two capitals, Vijayapuri in and Vikaramapura in East Bengal.  Was a Devout Shaiva  The famous poet Sriharsha composed ‘Vijayaprasasti’ in memory of Vijayasena  Was succeeded by his son Ballalasena.

BALLALASENA (1165-85)

 His reign was generally peaceful and he maintained intact the dominion inherited from his father.

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 Was a great scholar. He wrote four works of which two are extant, the Danasagara (a work on Smriti) and the Adbhutasagara (a work on astronomy). The work Adbhutasagara was finally completed by his son Lakshmanasena.  Was a Shaiva  Reorganized the caste system of Bengal – Started Kulinism, an effort to save the purity of noble blood  Was succeeded by Lakshmanasena.

LAKSHMANASENA

 Could not offer any resistance to the Turkish invader Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khalji and escaped for his life (1194) to Vikaramapura in east Bengal.  The Turkish invaders thus easily occupied the Sena capital at Nadia (Renamed Lakhnauti)  However the Sena rule in East Bengal continued where Lakshmanasena son’s Vishvarupasena and Kesavasena continued to rule.  Was a devout Vaishnava and adopted the title Parambhagavata which is mentioned in his inscriptions  Shriharidasa was his court poet  Some of his court’s scholars were Jayadeva (the author of Geet Govinda; Dhoyi (the poet of Pravanaduta); Halayudha; Govardhana (the author of Arya – Saptasati). Geet Govinda is considered to be the first book that popularized Krishna Radha Bhakti in Bengal.  Reference of in Minhaj Siraj’s Tabakat-I-Nasiri where he calls him a great king of Bengal and says that the descendents of Lakshmanasena ruled part of Bengal for sometimes

THE NATURE OF POLITICAL STRUCTURE IN THE EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD Feudalism became an essential feature of the polity of north India between AD 750 and 1200. This was so because the authority of the rulers came to be limited in many ways.

Firstly, the ministers in most cases were chosen on a hereditary basis from selected families, which added to their importance, so much so that the king could not reject their advice.

Secondly, there were numerous feudal barons, quite a number of whom had ties of kinship with the ruling family. In the local and central government, the barons had special privileges and powers which no ruler could safely disregard. This also circumscribed the authority of the ruler.

Thirdly, being under an obligation to rule according to the holy Sastras and the Smritis, the ruler could not enact or amend the laws at will. Thus, the rulers of north India during this period were hereditary leaders of feudal communities and hence could not be autocratic despots in complete sense even if they wanted to be.

Some feudal lords were government officers who were increasingly paid not in cash but by assigning to them revenue-bearing villages. Others were defeated kings and their supporters who continued to enjoy the revenues of limited areas. Some others were local hereditary chiefs or military adventure who had carved out a sphere of influence with the help of armed supporters. Still others were tribal clan leaders.

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The actual position of these people varied. Some of them were only village chiefs; some dominated a tract comprising a number of villages, while others dominated an entire region. Thus, there was a definite hierarchy among these chiefs. They constantly contested against each other and tried to enhance their position.

The powers of the king, though comprehensive in theory, were highly limited in practice due to the privileges and prerogatives of the feudal lords. Since he had the theoretical ownership of all the land, the fiefs of the feudal lords needed his recognition, but this prerogative of the king was limited by the customs which recognized the hereditary rights of the feudal lords. Also, though he had the responsibility of maintaining law and order throughout the state, in practice, however, a free hand was given to the lords in their fiefs.

The basis of sovereignty during this period was a mixture of the Divine Right Theory and the Contract Theory. On the one hand the masses as well as the authors of treatises on polity regarded the ruler as a partial incarnation of Vishnu. On the other hand, they also held that King was the representatives of the people, who conferred sovereignty on him. So, the natural duty of a ruler was to rule in the interests of the people, while the duty of the people was to be loyal and faithful to him. Thus the basis of sovereignty was a sort of contract between the king and the people.

A king was usually succeeded by his eldest son, for they followed the principle of primogeniture. If a king died without an heir, the kingdom passed, according to family tradition, to the head of the baronial house, next in kin to the ruling dynasty. Consequently, there was little scope for disputed succession in the polity of this period.

The king was helped in the administration of his kingdom by a council of ministers, besides the crown prince (Yuvaraja) and the queen-consort (Patta mahishi). Among them, the chief priest and the court astronomer were generally recruited from among the Brahmins. While the rest of the posts were monopolized by the feudal lords, usually belonging to the same caste (Kshatriya) and even the same family sometimes. Vaishyas and Shudras generally had no place in the council of ministers.

For administrative purposes, the kingdom was divided into a central region, directly ruled by the king; and many fiefs ruled by the feudal lords. Again the central region was divided into Bhukti’s or Rashtra’s, which was under Viceroys, Vishayas under Vishayapati, and finally the Villages under Gramapatis. The administration of the fiefs also followed the same pattern. But the village self-government in north India weakened during this period due to the dominion of the feudal chiefs, while at the same time it was at its best in south India under the Cholas.

The army consisted of royal retainers or the personal army of the king and the contingents supplied by the feudal lords. This lack of cohesion was, in fact, responsible for the lack of unity in the armies of the rulers of this period. It consisted of an infantry, cavalry and war elephants, but the cavalry was neither numerous nor were the majority of horses of fine breed. Above all, military service practically came to be the monopoly of . Consequently 90 percent of the people had no opportunity of sharing in the defence of their land and they did not put up any strong opposition to the authority of any military usurper.

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La Excellence IAS Taxation during this period was heavier compared to the ancient times. This was so because expenditure over the royal household and the court continued to increase. The military budget also continued to be inflated because of ceaseless fighting. Naturally, therefore, the burden on the tax-payer becomes heavier.

Provision for justice had been laid down as one of the principal duties of the state in India. But the rulers during this period did not pay adequate attention to it. In the Bhukti’s there was a Dandanayaka who seems to have been in charge of justice, police and prisons simultaneously. But there is no mention of any other officer who might have been principally in charge of justice. So it seems that most of the disputes were settled by arbitration through the caste and village panchayats.

THE EARLY MEDIEVAL SOCIETY

From the seventh century onwards, we find two strong social currents flowing in India: one was to assimilate the foreign elements and another was the rigidity of the caste system. One of the important manifestations of the assimilation of foreign elements was the rise of the Rajaputras or Rajputs. They began to emerge from the seventh-eighth centuries and by the twelfth century their thirty-six clans acquired great renown. The foreign elements which could not be put in any three higher classes were naturally designated as the Shudras.

The caste system became rigid during the period and birth, profession or occupation, residence etc. became new determinants of social status. Strong localism became a dominant factor in the caste structure. Thus the Brahmins came to be identified by their gotra, ancestor, branch of Vedic learning and original home and village. They came to be divided into subsections according to their localities. By the end of the period under survey we find that all the Brahmans did not belong to one unit, they came to be described according to their habitat, namely, Gauda, Paschatya, Nagara, and Kanauj etc. The Matsya Purana states that the Brahmins residing in Trisanku, Barbara, Odra (Orissa), Andhra, Takka, Dravida and Konkana were not to be invited to a funeral repast.

The Kshatriya castes also multiplied due to the assimilation of Central Asian tribes into their fold. As a result of the transformation of crafts into castes and the rise of mixed castes, there was a large increase in the Shudras castes, Castes were also formed on the basis of religious faiths, such as, Lingayats and Virasaivas, Shwetambaras and Digambaras, etc.

During the period under discussion, there was an increasing trend throughout the country of granting villages to various people, thereby sapping the country of its inherent vitality. In this context the society which developed during the period can be termed as a “Feudal society” because the dominant position was held by those who drew their sustenance from land without working on it.

The growth of such a society in north India during this period had far reaching effects. Thus “the constant transfer of land or land revenues made by princes to priests, temples and officials led to the rise and growth of the scribe or the Kayastha community which undermined the monopoly of Brahmans as writers and scribes”. Similarly, the decline of trade and commerce led to the decline in the position of the Vaishyas.

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La Excellence IAS The only prosperous class in north India during this period seems to be the feudal lords. But the surplus wealth of these feudatories was not invested in craft production or trade. It was, instead, used for conspicuous consumption. The palatial homes of the feudatories were richly ornamented, and much of the income was spent in building magnificent temples. No wonder these temples attracted invaders whose desire to achieve religious merit by destroying idols was much than their greed for plunder.

The process of proliferation and multiplication of castes was yet another marked feature of the social life of the period. Contemporary writers mentions a large number of sub castes such as Potters, Weavers, Goldsmiths, Musicians, Barbers and Fishermen. Some of these were earlier guilds of workers which now began to be classified as Castes (Jatis). Kalhana and later on Kullukabhatta mention as many as sixty-four castes. Numerous were the mixed castes. The Kshatriyas claming superior status within the caste was known as Satkshatiyas.

The Brahmins were regarded as the highest among the four Varnas. They enjoyed certain social, economic, political, legal and religious privileges. Their immunity from taxation has been mentioned by Alberuni. But this privilege seems to have been confined to the learned Brahmins only. The exemption of the Brahmanas from capital punishment is not only mentioned by Laksmidhara, but also by Alberuni and several other writers. All these writers state that the most serve punishment for a Brahman was banishment. On the other hand, the murderer of a Brahman was the greatest sinner and performed the worst crime. Alberuni echoes it in the following lines: “Nothing can wipe off any of the mortal crimes against a Brahman, of which the greatest is the murder of a Brahman, called vajra- brahmahatya”.

Though the Vaishyas continued to be counted as a separate caste in the digests up to the end of the seventeenth century, a tendency manifested itself very early to degrade them to the Shudras community. Alberuni also did not find any difference between the Vaishyas and Shudra.

The Shudras were the most numerous sections in the community. Their number increase from age to age. There was a gradual elevation in their social position of the Shudras. In general they continued in their menial jobs though many of them drifted to agricultural tenancy and to the artisan’s trade. Yajnavalkya (Much earlier) has allowed them to become traders and agriculturists. Hiuen-Tsang described the shudras as such in the sixth century. The Antyajas or the outcastes were out of all this and continued to live outside the towns and village.

The lowest castes were antyas or antyajatis, of whom the Chandalas are the most important representatives. That the antyajas were beyond the four orders or Varnas is also observed by Alberuni. In the days of the composition of the early Smritis, untouchables were called Antyajas. The social position of the antyajas was much lower than that of the Shudras. They had often to live away from the area inhabited by the upper caste peoples. Hiuen-tsang says: “Butchers, fisher-men, public performers, executioners and scavengers have their habitations marked by a distinguishing sign. They are forced to live outside the city and sneak along on the left when going about in the hamlets.”

The traditional theory relating to the professions to be followed by the four Varnas was not scrupulously adhered to in the period under review. The Brahmins, for example, did not

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La Excellence IAS invariably confine their activity to studying, teaching, worshipping and the performance of other priestly functions. Economic pressures compelled many Brahmin families to encroach upon the preserves of the three other Varnas.

Slavery always existed in Indian society. But the social position of the slaves appears to have been better than that of the antyajas or despised castes. Prisoners of war, debtors unable to pay their debts, and gamblers unable to pay off their stakes were often reduced to slavery. Poor persons sometimes sold themselves to the rich for food during famines. The children of slaves were also slaves. But debtor-slaves could regain their liberty by arranging to pay debts.

The attitude of the learned classes of north India became increasingly rigid during this period. They tended to repeat by rote the past learning, instead of putting forward and welcoming new ideas. They also tended to isolate themselves from the main currents of scientific thought outside India.

This is reflected in the writings of Al-Beruni, a noted scientist and scholar from Central Asia who lived in India at Mahmud Ghazni’s court. Although a great admirer of Indian sciences and learning, he also noted the insular attitude of the learned people of the country, viz. the Brahmins.

The attitude of trying to confine knowledge among a very narrow group, and of taking an arrogant attitude toward new ideas, from whichever source they might come, was largely responsible for making India backward. In course of time, India had to pay a very heavy price for its backwardness. Infact the society, in spite of its apparent magnificence and stability, had become hollow from within due to its internal weaknesses. Therefore the Indians were unable to meet the invaders as a mature, well-knit and disciplined force.

There was a progressive deterioration in the position of women in the society during this period. Women’s were subjected to all kinds of restrictions. Confined mostly to the four walls of the house, they depended entirely on their male earning members. Child marriage and Female Infanticide were prevalent. Polygamy was there, the upper castes indulged in it generally, due to their economic well-being. Widow Marriage was not encouraged and that added to the burden of the society in general.

Women continued to be denied the right to study in the medieval north Indian society. Furthermore, the marriageable age for girls was lowered, thereby destroying their opportunities for higher education. Women, in general, were distrusted. They were kept in seclusion and their life was regulated by the male relations – father, brother, husband and son.

We also have a number of instances showing how queens and princesses, sometimes exercised a commanding influence upon the administration of the state. In Kashmir, Suryamati, queen of , rose to be the de facto ruler of the kingdom and ended up by persuading the king against the judgement of his wisest counselors to abdicate in favour of their unworthy son.

The political influence of royal ladies can be traced during this period especially in the records of the Deccan and South India. Princesses became governors of provinces and held minor administrative charges under the Western of Kalyana. In

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La Excellence IAS the latter half of the thirteenth century Queen Ballamahadevi of the Alupa dynasty (In Dakshina Kannada district) ruled for at least fourteen years (AD 1201 -14) with the masculine titles of Maharajadhiraja, Parabalasadhaka, and so forth. The Kakatiya queen Rudramba, bearing the male name of Rudradevamaharaja, ruled the Kakatiya kingdom for nearly forty years, and her conspicuous success won the admiration of the contemporary Venetian traveler Marco Polo.

According to J.L.Mehta, Rajput women enjoyed freedom in society and were known for their chastity and devotion to their husbands. Swayamvar was in vogue among princesses for the purpose of selecting their husbands. The custom of sati, though prevalent, was not insisted upon. Some enjoyed education and the freedom to participate actively in public life.

There are instances of Rajput women participating in warfare, many of whom did not lag behind their men folk in bravery or heroism. The rite of Jauhar was prevalent in Rajput society: upon the defeat or death in battle of the men folk, the women committed suicide en-mass by burning themselves alive. This was done to safeguard their honour and self- respect.

THE RAJPUTS

The Word Rajput (Sanskrit Raja-Putra) literally means ‘a prince’; and was applied to indicate a member of the foreign (and in some cases indigenous) ruling clans. As regards the origin of the Rajputs, most of the scholars believe that during the post Gupta period, the Hunas, Gurjaras and other foreign tribes were absorbed into Indian society and were ultimately recognized as thirty-six respectable Rajput clans.

A number of Rajput clans such as the Paramara, Pratihara, Chahamana, Chalukya (Solankis), Kalachuri, etc., were probably of foreign origin. The Pratiharas were probably a branch of the Gurjara people. The case of these peoples was similar to that of the Greeks, Scythians and Parthians of an earlier age. As they were fighting and ruling races, they naturally claimed, after indianisation, the status of the Kshatriyas and ultimately came to be called Rajput. According to Colonel Todd, the Rajputs were the offspring of foreign invaders like Hunas, Sakas and Kushanas, who adopted Hinduism and established matrimonial alliances with the Indians.

The emergence of the Rajput warrior clans was in the 6th and 7th centuries and the Rajputs rose to prominence in the 9th and 10th centuries. The clans that descended from the solar and lunar lineage i.e. 'Suryavanshis' and 'Chandervanshis' respectively rose to prominence along with the four Agnivanshi clans, the Pratiharas (Pariharas), Chauhanas (Chahamanas), Solankis (Chalukyas), and Paramaras (or Pawars).

The 36 Rajput clans are first mentioned in the Kumarpalacharita of Jayasimha and then in the of Chandbardai. The lists include well-known Rajput clans such as Bargujar, Paramara, Rever, , Gaharwar, Chalukya, , Parihara and Chandela; as also lesser-known clans such as Silar (), Chapotkat and Tank.

The Rajput clans gave rise to dynasties like of (Udaipur), the Kachwahas of Amber (Jaipur), the Rathors of (Jodhpur & ), the Hadas of Jhalwawar, Kota & Bundi, the Bhattis of Jaisalmer, the Shekhawats of Shekhawati and the of

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According to the Agnikula myth recorded by a court poet, the founder of the house of the Paramaras originated from the fire pit of sage Vasistha on Mount Abu. The man, who thus sprang out of the fire, forcibly wrested the wish granting cow of sage Vasistha from Sage Vishvamitra and restored it to the former. Sage Vasistha gave him the fitting name of Parmara (slayer of enemy). From him sprang a race, which was regarded with high esteem by virtuous kings. The Parakara inscriptions also declare the origin of the Paramaras from the fire pit of Sage Vasistha on Mount Abu. The Rajasthani bards went a step further and ascribed the fire origin not only to Paramaras but also to Pratiharas, the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Chahamanas. The Agnikula theory was first put forward by Chand Bardai in his book “Prithviraj Raso”

Early Rajput activities were dominated by the four Agnikula clans. The Pariharas were based in southern Rajasthan. The Chahamanas emerged as a feudatory of the Pratiharas in eastern Rajasthan, south east of Delhi and helped their masters in holding back the Arab advance. Later they became independent. The Solankis were in Kathiawar with branches in Malwa, Chedi, Patan and Broach and by the middle of the tenth century, they were at war with most of their neighbours. The Paramaras began as feudatories of the Rashtrakutas in Malwa with their capital at Dhar near Indore and revolted against their overlords in the closing years of the tenth century.

Other Rajput clans claiming descent from Solar and Lunar races settled as local kings in various parts of Central and Western India. Among them, the Chandellas were in the region of , gaining prominence there in the tenth century. The Guhilas in Mewar participating in campaigns against Arabs and the Tomars ruled in Haryana near Delhi including Thaneshwar (the home of Harsha), also as a feudatory of Pratiharas.

THE GAHADAVALS OF KANNAUJ

CHANDRADEVA (1080-1100)

 Founded the Gahadavala dynasty (A.D 1080 – 1085) of Kannauj  Made Kannauj his capital.  Made Benaras the second capital of Gahadavala, this was to serve as Ghadavala’s seat of administration till the battle of Chandawar.  Imposed a tax called ‘Tarushkadanda’ possibly to defray the expenses of war against Muslim invasions  Adopted high sounding title like “the protector of the holy places of Kashi, Varanasi, Uttarakosala (Faizabad), Kusika (Kannauj) and Indrasthaniya (Delhi)  Was succeeded by his son Madanachandra also known as Madanapala, whose rule was not very significant.

MADANAPALA (1100-1114)

 The crown prince Govindachandra repulsed the Muslim expedition sent by the Ghaznavid king, Masud III, under Hajib Tughatigin.

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La Excellence IAS GOVINDACHANDRA: (1114-1154)

 The son and successor of Madanapala. He was the greatest ruler of the dynasty as well as the only Gahadavala king who issued gold coins  Assumed the title of Vividhavidya – Vichacha – Vachaspati  His minister for war and peace Laksmidhara wrote Kritya- kalpataru or Kalpadruma (law text). Similarly, Damodarasharman compiled the Ukti-Vyakti-prakarana to teach Sanskrit to the princes through the medium of the vernacular of Varanasi.  His Buddhist wife Kumaradevi (niece of Ramapala) restored the Dharmachakra and built a new Vihara at Sarnath  He was succeeded by his son

VIJAYACHANDRA (1154-70)

 He fought against the aggressions of the Arabs and the Turks. Defeated and expelled the forces of Amir Khusrau and his son Khusrau Malik, who occupied Lahore after their expulsion from Ghazni by Allaudin Ghori.  The references of his victories are to be found in Prithviraja Raso  Lost Delhi to Vigraharaja Visaladeva  He was succeeded by his son Jaichandra.

JAICHANDRA (1170-94)

 Tried to extend his territory in Bengal, but was defeated by the Sena ruler Lakshmanasena of Bengal.  Had a conflict with Chahamana ruler Prithviraj III. The romantic story of his daughter, Sanyogita, and the Chahamana ruler Prithviraj III, of Ajmer who elopes together is a subject of controversy. The story finds mention in Prithviraj Raso.  In 1194 A.D, he was defeated in a battle and killed by the forces of Muizuddin Muhammad Ghori also known as Sihabuddin Ghori, between the planes of Chandawar and Etawah. This famous battle is known as the Battle of Chandawar.  His son Harishchandra was allowed to rule as a vassal on behalf of Ghori  The famous generals Alha and Udal belonged to his Army.  He patronised Sriharsha, the author of Naishadhacharitam (eulogistic work) and Khandana Khanda Khadya (on Vedanta treatises)  Adakkamalla (Deposed by Iltutmish) was the last Gahadavala ruler.

CHAHAMANS OR CHAUHANAS OF SHAKAMBHARI

The Chahamana or chauhanas of shakambhari (modern Sambhar, near Ajmer) were initially the vassals of the imperial Pratiharas and ruled in different parts of Gujarat and Rajputana in the 7th and 8th centuries. Ajayaraja, who founded the city Ajayameru (Ajmer), was one of the finest rulers of this dynasty. Another famous king was Vigraharaja IV (Visaladeva) who probably made extensive conquests and controlled Delhi after defeating the Tomars in mid-12th century. He was a poet and a patron of letters. The famous Prithviraja III or Rai Pithora began his reign from 1179. He defeated the Chandella king, Paramardi. He was hostile towards the Gahadavala king, Jaichandra. In his first confrontation with Muhammad Ghori in 1191 (), he defeated Ghori, but in the second battle of Tarain in 1192, Prithviraja was defeated and executed. With his

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La Excellence IAS death, the Chauhan kingdom was much weakened. It finally became part of the Sultanate of Delhi.

THE

They emerged as an important political power in the second half of the Sixth Century AD. Their Kingdom comprised Gujarat, Northern Maharashtra and even the parts of Malwa. In the epics and Puranas they are referred to as Haihayas. Some scholars are of the opinion that the people called Kalachuri (from the Turkish title Kulchur) appear to have been of Turkish origin.

There were several branches of Kalachuris, which settled down in different parts of northern India in the 8th Century AD. The most powerful of these branches ruled in the Chedi country in Bundelkhand with their capital at Tripuri (near in Madhya Pradesh). The people of this branch were known as Kalachuris of Tripuri or the Kings of Dahala Mandala. The other branches which established their principality in different places, like the one which founded a principality in Sarayupura (modern Gorakhpur district), Ratnapura (South Kosala) and others ruling in different places were collateral.

THE PARAMARAS OF MALWA

The main branch of the Paramaras comprised descendants of the Rashtrakutas who ruled in Malwa from the early years of the ninth century with their capital at Dhara. The dynasty was founded by Upendra or Krishnaraja. His immediate successors were Sivaka-Harsha and, then, his son Munja. He defeated the powerful Chalukyan king, Tailapa II. Bhoja is considered the best of the Paramara rulers. Bhoja is further said to have humbled the lord of Lata (Southern Gujarat) and Bhima I of Gujarat. Bhoja passed away during his battle with the Kalachuri king, Lakshmi-Karna. Bhoja is better known for his scholarly pursuits than for his conquests. The authorship of more than twenty-three books on varied subjects is ascribed to him. He was a patron of art and literature. He patronised scholars like Dhanapala and Urata.

SOLANKIS OR CHALUKYAS OF ANHILWADA

The Solankis dynasty ruled in Gujarat and Kathiawar for nearly three and half century (AD 950-1300). The founder of the dynasty was Mularaja. He established his capital at Anahilapataka. He was a devotee of Shiva. The next important king was Bhima I. Attack of Mahmud Ghazni on Somanatha took place during his period. The greatest king of the dynasty was Jayasimha Siddharaja. In commemoration of victory over Malwa he assumed the title of Avantinatha. He was a great patron of literature and the learned Jaina scholar Hemachandra who authored the famous grammar -Hemachandra was in his court. During his reign Gujarat became the famous seat of learning and literature. He established schools for the study for Jyotisha, Nyaya and Purana. He was a devout Saiva and got constructed the temple of Rudra Mahakala at Siddhapura. This seems to have been the largest architectural conceptions in this area.

The last important king of the dynasty was Bhima II (1178-1239). In 1197, Qutbuddin Aibak invaded Gujarat and plundered Anhilwada. But his victory was short lived as he had to soon withdraw. Another Turkish attack under Sultan Iltutmish was repulsed by Vastupala. He rebuilt the temple of Somanatha as it was earlier destroyed by Muizuddin

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La Excellence IAS Muhammad Ghori. After the death of Bhima II the dynasty of Chalukyas began to decline

In spite of being brave warriors the Solankis were the great patron of art and several architectural activities took place during their rule. The Jaina temple of Vimala at Mount Abu in Rajasthan is one of the best specimens of Solankis art. They also got constructed the temple of Surya at Modhera near Baroda. The ministers of Bhima II, Vastupala and Tejapala also made significant contributions towards the development of art activities.

Vaghelas succeeded Chalukyas in Gujarat after Bhima II. The Gujarat was being ruled by the Vaghela ruler was Karna, when it was conquered by Alauddin Khalji. Karna was the last Hindu king of Gujarat. At the time of attack by the Khalji he fled to Devagiri and his wife Kamladevi and daughter Devaldevi fell into the hands of Alauddin Khalji.

CHANDELLAS OF JEJAKABHUKTI OR BUNDELKHAND

The Chandellas (Chandratreyas) became rulers in southern Bundelkhand under early in the ninth century. He had his capital at Kharjuravahaka (Modern Khajuraho). The dynasty became powerful under the rule of in mid-10th century. The scholars are of the opinion that Chandellas originally belonged to a clan of aboriginal chiefs related to the Gonds or Bhars and promoted to the rank of Kshatriyas. Initially they were the feudatories of Pratiharas, but after the breakup of the Pratihara Empire they established their own rule over Bundelkhand.

The Chandellas who came into prominence in the early ninth century claimed their descent from Chandratreya, a descendent of the moon dynasty. Their kingdom was named Jejakabhukti on the name of one of the early Chandella king known as Jayashakti or Jeja or Jejjaka. The earliest capital of the Chandella kings seems to have been at Khajuraho, the glory of which reached its zenith in the 10th Century.

The Chandellas were great builders and got constructed several temples and monuments. Three most important cities in the Chandella kingdom were Khajuraho (Chhatarpur district, MP); Kalinjar (Banda district, UP) and Mahotsavanagar (Mahoba, Hamirpur district, UP). About these Vincent Smith remarks: “The first named town with its magnificent temples may be regarded as the religious, the second with its strong fortress as the military and the third with its palaces as the civil capital”

NANUKA

 He founded the dynasty in the first quarter of the 9th century around Khajuraho, Bundelkhand  He was succeeded by his son Vakpati

VAKPATI

 Fought with contemporary rulers like Pala Devapala and Pratihara Bhoja  He was succeeded by his son Jayashakti and after him his, another son Vijayasakti came to the throne  After Vijayasakti the throne was occupied by his son

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La Excellence IAS YASOVARMAN

 The son and successor of Rahila He was also known as Lakshavarman  Launched the phase of aggressive militarism and extensive conquests, the reference of which is found in Khajuraho inscription  Defied the Pratihara overlordship and made Chandellas a formidable power by his extensive wars in north India.  He got constructed the famous Chaturbhuja temple at Khajuraho and also got the image of Vishnu installed in it.

DHANGA (954-1002)

 The son and successor of Yasovarman He was the most famous ruler of Chandellas and raised the Chandella power to its highest  He assumed the title of Maharaja and completely threw off the yoke of Pratihara overlordship and became independent  He extended the northern boundary of the Chandella kingdom up to the bank of the Ganga.  He was the part of the confederation of Rajput rulers formed by Shahi king Jayapala to repel the invasion of Subuktigin (AD998)  He got constructed the Temple of Visvanatha at Khajuraho. This being one of the most lavishly ornamented temple at Khajuraho  The temples of Jinanatha and Vaidyanatha were also built during the reign of Dhanga

GANDA

 The son and successor of Dhanga  He was the part of the confederation of Rajput rulers formed by Shahi king Anandapal to repel the invasion of Mahmud Ghaznavi (AD 1008)

VIDYADHARA

 The son and successor of Ganda  Killed the Pratihara ruler Rajyapala in AD 1019 for his coward surrender before Mahmud Ghaznavi  Mahmud Ghaznavi twice invaded his kingdom.  He failed to defend the (strong citadel of Chandellas) and the Chandella territory from the attack of Ghaznavi  During the Ghaznavi attach he confined himself to the fort of Kalinjar

LATER RULERS

 After the death of Vidyadhara, the Chandella dynasty witnessed a temporary eclipse in power and prestige  Among the later rulers Kirtivarman, Madanavarman (1129-63) and Paramardi (1165- 1203) were the most notables  Kirtivarman resisted an invasion of his territory by the Ghaznavid army from the Punjab in AD 1090

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 Madanavarman defeated the Chedi monarch of Tripuri, the Paramara king of Dhara and the Gahadavala king Vijayachandra  Paramardi or Parmal suffered defeat from Chahamana king Prithviraj III (1182-83)  Finally in 1203, Paramardi and his kingdom suffered complete annihilation when Qutbuddin attacked Kalinjar fort.  Paramardi died in the attack and Qutbuddin plundered the fort and conquered Mahoba and appointed his own governor to administer the Conquered territories  The territories were subsequently recovered by the Paramardi’s son Trailokyavarman, who defeated the Turkish forces at Kakadwa. But finally in 1309, Alauddin Khalji conquered the greater part of the kingdom.  The last known king of Bundelkhand is Viravarman II

THE RULING DYNASTIES OF KASHMIR

 The Himalayan valley of Kashmir constituted a part of Mauryan and Kushanas empires.  Kashmir was the part of Ashoka’s empire and Srinagar is said to have been founded by him. The tradition says that Jaluka, the son of Asoka, popularized Hindu ideals in Kashmir then  Three dynasties the Karkota, the Utpala and the Loharas, ruled over Kashmir during the early medieval period  Though the kingdom underwent a few dynastic changes but all through it remained under the control of the Brahmanas till the fourteenth century.

KARKOTA DYNASTY (STARTING FROM 630 A.D)

 The founder of was Durlabhavardhan, a Kashmiri Brahman. He had friendly relations with Harsha and Gave tooth relic of Buddha to Harsha. Hiuen Tsang spent a few years in his court (631-633 A.D)  Next great king was Lalitaditya, also known as Muktapida and was the most powerful king. He is said to have ruled from AD 724 to 760. He sent embassies to China and built sun temple at Martanda and temple of Bhutesh, (that represents Shiva). He defeated Yashovarman of Kannauj and the Arabs. Kalhana, the historian of Kashmir, credits him with having led his troops to distant countries.  Another illustrious ruler of this dynasty was Jayapida Vinyaditya (779-810). He is said to have defeated the kings of Gauda and Kannauj. He was a great patron of learning and his court was adorned by Kshirasvamin, Udbhaja, Damodara Gupta, Vamana and other scholars.  About the middle of the ninth century the power of the Karkotas was supplanted by the Utpalas.

UTPALA DYNASTY (FROM 850 A.D)

 The founder of the dynasty was Avantivarman (855-883 A.D). He was assisted in his politico administrative works by his able minister Suyya. The king patronised scholars and poets. His court was adorned by two poets, Ratnakara and Anandavardhana.  Avantivarman Devoted more time to internal administration than to conquests. He got constructed the town of Suryapura (Modern ). It has been named after its chief architect Suyya. Avantivarman also founded the city of Avantipur (Bantipur)

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 Avantivarman worked on improvement in irrigation facilities and got dug Canals. Name of Suyya, a famous engineer is associated with the construction of canals  The economic prosperity of the kingdom during Avantivarman is reflected by the Kalhana’s reference that the rice was sold for 36 Dinaras per Khari, as against 200 Dinaras earlier.  Avantivarman was succeeded by his son, Samkaravarman.  Samkaravarman initiated the era of war and annexations and extended the boundaries of Kashmir in several directions. He seems to have come into conflict with the emperor Bhoja I of Kannauj and Lalliya Shahi of Udabhandapura or Und on the Indus, and wrested a portion of Punjab from the Gurjaras.  These wars led to excessive taxations which adversely affected the economic prosperity of the kingdom. The exhausted treasury was replenished by plundering the treasures of temples and curtailing the royal patronage of learning.  Samkaravarman was succeeded by his son Gopalavarman. During the period of Gopalavarman, his mother Sugandha controlled the affairs of the state and acted as a virtual ruler.  After the death of Gopalavarman, Kashmir came to be dominated by military (Tantrins), which refers to close corporations of food soldiers who assumed the role of king makers.  The Tantrins in close cooperation with the ministers of the court placed a minor Nirjitavarman (cousin of Samkaravarman) on the throne. The powerful military factions of the Tantrins made themselves the virtual dictators of the state.  The rule of corruption initiated by the court ministers and Tantrins was finally ended by the administrative and military ability of Chakravarman (brother of Nirjitavarman)  After the death of Chakravarman in AD 913 the kingdom of Kashmir once again went into the state of decline and the Utpala dynasty finally came to an end in AD 939

KINGDOM OF KASHMIR AFTER UTPALA’S

 The king named Yasakara ruled over Kashmir till AD 948. He was an able ruler and was chosen by an assembly of Brahmins. Yasakara was succeeded by his minor son Samgramadeva, who ruled with a regency of ministers  Pravaragupta, one of the ministers of Samgramadeva, killed him and usurped the throne. He was succeeded by his unworthy son Kshemagupta, whose queen Didda (daughter of Lohara chief) had a greater say in the management of the affairs of the state. After the death of Kshemagupta in AD 958 Didda became the virtual ruler for another fifty years.  Didda ruled and established efficient administration as a regent for her son Abhimanyu. She was assisted by her loyal minister Naravahana. Her name appears on the coins of Kashmir  On the eve of Mahmud’s invasion Kashmir was ruled by Didda. On her death in AD 1003, her nephew Sangramaraja, son of king Udyaraja of Lohara (in the territory of Poonch) laid the foundation of a new dynasty, known after Lohara.

RISE OF (1003 A.D)

 The founder was Sangramaraja.  Ananta succeeded to the throne in AD 1028 He was assisted by his Queen Suryamati.  Suryamati appointed able ministers and improved the administration and finances of the kingdom

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 Ananta abdicated the throne in favour of his son Kalasa, who was assisted by his able minister Haladhara  Kalasa proved disloyal to his parents but his designs against them were defeated by the military.  Frustrated by the activities of his son, Ananta committed suicide and his Queen Suryamati performed sati. This tragedy reformed Kalasa  Kalasa was succeeded by his son Utkarsha, whose reign saw the revolt of his brother Vijayamalla  The next important Lahore king was Harsha (brother of Kalasa).He employed Turushakas which refers to Muslim Military generals  Harsha retrieved the lost glory of Kashmir by his able administration and patronage to learning and art. He was also the leader of social reforms. His expansionist led to wars, which ended in defeat for the kings. This adversely effected the financial position of the kingdom and Harsha imposed heavy taxation and even plundered temples in search for money. Revolt of Damaras and Uchchhala (the exiled general) took place during his time. He was the patron of Kalhana. Harsha’s reign is narrated in Rajatarangini of Kalhana  After Harsha’s death Kashmir faced a quick succession of weak Lohara rulers and finally the dynasty ended in AD 1172  Jai Singh was the last king of the dynasty, which finds mention in Kalhana’s Rajatarangini

THE KINGDOM OF KASHMIR AFTER LOHARA’S

 After Lohara’s the kingdom of Kashmir was effected by civil war, anarchy and Muslim invasions.  Rinchana, a Tibetan chief became the king of Kashmir in AD 1320. He was preceded by king Suhadeva (1301-20), whose daughter Kotadevi he married.  With the death of Rinchana, the kingdom declined. The Hindu rule in Kashmir was finally ended in AD 1339 and the Muslim rule began.

First Muslim dynasty was founded by Shamsuddin under the title of Dynasty. Sikander Shah of this dynasty was great iconoclast i.e. image breaker – known as Butshikan. He is said to have destroyed the famous temple of Martand

The greatest king of this dynasty was Shahi Khan who assumed the title of Zainul-Abidin. He was a liberal king and is known as the ‘Akbar of Kashmir’. He reversed the orthodox policy of Sikander Shah and also removed taxation on cremation as well as ban on Sati

Because of his liberal approach, Zainul-Abidin was called ‘Budshah’ i.e. great king. He was great patron of scholars and got Mahabharata and Rajatarangini translated into Persian. He got constructed an artificial island in the woolar lake called Zainulanka and is said to have borrowed the art of paper making and book binding from Samarkand

After Shahmiri dynasty Kashmiri Chaks founded new dynasty in 1561 and they ruled till Kashmir was annexed to the Mughal Empire by Akbar in 1588.

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La Excellence IAS THE ARAB CONQUEST OF SIND

As early as AD 637 Arabs started sending expeditions to the western coast of India. In the opening years of the eighth century AD, the King of Ceylon had sent some ships to the Khalifa (Caliph) Walid. These ships were plundered by pirates near , a port in Sindh. At that time, Dahir, a Hindu Raja, ruled over Sindh. Al-Hajjaj, the governor of Basra, demanded compensation, but Dahir refused to pay it. Hajjaj sent an expedition against Dahir.

After two expeditions failed, in AD 712 he sent another expedition, this time under his nephew and son-in-law, Muhammad-bin-Qasim. Muhammad-Bin-Qasim in a very short time conquered Debal by slaying Dahir. He then conquered Brahmanabad. After this he conquered Multan. This practically made him the ruler of the whole of Sindh. But his brilliant career came to a sad end when he was put to death by the Khalifa.

Sindh was under the Arabs for 200 years. An efficient administration was provided by them. It was divided into a number of districts (Iqtas) which were assigned to the Arab military officers on condition of military service. The Arab followed a tolerant religious policy. Those who paid the poll-tax or Jaziya were exempted from embracing Islam and were known as zimmis.

Why Arabs Failed To Build a Permanent Empire in India The conquest of Sindh by the Arabs was, however, a triumph without any results. Not only did they fail to extend their dominions further, they could not even retain their hold on Sindh. The reasons were: Imprisonment of Muhammad-bin-Qasim The new Khalifa who succeeded Hajjaj (the patron of Muhammad-bin-Qasim) recalled and imprisoned Qasim. It proved to be a great blow to the Sindh administration. New Khalifa’s attitude towards Sindh The new Khalifa did not visualize any material gain from the desert land of Sindh and hence put a break on military help to Sindh. Fight over Khilafat (Caliphate) As a result of breaking out of a mutual struggle for occupying the seat of Khilafat, the Arab attention was diverted from Sindh. Feeling of Cultural inferiority among the Arabs The Arabs had a feeling of inferiority complex in the face of India’s cultural advancement. This dampened the spirits of the Arabs for further military occupation. Distance from Long distance between Sindh and Baghdad (the ultimate source of power for Sindh administration under the Arabs) and lack of communication and transport did not encourage further battles. Bravery and heroism of Indian rulers At that time provinces in India were being ruled by various Rajput dynasties that were famous for their bravery and heroism. This discouraged the Arabs from engaging in wars with the Indian rulers.

IMPACT OF ARAB RULE IN SINDH Politically, the Arabs’ Sindh conquest is considered insignificant event from the point of view of growth of Islam in India. Their victory did not leave any impact on the monarchial character of Indian polity. However, it succeeded in converting the Sindh population to Islam, though on a very limited and temporary scale.

The Arabs did not make any permanent impact on Indian social system. However, it would be wrong to say that the Arab’s Sindh conquest did not make any impact at all on the Indian society. Its first impact was that it laid the foundation of Islam in India. The formal

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La Excellence IAS slavery system was introduced into India by the Arabs. The earliest Muslim settlements in India were established during Arab rule. Sanskrit works on astronomy and medicine were translated into . The was translated into Sindhi. Arab life was adjusted to Sindhi pattern.

The Arab rule in Sindh strengthened Arab trade and encouraged more Arabs to settle down on the east coast. The Sindhi tanners were trained in the art of tanning soft leather by the Arab leather workers. As a result of this, Sindhi leather fetched a higher price in foreign markets.

THE CONQUESTS OF MAHMUD GHAZNI

Mahmud Ghazni, the son of Subuktagin, was born in AD 971. He led seventeen plundering expeditions to India between 1000 and 1027 AD, annexing Punjab as his eastern province. The major objective of these plundering raids to India was to enrich himself by taking away the wealth from India.

The contemporary Persian sources mention that his motive was primarily spreading Islam and therefore he got the title of Ghazni. But the recent researches have proved that the religious motive was highlighted by him in order to win over the caliphate (Khalifa) at Baghdad and the real intention of his invasion in India was to loot the wealth hidden in the Garbhagriha of the temples.

After the consolidation of his hold over Ghazni Kingdom, Mahmud turned his attention towards the Indian frontiers. He crossed the Khyber Pass and initiated the campaign with the dawn of the Eleventh century.

The first attack of Mahmud was against the frontier posts in 1000 AD, when many forts and districts were plundered. The next important attack was upon the Hindushahi kingdom of Jayapala.

The battle between Mahmud and his adversary Jayapala took place at Peshawar in 1001 In this battle, also known as Battle of Waihind, Jayapala was defeated, and captured with his sons, grandsons, relatives and important officers.

Mahmud advanced to Waihind (Udbhanda or Peshawar), the capital city, and concluded a treaty in which Jayapala had to pay two-and-a-half Lakh of dinars as ransom along with fifty elephants. Mahmud returned to Ghazni with the looted treasures and a humiliated Jayapala brunt himself to death on a self lit pyre. His son, Anandapal, succeeded him in 1002.

Abdul-Fateh Daud, the head of the Karmatian Sect and the ruler of Multan was the target of the next attack in 1006. The Karmatian’s shunned orthodox and were regarded as heretics. On his way to Multan, Mahmud faced opposition from Anandapal in Punjab. He overcame it, got rid of Anandapal by chasing him upto Kashmir.

Abdul-Fateh Daud capitulated without a fight and pleased Mahmud by the surrender of his treasure, horses and other valuables. He was allowed to retain Multan on the promise to pay annual tribute and follow the principle of Sunni faith.

Sukhpala, the grandson of Jayapala, accepted Islam and was appointed by Mahmud to

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La Excellence IAS look after his conquered territories in Hindustan. He was given a new name of Nawasa Shah subsequently; however, he gave up Islam and declared himself independent. Therefore Mahmud defeated and imprisoned Sukhpala in the battle in 1007-08

The next expedition was against Anandapal in 1008, who (according to Ferishta,) meanwhile had allied with the rulers of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kanauj, Delhi and Ajmer to fight Mahmud. In this battle also known as the second battle of Waihind, Mahmud defeated the forces of Anandapal and his allies.

The next expedition in 1009 was against Nagarkot in the Kangra hills which had a fort and temples containing a lot of treasures. Mahmud besieged the fort, plundered the temples and looted the treasures. He returned to Ghazni to display what he had got presumably as a recruitment drive to enlist ghazis.

The Nagarkot exploit provided a clue to the century’s old accumulated wealth of India in the holy shrines. It sharpened Mahmud’s avarice for the precious metal and encouraged him to strike at other famous Hindu temples with a still great ferocity.

Mahmud attacked Thaneshwar (the Mecca of ) in 1011-12. He looted the fort and its treasures and destroyed the temple of Chakraswamy whose image was taken to Ghazni for display.

Anandapal, who suffered defeat at the hands of Mahmud in an earlier encounter regrouped meanwhile and shifted his capital to Nandanah. In 1014 Mahmud defeated Trilochanapala (the son of Anandapal) and captured Nandanah, forcing Trilochanapala to seek shelter in Kashmir. Mahmud pursued him there and routed the combined armies of Trilochanapala and the ruler of Kashmir. An Indian convert named Sarog was appointed Governor of Nandanah by Mahmud.

An attempt to conquer Kashmir in 1015 failed, due largely, to inclement weather. This was the first defeat of Mahmud's army in India. Between 1015 and 1021, Mahmud unsuccessfully attempted twice to invade Kashmir, but gave up finally.

Kannauj then ruled by Rajyapal, the Gurjara Pratihara chief was the next target of Mahmud. He started from Ghazni, towards the end of 1015 and capturing all the forts en route, he reached Bulandshahar whose ruler Haradatta surrendered and became a Muslim with several followers. Next was Mahawan near Mathura whose ruler, Kulachand, fought heroically but was defeated. Instead of falling into the hands of invaders, he saved his honour by committing suicides along with his wife.

Then, it was the turn of Mathura. Moving towards the pilgrim centre, Mathura, he was opposed by the Kalachuri ruler Kokkala II, one of the major Rajput kings of the area. The battle was hotly contested, but the Rajput ruler was finally defeated. Mahmud attacked and destroyed the city and looted all its treasures. Now, it was Brindavan which had some forts besides the temples. Mahmud devastated and plundered them completely.

Mahmud reached Kannauj in 1019. The Pratihara ruler, Rajyapala, capitulated without a fight and Mahmud captured the seven forts in the city, destroyed the temples and plundered their wealth. While returning, Mahmud captured the forts of Munj, Asni and Sharwa. Rajyapal was permitted to take charge of his kingdom as a vassal of Mahmud.

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Ganda, the Chandella ruler of Kalinjar allied with the ruler of Gwalior and killed Rajyapala for his cowardly submission to Mahmud. After this a Chandel protégé named Trilochandpal was placed on the throne of Kannauj.

Mahmud therefore directed his next expedition (1020-21) against Kalinjar. On the way he laid siege to Gwalior but failed to conquer it. Its ruler Kirtiraja of Kachhapaghata clan accepted the nominal suzerainty of Mahmud. The Chandella king Ganda formed an alliance with some other Hindu chiefs and challenged the invader. Before the actual fight, Ganda became, however, suspicious of the treachery on the part of his colleagues and fled the field at night and took refuge in the fort of Kalinjar.

Mahmud then besieged the famous fort of Kalinjar, but in spite of his best efforts he failed to conquer it and was obliged to raise the siege on the offer of large amount of tribute. About this time Vidyadhara (son of Ganda), who seems to have been in charge of the Kalinjar Fort pleased Mahmud of Ghazni by sending a self composed poem in the praise of his suzerain.

The campaign against Gwalior and Kalinjar was not very successful. Mahmud returned to Ghazni in a hurry so as not to be caught in the rainy season in the midst of unbeaten Hindu rulers and hostile population.

After the capture of Nandanah, Trilochanpala shifted to Lahore which became the new capital of Hindushahis. Mahmud invaded Lahore (1021-22) during his fourteenth expedition and gave yet another defeat to Trilochanpala. Lahore fell into the hands of invader and the whole of Punjab up to the bank of Indus was declared annexed to the Ghazni Empire.

Trilochanpala escaped once again and attempted to form an alliance with the Chandella King Vidyadhara of Kalinjar (Bundelkhand), a powerful ruler of his times. On his way, Trilochanpala was probably assassinated by some of his own selfish men who had become sick of his unending struggle against the Turks. His son Bhimapal outlived his father by six years without claiming any royal titles. Bhimapal died in 1026 thus bringing to an end the Hindushahi dynasty whose unsuccessful but repeated stands against Mahmud did a lot to check the advance of the Muslims in India.

Next on the agenda of Mahmud was the land of Rajputana. Leaving Ghazni in October 1024, he reached Anhilwara in January 1025. The Raja of Gujarat, Bhima Deo, fled from Anhilwara with his followers. It seems Mahmud liked the climate of Gujarat and wanted to shift his court from Ghazni to Anhilwara. However he abandoned the idea when his followers opposed it.

After plundering the city of Gujarat, Mahmud proceeded to Somanatha. The temple of Somanatha, with its Siva lingam, contained thousands of costly jewels and diamonds. Mahmud plundered the temple and looted its vast treasures.

Mahmud also broke the idol of Somanatha and its pieces were sent to Ghazni along with the looted riches. It seems the priests requested Mahmud not to break the idol of Somanatha, to which Mahmud’s reply was that he was known as idol-breaker (butshikan) and not idol seller.

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Mahmud returned to India for the last time in 1027 to punish the Jats in the lower valley of Indus, who harassed his army while they returning from Somanatha. Mahmud got constructed at Multan 1400 boats with pointed warheads for this purpose. The Jats used 4000 small boats against the invader but perished in the first naval action ever fought by Mahmud.

Mahmud died in 1030. The successors of Mahmud were not quite competent and their reign between 1030 and 1186 was a period of dissension, chaos and decay. These weak successors were unable to resist the raids of Seljuk Turks and finally the Ghurid prince Allaudin razed Ghazni and earned the title of Jahan-Soz (the world burner)

TABULAR REPRESENTATION OF THE CAMPAIGNS OF MAHMUD OF GAZNI IN INDIA

1 1000 A.D Hindushahi kingdom was attacked: border areas and some strategic forts occupied 2 1001-02 Peshawar and Waihind attacked Jaipal taken captive but released on payment of ransom 3 1004-05 Attack at the fort of Bhatiya (or Bhatia) situated on the trade route from the Khyber pass to Multan. Its ruler Baji or Biji Rai gave a heroic fight but was defeated. Instead of falling into the hands of invader he saved his honour by committing suicide. 4 1006 Multan attacked, Its ruler Fateh Daud sought help from Hindushahi Anandpal – both were defeated 5 1006-07 Biji Rai of Behra defeated. Behra handed over to Sukhpal who converted to Islam. Later, he repudiated Islam and was dismissed and taken prisoner 6 1008-09 Second battle of Waihind; Nagarkot plundered rulers of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi and Ajmer were also defeated 7 1009-10 Narayanpur, near Alwar (Rajasthan) was attacked. Its ruler was defeated and has to part with his entire treasury. 8 1010-11 Multan annexed. King Daud who had failed to act as faithful ally and reverted to old heretic practices was taken prisoner and deposed. Mahmud appointed a Turkish military officer as governor of Multan. 9 1011-12 Thaneshwar attacked 10 1013-14 Nandanah occupied 11 1015-16 Kashmir campaign proves abortive 12 1018-19 Kannauj plundered 13 1020-21 Kalinjar invaded 14 1021-22 Lahore invaded 15 1025-26 Plunder at Somnath 16 1027 Punitive campaign against Jats of Indus region

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La Excellence IAS MAHMUDS PATRONAGE TO SCHOLARS: Al-Beruni, the eleventh century philosopher, mathematician, scholar was in his court and accompanied Mahmud on one of his expeditions to India.

Utbi, Farabi, Baihaki, the Persian poet Ujari, Tusi, Ansari, Asjadi, Farrukhi and Firdausi who were leading scholars, poets and writers of the time were all at his court.

Utbi, regarded as a great literary figure at that time, was Mahmud’s court historian. His Kitab-ul-Yamni or Tarik-i-Yamini is a book on Mahmud’s life and times.

Firdausi, known as the immortal Homer of the East, wrote Shahanama, a panegyric immortalizing the name of Mahmud.

THE IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS MADE BY AL BERUNI

Abu’I Rayan or Al-Beruni (972-1048), the first prominent Muslim indologist was one of the greatest intellectuals of the eleventh century. He was born in Khwarizm. He was a man of encyclopedic learning who distinguished himself in the multifarious disciplines of science and literature of his day and acquired the fame as munujjim (astrologer cum astronomer). He was a theologian, philosopher, logician, mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer and physician- all rolled into one.

He accompanied Mahmud on one of his expeditions to India. He stayed in India for a number of years, studied Sanskrit and science and philosophy and on his return to Ghazni published an account of history, named Kitab al Hind, in Arabic, which is still regarded as a masterpiece. Assisted by the learned scholars of India he translated from Sanskrit a few Indian works on Astronomy, especially Paulisasiddhanta, Brihatsamhita and Laghujatakam of Varahmihira. He was greatly fascinated by . Probably it was he who first introduced the treasure of Sanskrit literature to the Islamic world.

Alberuni’s Kitab al Hind or Tahkik-i-Hind is the survey of Indian life based on his study and observations in India between 1017 and 1030. It is regarded as the first and most important discussion on India sciences, religion and society by an outsider. It is considered as the primary source of information about the socio-religious condition of India at the time of the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni.

Alberuni paints a very pathetic picture of the 11th century. He says that insularity and narrow mindedness at every level was the characteristic feature of India in the 11th century. The Indian are by nature niggardly in communicating what they know and they do not believe in exchange of ideas. They take the greatest possible care to with hold their knowledge from men of another caste, from among their own people, and even more from any outsider.

The closed attitude of society, lacking dynamism did not go untouched by Alberuni. Alberuni was of the opinion that the isolationist attitude of Indians was further buttressed by a false sense of superiority. The Indians believed that there is no country like theirs, no nation like theirs, no king like theirs, no religion like theirs, and no science like theirs. He further mentions that traveling to far off places was considered undesirable by the Brahmins and Foreigners were regarded as Mlechchhas or unclean.

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Alberuni mentions evil social practices within the Indian society like child-marriage, sati, and low position of women in general and widows in particular. He mentions that Hindus marry at a very young age. If a wife loses her husband due to death she cannot remarry. A widow has only two options, either to remain a widow as long as she lives, or to burn herself (Sati). The latter option was generally preferred because as a widow she was ill-treated.

Commenting on the Varna system he writes that Vaishyas were fast degenerating to the rank of Sudras. He notes the absence of any significant difference between the Vaishyas and the Sudras, who lived together in the same town and village and mixed together in the same house.

He also refers to a class of untouchables which existed in the society called antyaja. Alberuni lists eight antyaja castes below the status of the Sudras. Some of the names of untouchable castes that are mentioned by him are: Bhodhatu, Bhedas, Chandala, Doma, and Hadi.

Although Alberuni is critical of the scientific knowledge of Indians, sometimes he has praised their knowledge. The rich heritage of the past knowledge was highlighted by Alberuni. He referred to the various ‘’ and the progress made in astronomy and mathematics. He observes that “Hindus have numerous books about all the branches of science”. He provides us a long list of famous books on Indian astronomy, medicine, alchemy etc.

He also praises the weights and measure system and distance measurement system of Indians. He also notices the many variations of the Indian alphabets. He provides interesting geographical data and takes into account local astronomical and mathematical theories.

He made great effort to understand the Indian legal system. He notes every practical aspect of the legal system and points out the difference between these and the legal theories as expounded in the law books like Manusmriti.

Alberuni also mentions the belief of Indians upon the trinity gods (three deities of the Hindu religion). Alberuni had also learned all about the philosophy of the Upanishads and the Hindu concept of Transmigration of Soul. He explains that Indians believed that every act of this life will be rewarded or punished in the life to come, and the final emancipation of a human being is possible only through true knowledge.

THE INVASION OF MUHAMMAD OF GHUR

Shihab-ud-din (Later Muiz-ud-din Muhammad, or Muhammad of Ghur) was a great conqueror. After setting up his government in Ghazni (AD 1173) he directed his expeditions farther towards India. In 1175, he captured Multan and then Sindh. Three years later, he tried to penetrate into Gujarat but found the local Rajputs too strong for him. He was defeated by Mularaja, of Anhilwada and was repulsed with heavy loss in 1178. By 1182, however, the whole of Sindh was subdued. The next object of his attention was Lahore then ruled by Khusrau Malik, the last prince of the house of Ghazni. He captured Lahore, deposed Khusrau Malik and annexed the Punjab to his dominions.

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The Muslim rivals having been disposed of, Muhammad Ghur next turned to the conquest of the Hindu kingdoms. The Hindu princes, realizing the gravity of the situation, formed a confederacy and placed the allied army under the command of Prithviraj III. Prithviraj defeated the invading army at Tarain near Thaneswar in 1191. But in the second battle of Tarain in 1192, Prithviraj was defeated, captured and executed. Muhammad followed up his success by conquering Ajmer.

He then returned of Ghazni leaving the conduct of the Indian campaigns to his trusty slave, Qutbuddin Aibak. Qutbuddin captured Delhi, Meerut, Ranthambhor and Koil in 1193, and then advanced towards Benaras. The Sultan in the meantime returned from Ghazni and defeated Raja Jaichandra (or Jaichand) of Kannauj in the battle of Chandwar. Gwalior fell in 1196 and next fell Anhilwada. With the reduction of Kalanjar in 1203, the conquest of upper India was complete. By the time of Muhammad’s assassination in 1206, Bihar and Bengal were also conquered.

Causes of the defeat of Indian rulers by the Turks

CAUSES EXPLANATION Political causes disunity among the rulers; absence of powerful central authority; neglect of the frontiers; feudalism; absence of political insight Social Causes Divisions in the Hindu society due to caste and Varna system based upon birth. Religious Causes Spirit of Jihad meaning a crusade to protect and spread Islam Military causes Absence of appropriate military organization and military leadership; Overdependence of Indian rulers on elephants and swords against Turk’s use of superior horses, armoured horsemen, and mounted archers.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The architectural marvels of this period include the beautiful temples built by the Chandellas of Bundelkhand at Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh) in the 10th – 11th centuries and the Jaina and Hindu temples of the Chalukyas of Gujarat such as the Vimala, Tejapala, Vastupala, and the at Mt. Abu in Rajasthan. The Khajuraho temples are dedicated to Jaina, Vishnu and Siva.

The school of architecture of Chalukyas or Solankis flourished from the 11th to 13th centuries in Gujarat and Rajasthan. Their Hindu and Jaina temples were built on high platforms, an outstanding feature being the minute and lovely decorations. Among their other great monuments are the Jayastambha at Chittor (12th Century) and the Kirtistambha of Rana Kumbha at Chittor (12th Century).

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The sculpture of the Pala School has unique features such as a fine finish: figures decorated and polished so well as to appear as if they were made of metal rather than stone.

In painting, important schools of miniature art were the Pala school of Bengal and its counterpart, the Apabhramsa school in western India that continued to flourish upto the 15th century. The Pala illustrations on palm leaf, paper manuscripts and wooden covers were inspired by Vajrayana Buddhism and characterized by sinuous lines, subdued tones and simple compositions. The earlier phase of the Apabhramsa School, traced to roughly the 11th-13th centuries, is characterized by illustrated manuscripts in palm leaf.

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La Excellence IAS DELHI SULTANATE

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SULTANATE

By the end of the 12th century Muhammad Ghauri was successful in occupying Delhi and laying the foundation of the Muslim State in India. It now began to spread with rapidity, -ud-din Aibak; Muhammad Ghauri’s deputy in India captured Ajmer and Meerut and raided Anhilwada. By A.D 1204, Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji succeeded in carrying the Turkish banner into Bengal and established a provincial capital at Lakhnauti (Gaur).

In A.D, 1206, when Muhammad Ghauri was killed and Qutb-ud-din became ruler of Hindustan, the Sultanate included many of the important towns and strategic places in Northern India. The main reasons of the Muslim success in India were as under:  Absence of the any powerful central authority in India.  Disunity among the Rajputs  Mutual jealousy among the Rajputs  Lack of military system of Rajputs.  Religious zeal among the Muslims and lack of any unifying force among the Hindus.

DYNASTIC HISTORY OF SULTANATE

The period from 1206 to 1526 is known in Indian history as Sultanate of Delhi. During this period of over three hundred years, five dynasties (of 32 kings) ruled in Delhi 1. Ilbari Dynasty 1206-1290 2. Khilji Dynasty 1290-1320 3. Tughlaq Dynasty 1320-1414 4. Dynasty 1414-1450 5. Lodhi Dynasty 1451-1526 The rulers of all these dynasties were known as Delhi Sultanates and Qutb-ud-din Aibak was the first of them.

ILBARI DYNASTY (1206-1290)

The first dynasty of the Sultanate has been designated by various historians as the Slave Dynasty or the Mameluq Dynasty or the Ilbari Dynasty. It is incorrect to call the Dynasty as the Slave Dynasty because out of the nine rulers of this dynasty only three i.e. Qutbuddin Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban were slaves during their early life and they too had been manumitted by their masters long before assuming the sovereign powers. The term Mameluq signifies a “slave born to the free parents” but the connotation of Slavery nevertheless persists. Therefore the term Ilbari has gained wide recognition as all rulers of this dynasty except Qutbuddin, belonged to the Ilbari tribe of Turks.

QUTUB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206-1210)

He was the founder of Ilbari Dynasty. He was originally a Turkish slave. He was bought by Muhammad Ghauri and gradually rose to be his trusted general on account of his soldierly abilities. He helped Muhammad Ghauri in the conquest of India. So when the latter returned to Ghazni, he left Qutb-ud-din as his viceroy in 1206. When Muhammad Ghauri

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La Excellence IAS died, his successor, Ghiyasuddin Mahmud, acknowledged Qutbuddin as the independent king and gave him the title of SULTAN of Delhi. Thus he was the first Muslim king in India, but his achievements as king were not as solid as his achievements as viceroy.

Qutbuddin was also a great builder. He began the construction of Quwwat-ul-Islam (Delhi), Arhai Din Ka Jhopra (a mosque at Ajmer) and Qutb Minar, 72 ½ meters (238 feet) stone tower in Delhi (after the name of Khwaja Qutb-ud-din), a Muslim saint. The construction of Qutb Minar was finally completed by Iltutmish, his successor. For his generosity he was known as lakh bakhsh or “giver of Lakhs”. In 1210, while playing Chaugan (Polo) at Lahore, he fell off his horse and died of injuries.

SHAMS-UD-DIN ILTUTMISH (1211-1230)

Iltutmish was a slave of Qutb-ud-din Aibak. By sheer ability he rose to be his son-in-law and the Governor of Badaun. In 1211, he deposed Aram Shah, the successor of Qutb-ud- din and became king himself. He ruled for a quarter of a century and proved a very strong and worthy ruler and completed the work of Aibak.

As soon as Iltutmish came to the throne he had to face many difficulties. Many governors had declared themselves independent, (i) Taj-ud-din Yalduz in the Punjab and Ghazni, (ii) Nasir-ud-din Qabacha in Sind and Multan, and (iii) Ali Mardan Khilji in Bengal had raised in revolt. Iltutmish first of all suppressed them and brought all these Muslim chiefs under subjugation. Their territories (Punjab, Sind, and Bengal) were annexed to the Delhi Empire.

Several Rajput chiefs were seething with discontent. They tried to regain their lost independence. So Iltutmish turned his attention towards the Rajputs. In eight years, between 1226 and 1234 A.D, he conquered Ranthambhor, Mandu, Gwalior, Malwa, Bhilsa, Ujjain, etc. thus he established his sway over nearly the whole of northern India. In 1229 Iltutmish got investiture from the Caliph of Baghdad

A notable event of the reign of Iltutmish is that for the first time the Mongols came as far the frontiers of India. In 1221, the Mongol chief, Changez Khan, one of the mightiest conquerors the world has ever seen, reached the Indus in pursuit of an enemy Jalal-ud- din, King of Khwarizm or Khiva. Iltutmish at this time saved the Sultanate by refusing to give any shelter to Jalal-ud-din. Thus Changez Khan went away after plundering the territory to the west of the river. India was thus, saved from a calamity.

Iltutmish died in 1236. He was admittedly the greatest ruler of the slave dynasty. He consolidated his conquests and strengthened his rule over Northern India and carried the Muslim rule up to Ujjain. He was both a good general and an able administrator. He issued the coins of Silver (Tanka) and Copper (Jittal) to facilitate trade and commerce. These coins being the first purely Arabic coins issued from Delhi. He further organized the Iqta system, the nobility in the form of Turkan-i-chhahalgani or chalisa or group of forty and the Army, which was now centrally recruited and paid. Thus he is considered to be the real founder of the Sultanate, for Qutb-ud-din Aibak did not live long to consolidate his dominions.

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La Excellence IAS RAZIA BEGUM (1236-1240)

Iltutmish nominated his daughter Razia, as his successor. But the nobles of the court disregarded his wishes and placed his son, Ruknuddin Firoz shah on the throne. The new ruler proved to be worthless and was soon set aside in favour of Razia Begum.

Razia was a capable daughter of Iltutmish. She was the first and the only Muslim lady who ever sat on the throne of Delhi. Even during the life-time of her father, she had acquired sufficient experience in state affairs, for whenever Iltutmish went out on distant expeditions, he entrusted the task of government to Razia.

Razia was a woman of uncommon talents. She was very noble, wise, intelligent, just and brave, and looked after her people well. She assumed the title of Sultan and held her court attired in the male dress and commanded the army herself. She revised the laws and reformed the abuses of the government. In fact, she possessed all the virtues necessary in a king. But it was her misfortune that she was a woman.

On her inscriptions and coins Razia mentioned that she was the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish. This was in contrast to the queen Rudramadevi (1262-1289), of the of Warangal, part of modern Andhra Pradesh. Rudramadevi changed her name on her inscriptions and pretended she was a man. Another queen, Didda, ruled in Kashmir (980-1003). Her title is interesting: it comes from “didi” or “elder sister”, an obviously affectionate term given to a loved ruler by her subjects

Raziya’s firmness and desire to exercise power directly did not please the nobles of the court. Her nobles thought it beneath their dignity to be ruled by a woman. Moreover, she began to show special favours to one Jamal-ud-din Yakut, an Abyssinian slave, who was given the important office of the superintendent of the royal stables. Again, the orthodox Muslims were displeased with her for her public appearance without a veil.

For these reasons the Governors of Lahore and Bhatinda revolted. Altunia, the rebel Governor of Bhatinda, took Razia prisoner when she went to put down the revolt. She was imprisoned in the Bhatinda Fort which stands to this day. Meanwhile her enemies put her brother Bahram on the throne. But Razia married Altunia, and with his help tried to regain the throne of Delhi. In this object she was not successful, and she and her husband were both murdered near Kaithal in 1240.

Razia was succeeded, one after another, by two kings, viz. Bahram, her brother and Ala- ud-din Masud, her nephew, but both of them were deposed on account of incompetence and then Nasir-ud-din came to the throne.

NASIR-UD-DIN MAHMUD (1246-1266)

Nasir-ud-din was the son of Iltutmish. He was very gentle, studious and pious, and on account of his simple habits is known in history as the Darvesh King. He did not take a single pie from the state treasury for his own use and earned his living by writing copies of holy Koran and selling them.

Fortunately, Nasir-ud-din had entrusted all the work of the Government to his minister, Balban, who proved very efficient. Balban got his daughter married to Nasir-ud-din in 1249,

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La Excellence IAS thus strengthening his position. In fact Balban was the real ruler, during the reign of Nasir- ud-din. He was assigned the post of Naib-i-mamlakat (vice regent) and got the title of Ulugh Khan

Balban proved a very wise and extremely capable minister. He faithfully served the Sultan for twenty years and by his vigorous policy kept the empire intact, and restored peace and order. In 1266, when Nasir-ud-din died, Balban succeeded to the throne. Some historians are of the opinion that the Sultan was poisoned by Balban.

GHIAS-UD-DIN BALBAN (1266-1287)

Balban was the most remarkable ruler among the Ilbari’s of the Delhi Sultanate. The two major tasks for Balban were Firstly, to restore the prestige of the Sultan and secondly, to provide security to the Delhi Sultanate and consolidate it further. He achieved considerable success in both.

For about thirty years, the successors of Iltutmish were rather weak and incompetent, and there was disorder and chaos in the country. The Mewati Rajputs were plundering the country around Delhi and bands of robbers had made life, property and trade unsafe in the Doab. So Balban turned his attention towards them. He also built several forts to keep them under control. Thus he freed the roads from robbers and restored peace and order in his country.

There were some Muslim nobles who were very powerful and it was a problem to keep them under control. They were known as the chhahalgani. They were appointed to high posts and were a real danger to the power of Sultan. But Balban proved more than a match for them and completely broke their power.

The most important event of the reign of Balban was the suppression of the Bengal revolt. Tughril Khan, the Governor of Bengal, declared his independence under the impression that the king was very old and his province is far away from Delhi. He even defeated two royal armies sent against him.

At last Balban himself marched against him at the head of a strong force. Balban’s younger son, Bughra Khan, also accompanied him. Tughril Khan left his capital, Lakhnauti, and fled to the forests of Jajnagar (Orissa), but was defeated and killed. Balban ordered his followers to be hanged and this filled the hearts of the people with terror. He now appointed his son Bughra Khan as governor of Bengal, but at the same time gave him a stern warning that if he ever took it into his head to revolt, he would share the fate of Tughril Khan.

In order to strengthen himself Balban organized the Diwan-i-arz and created a network of Spies called Barids. Diwan-i-arz was a central military department under which a strong central army was created. Through his Army and spy network who kept surveillance over events taking place in his kingdom, he was able to consolidate his position.

Balban believed in racial superiority. He claimed to be a descendent of Afrasiyab. Balban reserved his high offices for the Illbari Turks of noble birth. The well-known and Persian poet Amir Khusrau (1235-1325) who was called the Parrot of India adorned his court.

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La Excellence IAS His greatest achievements are that he saved the Turkish Empire from Mongol invasion, raised the prestige of the crown and gave the country absolute peace and security. In 1285 A.D. the Mongols, under their leader Tamar, invaded the Punjab. Prince Muhammad was killed in a battle against them. The terrible shock of the death of his favourite son proved too much for the Sultan and he died in 1287, in Delhi.

BALBAN’S THEORY OF KINGSHIP

Balban was the first SULTAN of Delhi to propound a “Theory of Kingship”. This has been discussed at length by Barani in the Tarikh-e-Firozshahi. It was inspired by the political ideas of Sassanid rulers and it helped in enhancing the power and elevating the prestige of the crown.

Balban projected monarchy as semi divine institution. He maintained that kinships was the Niyabat-i-Khudai or the vice regency of god. According to Balban, king rose to his office through divine will and he was accountable only to god, as such he enjoyed unlimited and unrestrained power.

He also-maintained that “kingship knows no kinship” and while performing his duties as a ruler he raised above all consideration of personal and family ties Thus Balban’s theory of kingship was based on Power, Prestige and Justice.

Balban reorganized the royal court. The Iranian ritual and custom were introduced by him. The Iranian festival of “Nauroz” or New Year was celebrated in the court. The nobles at the court had to perform Sijda (Prostration) before the king and Paibos (Kissing of the feet). He also prescribed a dress code. Nobody could attend the court except in proper dress. Balban himself attended the court in gorgeous clothes surrounded by ferocious looking body guard. He did this in order to impress upon the people his power and dignity.

The court rules of Balban were very strict. He never laughed aloud nor did he allow any courtier to laugh in his presence. Entry to the court in a drunken state was banned. The nobles were not allowed to talk when court was in session. Only serious matters regarding the state were to be taken in discussion. Thus Balban made conscious efforts to maintain the decorum and decency of the court.

Balban’s concept of kingship becomes clearer when we come to understand his notions about the essentials of kingship. According to him the three essentials were Army, Treasury and Nobles and the means of success was Justice, Beneficence, Pomp and Show.

The theory of kingship developed by Balban contributed to his success as a ruler. It helped him in the creation of a powerful monarchy, which enabled Balban to overcome the major problem that lay before him. It was due to the theory of kingship that he was able to solve other problem.

KAIQUBAD (1287-1290)

Balban was succeeded by his grandson, Kaikubad, the son of Bughra Khan, governor of Bengal. He was very indolent and luxury-loving. In 1290, Firoz Shah, the governor of Punjab, got him killed and became king under the title of Jalal-ud-din Khalji. Thus the Khilji dynasty began in Delhi.

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Figure 1: INDIA AT THE END OF ILBARI DYNASTY

KHILJI DYNASTY (1290-1320)

The coming of Khaljis to power was more than a dynastic change. Khaljis were basically Central Asians in origin. The most elemental influence upon them came from central Asia´s Iranian population of Khurasan who Islamized them and taught them the Khurasanian´s urbane culture, language and civilization. Later they came in contact with the native ruling class, the and Ghurids, and lived in Afghanistan for so long that they adopted certain Afghan custom and social traditions. Therefore the court of Khalji’s was of multi- ethnical background, filled with ministers, Wazir’s, poets, writers, teachers etc. of Persian, Indian, Arab and Turkic origin. In this context the rise of Khalji to the throne of Delhi Sultanate marked on end to the monopolization of power by Illbari Turks and racial dictatorship and also led to the widening of the social base of the ruling class. Muhammad bin Bakhtiar Khalji, one of the slaves of Muhammad Ghori conquered Bihar and Bengal regions of India in the late 12th century. He reached as far as the Buddhist Monastery of Odantapuri (Bihar), where he slaughtered the Buddhist monks and seized the town. Unfortunately he was soon assassinated by one of his own commanders. From this time, the Khaljis served under the Ilbari dynasty of Delhi.

The founder of the in India, Malik Firuz, was originally the Ariz-i-Mumalik appointed by Kaiqubad during the days of decline of the Ilbari Dynasty. He took advantage of the political vacuum that was created due to the incompetence of the successors of Balban. On June 13 1290, Malik Firuz ascended the throne of Delhi as Jalal-ud-din Firuz Shah.

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La Excellence IAS The coming of the Khaljis to power is known as the Khalji revolution because they initiated a higher imperialism and their rule represents a shift towards militarism. The policy of consolidation without expansion ended. With the rise of Khaljis began a new phase of expansion. Territorial expansion during Khaljis was unprecedented. The result being, conquest and penetration of the Delhi Sultanate in southern India which in one sense ended of the cultural isolation of south and led to the diffusion of Islamic ideas in southern India.

JALAL-UD-DIN KHILJI (1290-1296)

The Khalji Turks were not recognized by the older nobility, of Delhi Sultanate, as coming from a pure Turkic stock because the Khalji’s had adopted certain non Turk (Afghan) customs and manners. As majority of the Muslim population of Delhi was Turk, the arrival of a Khalji ruler was not much welcomed. Yet Jalal-ud-din managed to win the hearts of the people through his mildness and generosity.

When Sultan Jalal-ud-din Khalji came to the throne, he was seventy years of age. By nature he was extremely mild and generous. For this reason there were several revolts, but they were all put down. Mongols also invaded India in 1292, but they were repulsed. Some Mongols embraced Islam and settled near Delhi. These converts came to be known as “New Musalmans”. One important event of his reign was the invasion of Devagiri, in 1294, by his nephew, Ali Gurshasp or Ala-ud-din.

Jalal-ud-din appointed his nephew Ala-ud-din (who was also his son-in-law) as governor of Kara. Ala-ud-din was a brave and daring young man. He made up his mind to invade Devagiri of whose immense riches he had heard much. At the head of 8000 horse he invaded the Deccan, and made a sudden attack on Ramchandradeva, Raja of Devagiri. The Raja having been taken by surprise was defeated and was obliged to pay a heavy tribute besides ceding the territory of Ellichpur. Ala-ud-din returned to Kara laden with immense booty. When Jalal-ud-din heard of the victory of his nephew, he went to Kara to meet him. But Ala- ud-din had evil designs. He wanted to capture the throne of Delhi. At the time of meeting Jalal-ud-din was murdered (1146), and Ala-ud-din declared himself as the new Sultan.

Jalal-ud-din Khalji was the first Sultan of Delhi who clearly put forward the view that the state should be based on willing support of the governed, and that the state should look after the welfare of its subjects.

ALA-UD-DIN KHILJI (1296-1316)

Ala-ud-din Khalji was the greatest ruler of the Khilji Dynasty and was the first Muslim ruler to extend his empire right up to the extreme south of India. The power and the influence of the Delhi Sultanate reached its highest point under him. Ala-ud-din succeeded in concentrating all power of the state in his own hands. Therefore, the period marked the zenith of despotic government as well.

He ascended the throne in 1296, after killing his uncle. He won over the nobles and ministers by bribes and lavish presents. Then he freely distributed money among the people so that they might forget the murder of Jalal-ud-din and support him.

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La Excellence IAS Ala-ud-din reigned for about twenty years. He was a very powerful and successful monarch. He (i) made some conquests in northern India, (ii) established Muslim power in the Deccan, (iii) repulsed Mongol invasions and introduced many reforms in the administration.

His first military operation was directed against Gujarat, which he conquered in 1297. His generals Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan defeated the ruler, Raja Karan. This conquest is notable for two reasons. Firstly, he married Raja’s wife Kamla Devi and Secondly Malik Kafur, a Hindu slave who was captured here, proved to be the conqueror of the Deccan for the Sultan

He then turned his armies against strong fortress of Ranthambhor. His first attempt failed and the place was stoutly defended for a year after which it fell in 1301. Next he conquered Chittor after a long siege. Rajput women, including Padmini, saved their honour by throwing themselves in the funeral pyre, by performing the rite of Jauhar in 1303. In 1305 Ala-ud-din captured Malwa.

But the most notable campaigns of the reign of Ala-ud-din were those directed against the Deccan, the scene of Ala-ud-din’s early exploits. The Deccan expeditions were conducted by Malik Kafur. His campaigns lasted from 1302 to 1311, in the course of which he overran and subjugated the Kakatya kingdom of Warangal, the Hoyasala kingdom of Karnataka with its capital at Dwarasamudra and the Yadava kingdom of Devagiri as well as the Malabar and Coromondel coasts. Malik Kafur returned to Delhi in 1311 with an almost incredible amount of spoils. After defeating the ruler of Devagiri, Ala-ud-din captured Deval Devi (the daughter of Kamla Devi) and got her married with his son Khizr Khan.

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FIGURE 2: THE CONQUESTS OF ALAUDDIN KHALJI

Ala-ud-din was a typical war-lord. His policy was to maintain a firm holds on the country and to suppress all opposition or disaffection with ruthless severity. He is said to have formulated his policy as follows: “I do not know whether this is lawful or not; whatever I think to be for the good of the state or opportune for , that I decree”. In other words, he wanted to rule with unchecked despotism and he never scrupled to take any step, no matter however drastic, in dealing with the problems that demanded his attention. In this context he set aside the interference of Ulemas in the discharge of the state duties

His internal administration best illustrates this rough and ready policy. A series of plots and insurrections during the early years of his reign convinced him of the necessity of

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La Excellence IAS taking drastic measures against his nobles with a view to reducing them to complete impotence. So in order to suppress revolts he adopted the following measures.  He strictly forbade drinking in the Capital and in its neighborhood. All wine shops were closed down. Those who disobeyed this law were heavily punished. The Sultan himself gave up drinking.  He forbade parties and marriage relations among the nobles without his permission, so that they might not hatch any plot.  He confiscated many jagirs and estates and stopped all pensions and allowances. When he found a man growing very rich, he seized his wealth.  He established a network of spies all over his kingdom. If any spy was found careless, he was given an exemplary punishment. So great was the dread of these spies that the nobles were afraid to talk freely even in their homes and sometimes they communicated by signs, and signals.

Ala-ud-din effected many economic reforms, such as:  He levied very high taxes. In the Doab, i.e., the territory between the Ganga and the Jamuna, the Sultan fixed land revenue at half of the produce and it was realized in kind.  Suppression of the hereditary revenue collectors (khut, Muqaddam and chaudhari)  Adoption of the system of measurement of land for determining land revenue  Establishment of the new department known as “Diwan-i-Mustakraj” to look after revenue administration. The revenue was collected with great severity.  He also levied taxes on houses (ghari) and cattle (charai).  He fixed low rates of corn and other articles of daily use.  He introduced a system of price control and rationing. The merchant who charged a higher price or gave short weight was heavily punished.  All goods for sale were to be brought to an open market called the Sarai Adl.  Private hoarding of grain was not allowed.

Perhaps the most remarkable aspect of Ala-ud-din’s reforms was that of price control and market regulations. The main purpose of such a measure was to maintain a large and efficient Army. The significance of Alauddin Khalji price control lays not so much in the low prices as in the effective enforcement of a uniform price lines in the markets.

So far as the actual control of prices was concerned, Alauddin Khalji established four different kinds of markets and issued a very comprehensive list which includes all possible articles of consumption. These articles were to be sold in the market at the price fixed by the state. Such a comprehensive control required strict vigilance and for this purpose, Alauddin Khalji set up a new department known as “Diwan-i-Riyasat”. Each market was put under the charge of Shuhna or controller of the market. The controller of the grain market was known as Shuhna-i-Mandi

The setting up of a specified market also indicates that Alauddin Khalji wanted to keep a regular check over the merchants who used to come to the capital from different parts of the kingdom. It was with this aim that he took two definite steps:  First he ordered the supervisor (Shuhna) of the market to maintain a register of names of merchants both Hindus and Muslims belonging to the city of Delhi as well as the neighbouring regions, and also to take an undertaking from them that they would sell at government rates all commodities that they bring to the market.

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 Secondly, he gave Loans to the rich Multan merchants up to the extent of 20 Lakh Tankas so as to facilitate them for purchasing cloth from different parts of the Empire, where they were produced, and to bring them for sale in the Sarai-adl (cloth market). By this method he not only succeeded in procuring the products of different places at their local rates but also succeeded in maintaining a constant supply.

The Sultan ordered that the land revenue from the Khalisa land and the region of Doab should be collected in kind and sent to Delhi through caravans (Banjaras) where it was stocked in royal granaries so that it could be used in during scarcity, created due to famine or any other natural or man made calamity.

Ala-ud-din reformed the army also.  To put down internal revolts and repulse Mongol invasions, the Sultan maintained a large standing army consisting mainly of able young men. The soldiers were paid salaries in cash  Ala-ud-din also introduced the system of preparing the descriptive rolls of soldiers (huliya or chehra) and branding the horses (daag) to check false musters and corruption.  He laid emphasis on direct recruitment of the soldiers by Arz-i-Mamalik  Like Balban, he built several forts on the north-west frontier and repaired old ones.

Like many previous Sultans, Ala-ud-din patronised learning and architecture. There were many great poets at his court. Both Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlvi enjoyed his patronage. The sultan erected many new buildings. He built a new city called Siri, enlarged the Qutabi mosque and erected a gateway. He also built the Jamait Khana Masjid at the dargah of Nizam-ud-din Auliya, and Alai Darwaza near Qutb Minar. He began the construction of a gigantic minar (Alai Minar) near Qutb Minar but could not finish it.

Ala-ud-din was in fact one of the greatest generals. He is said to have been poisoned by Malik Kafur. He died in January 1316.

QUTB-UD-DIN MUBARAK KHILJI

After the death of Ala-ud-din, his favourite, Kafur, tried to usurp the throne. He placed Shihab-ud-din Omar, an infant son of the late Sultan, on the throne and himself became his regent. But this regency did not last long. He was murdered after five weeks. Now Mubarak Shah, another son of Ala-ud-din, set aside his brother and ascended the throne and ruled for four years. But he turned out to be incompetent and left the work of Government in the hands of one Khusrau Khan, a low caste Hindu convert.

Khusrau Khan, in 1320, murdered his master and himself became the ruler under the name of Nasir-ud-din. But he too proved a great tyrant and people soon grew tired of his misrule. So Ghazi Tughlaq, the Governor of the Punjab, at the head of a large army marched against him. Khusrau Khan was defeated and beheaded, and Ghazi Tughlaq became the ruler under the title of Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq. Thus within five years after the death of Ala- ud-din, the Khilji dynasty came to an end.

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Figure 3: INDIA AT THE END OF KHALJI DYNASTY

TUGHLAK DYNASTY (1320-1414 A.D)

The Tughlaq’s were a Muslim family of Turkic origin. Though Tughlaq is a personal name (not referring to any tribe or family), it is customary to use the name Tughlaq to denote an entire dynasty. The Tughlaq’s provided three competent rulers- Ghiyas-ud-din, Muhammad- bin-Tughlaq and Firuz Shah Tughlaq

GHIAS-UD-DIN TUGHLAQ (1320-1325)

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was the founder of the Tughlaq Dynasty. His father was a Turk and mother was a Jat woman of the Punjab, he was a very able and merciful king. Before he came to throne, he was the governor of the Punjab. During his reign, he strengthened the defense of the north-western frontier in order to check the Mongol invasions. He also built the city of Tughlakabad, near Delhi. He conquered Warangal which had become independent during the reign of Ala-ud-din. He also put down a revolt in Bengal. Thus he restored order in some of his provinces.

When he came back after suppressing the revolt of Bengal, the wooden pavilion, which his son Juna Khan had built at Afghanpur near Delhi to receive him, suddenly collapsed and he died. Some historians are of the opinion that the death of the sultan was due to the Conspiracy hatched by his son, Juna Khan. Ghiyas-ud-din was succeeded by his son Juna Khan, under the title of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.

MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ (1325-1351)

Juna Khan, better known as Muhammad Tughlaq, ascended the throne in 1325, on the death of his father Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq.

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Muhammad Tughlaq was perhaps the most striking figure in Medieval India. His character has been described as a ‘mixture of opposites’. A gifted man with good qualities of head and heart, he proved to be the scourage of God to the people of India. He was an accomplished scholar, an accomplished calligraphist and eloquent speaker. He knew both Arabic and Persian and had comprehensive knowledge of Philosophy, Astronomy, Logic and Mathematics. He established hospitals and alms houses and was noted for his boundless generosity. He built the Fortress of Adilabad and the city of Jahanpanah

The Sultan maintained good relation with foreigners and received an envoy from the Chinese ruler, Toghan Timur (1341), who came to seek permission to rebuild Buddhist Monasteries, in the Himalayan region which were destroyed during the Qarachil expedition. The sultan gave the permission and sent Ibn Batutah to the court of Chinese emperor in 1347. Ibn Batutah was a traveler from Morocco. He came to India in 1333 and was appointed as the chief Qazi of Delhi by Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. He has left an invaluable account of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s reign.

However as a king Muhammad Tughlaq was quite unsuccessful and was very unpopular. He had good ideas but he could not execute them well. Some of the measures which made him unpopular and also brought great misery to the people are:

(a). Heavy Taxation: The Sultan raised the land revenue in the Doab and imposed many other taxes. Unfortunately, the rain failed with the result that there was a terrible famine in the country which lasted for several years. But these taxes were collected rigorously by the officials of the Sultan. This led to the impoverishment of Peasants in rural areas. Thus many farmers left their lands and went to jungles. Later, the Sultan did his best to mitigate the distress caused by the famine. He created an Agricultural department called “Diwan-i- Kohi”. Its main objective was to bring the uncultivated land under cultivation by giving direct financial support from the state treasury. The loans advanced to the agriculturists were known as Sondhar. He distributed food to the people of Delhi, and ordered wells to be sunk, but all this help came too late. The lands were ruined and agriculture suffered a lot.

(b). Transfer of Capital: Muhammad Tughlaq brought the Deccan under his direct rule. He thus ruled over a vast empire. He thought that he could manage it better if he moved his capital to Devagiri which had the further advantage of being at a safe distance from the route of the Mongols. He, therefore, made Devagiri his capital and renamed it Daulatabad. But instead of being contented with transferring the government offices alone, he ordered the inhabitants of Delhi to move to Daulatabad, bag and baggage. He carried out his orders with great severity, so much so that Delhi was completely ruined.

It is true that he got a road built from Delhi to Devagiri, to a distance of about 1100 kms, and provided every facility for the journey. The poor were given free food and accommodation. Still thousands of people, wearied with fatigue, died on the way. Shortly after, finding that he is unable to manage the affairs of the northern regions of his Empire from Daulatabad, he ordered the people to go back to Delhi. This project of Sultan caused immense suffering to the people and much money was wasted.

(c). Plans for the invasion of Iran and China: The Sultan wanted to conquer Iran. So he mustered a vast army numbering about 370,000 cavalry, and paid them the salary of one

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La Excellence IAS year in advance. But he could not carry out his design on account of certain difficulties and finally disbanded the army. Later he tried to extend control over Qarachil, which was situated on the foothills of the Himalayas, and sent an Army of 100,000 soldiers to conquer the area. The campaign however ended in a fiasco and large number of soldiers died. Moreover the expedition proved very costly and caused a great loss to the treasury.

(d). Copper Coins: One of the unique reforms of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (Prince of Moneyers) was related to the introduction of token currency. He ordered the Tanka to be minted in bronze instead of silver and fixed the value of the new bronze coins at par with the silver Tanka. It has been suggested that the sultan had heard about the introduction of Token paper currency in China and Iran and decided to go for the same in his kingdom.

The token coins did not bear any special distinctive marks. Consequently spurious and counterfeit coins were minted by unscrupulous people. These were readily circulated in the market and it became virtually impossible to distinguish the real coin from the fake ones. The people thus refused to accept the token coins and the scheme had to be abandoned. The treasury was thus further depleted.

The failure of the schemes of the Sultan caused a crisis in the empire. The political stability and economic prosperity of the empire began to disintegrate. Revolts broke out throughout the country. Bengal, Sind, Oudh, Multan, Gujarat and the Deccan all rose in revolt. The Sultan spent the last 16 years of his 26 years rule in suppressing those revolts, but could not put down all of them. Bengal and the Deccan became independent. In 1334, Madurai and then Warangal declared their independence. In the Deccan, two new states, Viz, the Vijayanagar Kingdom and the Bahmani Kingdom were set up in 1336 and 1347 respectively. Finally, in 1351, while the Sultan was pursuing a rebel chief in Sind he died near Thatta. The chiefs elected his cousin, Firoz Tughlaq, to be their king.

FIROZ TUGHLAQ (1351-1388)

Firoz was the cousin of Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq. After the death of Muhammad Tughlaq he was chosen Sultan by the nobles and, therefore, ascended the throne.

Firoz tried to bring Bengal back to the allegiance of Delhi. He led two expeditions against the king of Bengal but could not achieve much success. At last in 1360, he arranged terms of peace by which he recognized the independence of Bengal. He also indirectly acknowledged the independence of Bahamani king by receiving an embassy from him. Firoz next turned to Sind in order to reconquer Thatta. His first attempt was a miserable failure but he renewed his efforts and starved the ruler of Thatta into surrender. This was the only victorious exploit of his reign. But it was a victory without result; Sind was not annexed but was allowed to be governed by the relatives of the late ruler. Firoz did his best for the peace and prosperity of his subjects, and carried out many reforms and works of public utility with the help of his able Minister-Khan Jehan Maqbool– a Hindu convert. He especially looked after the development of trade and agriculture because the country had suffered a great economic set-back in the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq. Firoz Tughlaq paid special attention to irrigation. He constructed many dams and dug four canals from the Jamuna and the Sutlej and also got restored the old tanks. The present Western Jamuna Canal follows the track of Firoz Tughlaq’s canal. Expert engineers were employed to look after the irrigation works.

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La Excellence IAS Firuz mitigated the severity of the criminal Law by abolishing torture and mutilation as a form of punishment. He traced the victims of Muhammad Tughlaq’s tyranny and relieved their distress. Moreover, he waived off all debts which the late Sultan had advanced to the agriculturists and reduced the rates of land revenue.

The Sultan was a patron of learning. Barani and Afif wrote noteworthy historical accounts during his reign. Firuz Shah himself authored the Fatuhat-i-Firuz Shahi. He also got several Sanskrit works translated into English. He opened numerous schools and colleges for the spread of education and fixed allowances for the learned Maulvis. He opened an employment bureau which arranged work for the unemployed and the poor. He sanctioned pensions for the old.

He established a separate department called “Diwan-i-Khairat”, i.e., ‘Charity bureau’ for the help of the poor and the needy, especially widows and orphans. The department also arranged for the marriages of the poor Muslim girls. Dowries were provided for them. He established a charitable hospital or Darul-shafa at Delhi, where free medicines and food were supplied to the patients, and qualified physicians attended to them.

Firuz is also credited with organizing the institution of slavery into a system. He had in his service large numbers of Slaves and took special care to maintain and educate them and utilize their services as soldiers, bodyguards and artisans. The slaves were employed in Royal Karkhanas and were associated with production activities. The varieties of goods produced by these slaves were brought for sale in the open market. He established a separate department, Diwan-i-Bandagan, for the welfare of his Slaves. But soon the numbers of slave grew very large (180,000), and they became a heavy burden on exchequer.

Firuz based his policy of taxation according to the Islamic law of Shariat. As such, he abolished all the taxes, except four i.e. Kharaj, Zakat, Jaziya, and Khams. He was the first Sultan to impose Jaziya even on the Brahmans who had so far been exempt from this tax. He also levied an irrigation tax at 10% of the produce on all those who made use of the state canal waters. He reduced Octroi duties which had greatly hampered trade. Thus trade and agriculture flourished and the country grew rich and enjoyed prosperity. The revenue of the state also increased.

Surprisingly for a man of humanitarian actions Firuz showed religious intolerance especially in the later years of his reign. He again restored the power and prestige of the Ulemas in order to have their support. He forbade the public worship of idols and erection of new temples or repair of old ones. He is reported to have demolished Hindu temples. He is also supposed to have burnt a Brahmin for preaching Muslims.

In administration the reign of Firuz witnessed certain declining trends. He reintroduced the system of Jagirs or grant of lands with its revenue to his military officers in lieu of cash salaries. The Iqtas granted to the officials were made hereditary. Moreover, he made the official posts almost hereditary. This hampered the efficiency and effectiveness of the administrative set up of the Sultanate.

Firoz Tughlaq was a great builder, the greatest among the Tughlaq’s. He took special interest in constructing buildings. He was the first Muslim king to under to undertake works of public utility. He is credited with no less than 845 public works. He founded new cities,

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La Excellence IAS built mosques, hospitals, forts, tombs, inns, roads, palaces, dams, aqueducts, public baths, bridges etc. he also established schools, colleges, hospitals and opened alms-houses for the poor and the needy. Of the cities which he founded, the more important were Ferozabad (Now called Kotla Ferozshah) the capital city, near Delhi, Hissar Feroza (now called Hissar), Fatehabad (in Haryana) and Jaunpur (U.P). He brought to Delhi two of the Ashokan Pillars.

Besides, the Sultan was a great lover of gardens. He is said to have laid out 1200 fruit gardens near Delhi and many more at other places. He also restored thirty old gardens of Ala-ud-din Khilji. These gardens were a source of income to the government.

Firuz died of old age in 1388. His last years were full of tragedies, troubles and turmoil. During these years the royal powers remained concentrated in the hands of ambitious and arrogant hereditary Prime Minister Khan-i-Jahan Juna Khan while the war of Succession for the throne went on alongside. The process of decay and disintegration of the Sultanate, which had began during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, gained momentum under Firuz, and within two decades of his death the Sultanate of Delhi was reduced to a regional principality. The successors of Firuz were weak and wielded neither substantial sovereign power nor had sufficient territories under their effective control.

Figure 3: THE TUGHLAQ EMPIRE

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INVASION OF TIMUR AND DOWNFALL OF THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY

The successors of Firoz Shah were weak and incompetent. They were merely king in name and acted as puppets in the hands of their ministers. His grandson, Tughlaq Shah, who succeeded him in September 1388 assumed the title of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq II. Within a year of his accession, he fell victim to the court intrigue and was beheaded in early 1398. During the next five years three Sultans- Abu Bakar, and Alauddin Sikander Shah ascended the throne. Then followed Nasiruddin Mahmud the last Sultan of the, dynasty. By that time, the Tughlaq Empire had disintegrated. The Delhi Sultanate had lost all distant provinces and independent kingdoms had been established in Khandesh, Gujarat, Malwa, Rajasthan, Bundelkhand, Jaunpur and even Punjab.

In these conditions, Timur, the ruler of Central Asia and the conqueror of Persia, Afghanistan and Mesopotamia invaded India. His primary object was to plunder the wealth of India, though he described that his other aim was to fight against the infidels. Timur started from his capital, Samarqand in April 1398 and reached the vicinity of Delhi in December 1398. Nasiruddin Mahmud fought a battle against him outside Delhi but was easily defeated. Timur remained in Delhi for fifteen days, massacred thousands of people, enslaved thousands of them and plundered the city thoroughly. On January 1, 1399, he started his return journey. Before leaving India, he appointed Khizr Khan as governor of Multan, Lahore and Dipalpur who finally captured Delhi and founded the rule of his dynasty, The .

As a consequence of Timur invasion Indian art found its way in central Asia, as he took a large number of skilled artisans as captives. Timur’s invasion paved the way for Mughal conquest. Babur was a descendant of Timur and he claimed the throne of Delhi partly on that account.

Before Nasiruddin Mahmud died, people said satirically of the extent of sultanate: “the rule of the lord of the world extends from Delhi to Palam” the Sultanate of Delhi under the succeeding two dynasties- the Sayyids and Lodis- was like any other provincial kingdom.

THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1450)

KHIZR KHAN (1414-1421 A.D):

He captured Delhi in 1414 and founded the Sayyid Dynasty. Khizr Khan considered himself to be a Viceroy of Timur. His reign was marked by utter chaos and disorder. Prior to his accession to the throne of Delhi, the empire’s territory had shrunken only to Delhi and its suburbs and parts of Doab and . He added to it his own provinces, viz., Multan, Sindh and Punjab. Khizr Khan maintained those territories but failed to extend them further. He did not rule as a sovereign ruler but professed to rule as a deputy of Timur’s son and successor, Shah Rukh. He died of illness in 1421.

MUBARAK SHAH (1421-1434):

Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son, Mubarak Shah. Mubarak Shah got Khutba read in his name and issued his own coins. Thus, he did not accept the suzerainty of any foreign

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La Excellence IAS power. Mubarak Shah was the ablest ruler of the Sayyid dynasty. He succeeded in suppressing the revolts of his nobles and Jagirdars. He however, failed to select loyal officers and nobles to serve him and therefore, fell a prey to their conspiracy. He was murdered on February 19, 1434, while he was supervising the construction of his new town, Mubarakbad on the bank of the river Yamuna.

MUHAMMAD SHAH (1434-1445)

Mubarak Shah was succeeded by his nephew who assumed the title of Muhammad Shah. He proved himself to be an incapable king. The ruler of Malwa (Jaunpur) snatched some of his territory, Multan, became independent, provincial governors avoided payment of annual tribute and the nobles who held Jagirs around Delhi exhibited insubordination. Thus, the fall of his dynasty began during his reign. He died in 1445.

ALAUDDIN ALAM SHAH (1445-1450)

Muhammad Shah was succeeded by his son under the title of Alauddin Alam Shah. He was indolent and sensuous. He quarreled with his Wazir Hamid Khan, left for Badayun and settled himself there. He, thus, remained ruler only in name. Hamid Khan, in fact, ruled at Delhi. Finally, Bahlol Lodi captured the throne of Delhi and laid the foundation of his dynasty.

THE LODHI DYNASTY

BAHLOL LODI (1451-1488)

Bahlol Lodi was the founder of the Lodhi dynasty. During the reign of Muhammad Shah (1434-1445) he served as the Subedar (Governor) of Lahore. He was a brave soldier. As soon as he came to the throne, he sought to restore the greatness of the Delhi kingdom which had become very small and weak. Accordingly first of all, he conquered territories surrounding Delhi. Then, after a continuous war which lasted almost throughout his reign, he conquered the powerful Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur, Mewar, Sambhal, Gwalior etc, which had become independent in the wake of Timur’s invasion. He was succeeded by his son, Nizam Shah, who ascended the throne with the title of, Sikander Shah.

SIKANDER LODI, (1488-1517)

Sikander Lodi was the ablest of the three Lodi rulers. He conquered Bihar and concluded a treaty of friendship with Alauddin Hussain Shah, the ruler of Bengal. He transferred his capital from Delhi to Agra, a city which was founded by him. The village of Sikandara, near Agra, where the tomb of Akbar stands, was named after Sikander.

Sikander was the most capable monarch of the . He extended his empire by conquering Dholpur, Chanderi etc. He kept strict vigilance on his nobles and Jagirdars whom he strictly suppressed. He set up an efficient espionage system and introduced the system of auditing the accounts. He introduced several reforms and provided an efficient administration. He relaxed restrictions on trade, which greatly promoted the economic prosperity of the people. He introduced “Gaz-i-Sikandari” (Sikandar’s yard) of 39 digits or 32 inches, for the measurement of agricultural land.

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La Excellence IAS He was staunch Sunni and a Muslim fanatic. He lacked religious tolerance and levied Jaziya and pilgrim’s tax on Hindus. He was a liberal patron of arts and letters. He wrote verses in Persian under the pen name of Gulrukhi. He was succeeded by his son, Ibrahim Lodi.

IBRAHIM LODI (1517-1526)

Sikander Lodi was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Lodi. He was the last king of this dynasty. He defeated Rana Sangha in the “battle of Gharoli”. There were many revolts during his reign. His treatment turned the afghan nobles against him. They hatched a conspiracy to declare his uncle, Jalal Khan, as the ruler of Delhi, but they failed. At last Daulat Khan Lodhi the governor of the Punjab invited Babur, the king of Kabul, to conquer India. Babur gladly accepted the invitation and inflicted a crushing defeat on in the Battle of Panipat in 1526. Ibrahim was killed in the battle. Babur became master of Delhi and Agra. The death of Ibrahim put an end to the Sultanate and the Mughal dynasty was established in North India.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF DELHI SULTANATE

POLITICAL THEORY OF THE STATE

The Sultanate of Delhi was formally established in 1206. The accession of Qutbuddin is regarded as the beginning of the new political order. It would, however, be more correct to say that the reign of Iltutmish marks the beginning of Muslim sovereignty in India.

Theoretically speaking, the Muslim state was a Theocracy, i.e., the head of state was also the religious head. He derived his position and authority from God. The Caliph was acknowledged as the supreme head of the whole Muslim world. But the Caliphate itself had long disintegrated before the coming of the Turks of India. The political need and the ignorance of the Sultans about the Shariat resulted in a division of the functions of the head of state. The religious side was looked after by the Ulema and the administrative side was governed by the Sultan.

THE LAW OF SUCCESSION

No clear law of succession developed among the Muslim rulers. Thus military strength was the main factor in succession to the throne. This gave birth to political instability. During the sultanate period, political continuity was frequently disturbed. There were no less then twenty-eight Sultans in 320 years. But only seven of them, namely Iltutmish, Balban, Alauddin, Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, Firoz Shah Tughlaq, Bahlol Lodi and Sikander Lodi, had fairly long reigns.

Iltutmish introduced the dynastic principle into the Sultanate. But he superseded the claims of his sons on the ground that none of them would be capable of governing the state and nominated his daughter Razia as his successor. Iltutmish and his descendants sat on the throne for about fifty – six years (1210-66). The extinction of the old dynasty prepared the ground for the installation of Balban.

The Khalji Revolution ended the dynasty of Balban, as also the political monopoly which the Turkish slave-aristocracy had been enjoying for about a century. It was much more

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La Excellence IAS important historically than a mere change of dynasty on the throne. It meant the transfer of power and privileges from one more or less homogeneous racial group to another comparatively heterogeneous racial group.

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s succession was in strict conformity with the hereditary principle. A temporary crisis arose after his sudden death at Thatta (Sind) because he had left no son and nominated no successor. The nobles present in the camp selected Firoz, son of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq’s younger brother Rajab, to succeed him.

Bahlol Lodi’s accession marked the revival of the tribal monopoly. The Lodis were pure Afghans. During the rule of the Lodhi Sultans not only the political offices but also the army was Afghanised.

THE IDEA OF KINGSHIP

During the reign of Iltutmish, the position of the Sultan was not considered much higher than that of an exalted noble. He treated the great Turkish nobles as his equals and “Professed his shyness to sit on the throne”. However, Balban was fully aware of its dangerous implications. He therefore placed the monarchy at a higher level than the nobility.

Alauddin Khalji allowed himself to be dominated by dreams of exalted monarchical power. He assumed the title of Sikandar-i-Sani (The Second Alexander). In his conversation with Qazi Mughisuddin, Alauddin clearly stated that he issued commands which he “considered to be beneficial to the state and prudent under the circumstances”, without inquiring whether these were permitted by the Shariat or not. Unlike Balban, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, did not try to conceal the fact that he had risen to the throne from the rank of the nobility. He was extremely social in his relations with the nobles and respected the Ulema. Firoz Shah reversed the policy of Alauddin Khilji and thereby weakened the monarchy, vis-à-vis the Ulema.

The Sayyids were unable to make any positive contribution to the theory or practice of kingship. Under the Lodis, kingship again assumed a new complexion: the racial basis. The tribal feeling was very strong among the Afghans. Bahlol Lodi’s concessions to the Afghan nobles “lowered the dignity” of the crown and reduced kingship to a sort of “exalted peerage”.

THE SULTAN

The Turkish rulers of Delhi, as also their Sayyid and Lodhi successors with the sole exception of Khizr Khan used the title of ‘Sultan’. They borrowed this term from Mahmud of Ghazni who had assumed independence after freeing himself from the vassalage of the Samarids and upon whom the title of Sultan had been conferred by the Caliph of Baghdad.

The Turkish Sultan in India declared themselves Lieutenant of the faithful i.e. of the Abbasid caliphate of Baghdad and included his name in Khutba. With the exception of Alauddin Khalji and Mubarak Shah Khalji, all other Sultans declared themselves as the deputies of Caliph with the title such as “Nasir-i-Amir ul Momin” i.e. assistant of the leader of the faithful or “Yamin ul Khalifa” i.e. the right hand man of Caliph. However it does not

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La Excellence IAS mean that caliph became the legal ruler. The caliph had only a moral position i.e. though the Delhi Sultans professed formal allegiance to the Caliph the Sultanate was “always an independent state for all practical purposes”.

Political, legal and military authorities were vested in the Sultan. He was responsible for administration and was also the commander in chief of the military forces. He was also responsible for the maintenance of law and justice. Only for a brief period the sultanate acknowledged political subordination to an extra Indian authority. Khizr Khan (1414-1421) recognized the suzerainty of Shah Rukh, son of Timur, and used the title of Rayat-i-a’ ala. His son and successor, Mubarak Shah, abolished this practice and assumed the title of ‘Shah Sultan’. In theory the Sultan of Delhi was an absolute despot, bound by no law, subject to no ministerial check. People had no rights, only obligations. They only lived to carry out his commands. The Sultan generally discussed all important matters of state in a council, majlis-i-am or majlis-i-Khalwat, in which the most trusted and the highest officers were allowed to sit. The Sultan administered all the departments and every branch of state. In this task he was assisted by a body of ministers. The ministers were in charge of their respective departments, but their policy was always dictated by the Sultan.

THE NOBILITY

Only two factors served as practical checks on the royal power. These being, the pressure of the Nobility and the influence of the Ulema In the beginning the nobility was composed of persons of foreign origin but they belonged to two distinct groups: the Turkish slave-nobles and the non-Turkish (Taziq) foreigners of high birth who had immigrated to India from Central Asia and West Asia in search of fortune.

Of these two groups, the Turks were stronger. They claimed a monopoly of high offices in the State. According to Barani, Iltutmish had powerful Turkish slaves (Chhahalgani) who got the upper hand after his death.

Alauddin ignored the racial and hereditary claims of the Turks and conferred high offices on nobles whom he considered efficient and trustworthy. But he tried to break their solidarity by stern measures.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq, with a view to weakening the old nobility set up a new order of office-holders of heterogeneous racial origins. The reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq witnessed harmony between the Crown and the nobility. However the court was sometimes torn by the jealousies and intrigues of the nobles. The Sultanate became, in effect, a partnership between the crown and the nobility.

The relations between the Crown and the nobility fluctuated according to the character and personal ability of the Sultan. The nobility was also not a single united political order. Loyalty to racial feeling and clan sentiment, as also pure adventurism in pursuit of personal interest, determined the activities of powerful individuals and groups. The check on royal power, which groups of nobles or individual nobles exercised from time to time, was never sought to be institutionalized.

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They constituted a very important group. Crown had to conciliate them in order to ensure the smooth management of the affairs of state. They exercised two important functions. Firstly, they were the Crown’s advisers in matters of religious policy. Secondly, they held a virtual monopoly of the judicial offices in the state. Despite their close affiliation to religion and law, the Ulema as a class, were hardly less self-seeking than the nobles. They too frequently involved themselves in political affairs; Iltutmish had differences with a section of the Ulema. During Balban’s reign the Ulema enjoyed royal patronage to some extent. Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s philosophical outlook prevented him from treating the Ulema in the manner in which they expected to be treated. During the entire period of Sultanate the Ulema formed a section of the governing class.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

The Sultanate of Delhi was a police state, whose strength or weakness depended exclusively upon the military power and personality of the despotic sultan. The Sultan was assisted in discharge of his function by ministers and a group of officials. The main pillars of the central government were the ministers or the imperial Diwans. There were four important ministers, comparable to four pillars, on which the edifice of administration rested. These were Diwan-i-Wizarat, Diwan-i-Arz, Diwan-i-Insha and Diwan-i-Risalat. An extraordinary official of the state was “naib ul mulk” or “malik naib” i.e. the regent or the deputy sultan.

The Wazir was the prime minister and his department was called Diwan-i-Wizarat. He was the head of the finance department. His authority extended to every branch of public administration. He was the general manager of the business of state.

The Diwan-i-Arz was responsible for the administration of military affairs. The head of this department was Arz-i-Mamalik. He recruited troops, fixed and disbursed their salaries, and held periodical review or inspection of the forces.

The department of correspondence and record of royal courts was called Diwan-i-Insha. It was staffed by secretaries called dabirs and was held under the charge of minister, Dabir-i-mamalik or Dabir-i-khas or Amir Munshi. He was in charge of drafting royal proclamations, official dispatches, letters to provincial governors, officers, etc.

The Diwan-i-Risalat constituted the forth pillar of the imperial administration of the state. The head of the department was sadr-us-sadur. He was primarily a minister of ecclesiastical affairs or religious affairs. He controlled education and he recommended learned men for state stipends.

There was a privy council (Majlis-i-khas) which the Sultans consulted on important matters. It comprised of the most trusted and the highest officers of the state.

PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT

The provincial government was a replica of the central government. The governors of the provinces were called , muqti, naib and even sultan, but the last two mentioned titles were applied only to the governors of distant provinces enjoying unlimited powers. The

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La Excellence IAS governors were directly responsible to the sultan. The duties of a governor were enforcement of laws, regulations and customs, protection of the Ulema, the warriors and other officials, and to take measures for the safety of the roads.

The province was further sub-divided into shiqs or districts, which were governed by shiqdars. The shiqs in the Deccan were larger than those in northern India. Below shiqs their existed the Parganas, formed by a group of village. The Pargana was headed by Amil. Another important officer at the Pargana level was the Faujdar. He was vested with the responsibility to maintain peace and order. The smallest unit of the administration was the village. The influential elements at the village level were Khuts (Landowners) or Muqaddam or headmen. The village accountant was called Patwari.

MILITARY ORGANISATIONS

It was based mainly on the Turkish model. The government during the Sultanate was sustained on military strength. The very titles of Amirs, Khans and Malik with which every official was designated, was a military gradation.

The army consisted of infantry, cavalry and elephant corps. The cavalry was the back-bone of the army. The infantry played a subsidiary but important role. The whole army of the Sultanate consisted of contingents of the nobles, the and the Iqtadars posted at important outposts, and the personal army of the Sultan directly under his command.

Iltutmish was the first Turkish ruler of Delhi “who thought of organizing the army of the Sultanate as the king’s army, i.e., army centrally recruited, centrally paid, and centrally administered. Military organization received greater attention when Balban became the Sultan. He increased the power and prestige of the Ariz, the head of the military department, and raised him to the ministerial rank.

With the advent of the military reforms of Alauddin Khalji there was great centralization of the army. The soldiers were paid in cash and remained in service throughout the year. Alauddin also introduced system of Dagh or branding of the horses. From then onwards the office of the Ariz continued to enroll and keep registers of the army recruits. The most important official concerned with the organization of the army was Ariz-i-Mumalik and Naib-Ariz-Mumalik.

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq followed Alauddin’s policy of keeping the soldiers economically satisfied. Firuz Shah Tughlaq’s policy of granting hereditary assignments of land to the soldiers ruined the army. Firuz Shah laid down that if an officer of the army died, he was to be succeeded by his son; if he had no son, by his son-in-law; if he had no son-in-law, by his slave; and if he had no slave, then by his nearest relation; this led to the weakness of the army.

During the Lodhi period the tribal traditions and democratic spirit of the Afghans changed the character of the army. The king’s army degenerated into a tribal militia provided by semi-independent Afghan chieftains.

The Amir was in-charge of the royal guards of the Sultan. He was an important military official. The remuneration of the soldiers varied from time to time. Iltutmish gave the soldiers assignments or Iqta as their salary. Alauddin paid in cash. The generals or

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La Excellence IAS Iqtadars used to pay to the soldiers under them, but the salary was fixed by the central government. The nobles i.e., khans, malik and Amirs were not paid from the central treasury. They were granted revenues of land in proportion to their rank.

The forts were considered as great bulwarks of strength. Each fort had its commandant who was generally called the Kotwal. He kept the keys of the fort. The office of the Kotwal and commandant were combined in the same person.

THE IQTA SYSTEM

The Iqta system (Assignment of land revenue) was one of the most important administrative measures of the Turkish conquerors of Hindustan. When the Turks conquered the country they divided it into a number of tracts called Iqtas, which were assigned to the leading Turkish nobles. The holders of the office were called Iqtadar, muqti or wali.

Muhammad Ghori was the first ruler to introduce the Iqta system. But Iltutmish gave it an institutional form. Soon it became the mainstay of administrative organization. He divided his empire into several large and small tracts of lands called Iqta and assigned them to his soldiers, officers and nobles.

The collection of land revenue was integrated with the military system, as also with the system of provincial government through the Iqta created by Iltutmish. In the context of the revenue system the term Iqta means the land or land revenue assigned by the ruler to an individual on certain conditions. The holders of the Iqta served as the Sultan’s trustworthy agents throughout his dominions. They curbed the influence of the rais (local chiefs) and regulated the collection of land revenue. They were bound to present themselves, with horses and arms, whenever called upon by the central government for service or inspection.

This institution, which was the main pillar of the administrative and agrarian system of the period, witnessed numerous changes during the Sultanate period. In the beginning, the Iqta, which was a revenue-yielding piece or area of land, was assigned in lieu of salary. Balban found a lot of corruption and mismanagement among the assignees or the Iqta holders. Most of the Iqta holders or muqti who had received the villages in the Doab by way of salary now no longer rendered military service being incapable of service, due to old age or disease. Balban, however, could not bring about any effective change in them owing to the appeals of Malikul Umra Fakhruddin, the Kotwal of Delhi. But he took another step to supervise Iqta holders. He appointed his sons to important provinces as governors and created the office of Khwaja. It was a sort of diarchy though in a very limited sense. Though muqta was chiefly the in charge and the Khwaja his subordinate, the fact that the latter was responsible to the central government gave him a sort of authority and made him an obstacle in the way of independence of the muqta. Thus Khwaja was a civil official, and he had to deal with accounts and records. Alauddin brought most of the small Iqtas back into the Khalisa “by a stroke of the pen”. But under Firuz it became hereditary.

AGRARIAN CONDITIONS

Alauddin was the first Sultan of Delhi who took a comprehensive view of the agrarian system from the point of view of the central government and gave it a new shape through elaborate regulations. He crippled the Khuts and Muqaddam because they were, in his

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La Excellence IAS view, fond of luxurious living, guilty of non-payment of state dues and disobedience. The standard of state demand was fixed at one-half of the produce. According to Barani, the imposition of the same rate of assessment on the village headman and the ordinary cultivators was due to Alauddin’s desire that “the burden of the strong was not to be thrown on the weak”. The enhancement of the produce was an extremely harsh measure; and to this enhanced assessment was added a grazing tax.

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq gave up Alauddin’s rule of measurement. He restored the old method of crop-sharing. This change was beneficial to the peasantry. The method of measurement “involved a large amount of extortion and corruption”. In theory, the peasant was bound to pay the full land revenue for the entire area shown in measurement records even though the crop might be an entire or partial failure. In practice, however, allowances were usually made for crop failure. The principle of crop sharing took into account the actual turnover. The chaudhari, Khuts and Muqaddam, whom Alauddin had reduced to the position of ordinary cultivators, were restored to their old position and entrusted with the collection of revenue. They were invested with their old perquisites, i.e., their own cultivated land and pastures were exempted from assessment.

The digging of canals was the most important aspect of Firuz Shah’s constructive policy in the agrarian sector. During the Sayyids rule, powerful chiefs exercised de facto authority in different parts of their small kingdoms. The agrarian system was disturbed by lawlessness. Under the Lodis, assignments were fewer in number, but large and more lucrative. Sikander Lodi adopted one uniform yard of forty-one digits as the standard unit of measurement.

REVENUE SYSTEM UNDER THE SULTANS

After the establishment of the Sultanate, the old system was not immediately discontinued but continued to function, with the super-imposition of the demands of a new ruling class. With the passage of time and the growing authority of the government, attempts were made to increase revenue by collecting taxes modeled on those levied in the Islamic countries. Iltutmish divided the kingdom into Iqtas amongst his soldiers and nobles as their remuneration for their services. Besides Iqtas there were other lands as well, i.e. Khalisa and Inam or Waqf. Khalisa was a class of land which was directly administered by the central government. Revenue from such land was collected by the officials appointed by the central government. The Delhi region and the river country of the Doab comprised mainly of the Khalisa land. The fact that the amils gave accounts directly to the central government indicates that the revenues of these regions were directly controlled by the central government. Inam or Waqf was the land given to the people especially Muslim saints and scholars, in gift or charity. This class of land has no tax liability.

The fiscal policy of Sultanate was based on the theory of taxation as propounded by the Hanafi school of thought, which prescribed the levy of four kind of taxes i.e.

I. ZAKAT: Religious tax paid by the Muslims for the benefit and welfare of their coreligionists. It was charged at the rate of 2.5% of the actual income or property. II. KHARAJ: The land revenue. Generally it was charged at the rate of one third of the agricultural produce and was payable in cash or kind. III. KHAMS: It refers to the states share of the booty acquired by the soldiers in the course of war. The Islamic law required the soldiers to surrender one fifth of the war booty to the state.

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I. JAZIYA: A tax charged from Hindus in their capacity as Zimmis

Alauddin raised the scale of taxation to the highest point. He also imposed a “grazing tax”. For the realization of arrears of revenue Alauddin created a new department called Diwan- i-Mustakhraj. However, the most important change effected during his reign was in the mode of assessment. He insisted on actual measurement of land. Nearly the whole of the centre of the kingdom came under the rule of assessment by measurement. With Alauddin’s death his system also died a natural death. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq departed from the policy of the great Khalji monarch. He ordered that the demand should be made on the actual produce (hasil). This was a very statesman-like step taken by Ghiyasuddin because it clearly provided for concessions in cases of crop failures and others such unforeseen calamities.

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq did not make any structural changes in the system of revenue administration. The practice of granting Iqtas continued. Muhammad Tughlaq’s policy of increasing the taxation in the Doab failed. He selected the Doab for his experiment because it was fertile and the nearest to the capital.

The revenue measures of Firuz Shah are recorded by Barani. Firuz Tughlaq, on coming to the throne, tried his best to win the confidence of all shades of men. He attempted to increase his income by means of improved quality of cultivation and superior crops, by means of haq i shirb or water tax over and above Kharaj on land irrigated by canals (its scale being one-tenth) and by income of gardens. The system of assignment occupied a very important place in Firuz Shah’s revenue administration. Assignments were made to military officers and soldiers. He strengthened the revenue farmer’s grip on the peasantry by placing the local machinery of government at their disposal.

ADMINISTRATIVE AND AGRARIAN TERMS

Alai Tanka The tanks of Alauddin Khilji Alamatha-i-Sultanate Insignia of royalty Amil Revenue officer Amir Commander: the third highest official grade Amir-i-dad Officer-in-charge of justice Amir-i-akhur Officer commanding the horses Amir-i-hajib Officer-in-charge of the royal court: (also called barbek in Turkish) Amir-i-koh Officer in-charge of agriculture Ariz Officer in-charge of the muster, equipment of the soldiers and the horses Arz-i-Mummalik Minister in-charge of the army Barbek Officer in-charge of the royal court Barid Intelligence officer appointed by the state to collect information Barid-i-Mumalik Head of the state intelligence service Dabir Secretary Dabir-i-Mumalik Chief secretary Dagh Mark of branding on the horses

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Diwan Office: the central secretariat Diwan-i-arz Office of the ministry of war Diwan-i-insha Office of the chief secretary Diwan-i-Riyasat Office of the minister of trade and commerce Diwan-i-Mustakhraj Office for collecting taxes Doab Land between the Jamuna and the Ganga Fatwa A verdict according to the Shariat or religious law Faujdar Commander of army Haqq-i-Shirb Profits from canal irrigation Hukm-i-masahat Assessment of land revenue according to measurement Hukm-i-mushahida Assessment (Of land revenue) by inspection only Iqtadars A person in whose charge an iqta has been placed Jagir A piece of land assigned to a government officer by the state Jitals Copper coins of the Delhi sultanate Jeziyah A personal and yearly tax on non-Muslims Karkhana Royal factory or enterprise; they were of two kinds – ratbi, for looking after animals and ghair-ratbi for producing commodities required by the state. Khalisa Land controlled directly by the king Khidmati Service dues Khuts Village headmen or revenue collector Madad-i-mash Grant of land or pension to religious or deserving persons Majlis-i-khas A meeting of the king and his high officers Majlis-i-khilwat A secret meeting of the king and his high officers Malik naib Regent of the kingdom; an officer, authorized to act on behalf of the king Muhtasib An officer appointed to maintain law and order village headman; literally the first or senior man Muqta Governor; person-in-charge of an iqta or a medieval province Mushrif-i-mamlakat Accountant for the whole kingdom Mustaufi-i-mamalik Auditor, for the whole kingdom Naib-i-arz Minister of war; or his deputy Naib-i-mamlakat Regent or the king’s representative for the whole kingdom, authorized to act on behalf of the king Naib-i-mulk Regent of the kingdom Qazi-ul-Qazzat The chief qazi Sarai-Adl Name given to Alauddin Khalji’s market in Delhi for the sale of cloth and other specified commodities Shashgani A small silver coin equal to six jitals or copper coins Shahna-i-mandi Officer in-charge of the grain market Sipahsalar commander

ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

The Indo- manifested the aesthetic heritage of the new Sultans. It included both religious and secular structures. While indigenous architecture is Trabeate i.e. the space is spanned by mean of beams laid horizontally; the Islamic form is Arcuate, whereby are used to bridge a space. The dome is the prominent feature of the mosque in contrast to the Sikhar of Hindu temples.

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La Excellence IAS The Turkish rulers used the dome and method as well as the slab and beam method in their buildings. The new features of Architecture introduced by the Turks were:  The Dome  The lofty Towers  The true Arch unsupported by beam  The Vault

These features exhibit advanced mathematical knowledge and engineering skills. The Turks also brought with them the expert knowledge of the use of concrete and mortar, which had hitherto been little used in India. In the beginning, the Muslims converted temples and other existing buildings into mosques. Examples of this are the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, built by Qutbuddin Aibak in 1191-98, near the Qutub Minar in Delhi and Adhai Din ka Jhopra at Ajmer. The most magnificent building constructed by the Turks in the thirteenth century was the Qutub Minar. This tapering tower, originally 71.4 metre high, completed by Iltutmish, was dedicated to the Sufi saint, Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiar Kaki, who was greatly venerated by the people of Delhi. The first example of true Arch is to be said in the Tomb of Balban in Mehrauli. The Khalji period saw a lot of building activities. Alauddin built his capital at Siri, a few kilometers away from the site around the Qutub. He added an entrance door to the Qutub. This door, which is called Alai Darwaza, has arches of very pleasing proportions. It also contains a dome which, for the first time, was built on correct scientific lines. The buildings of the Tughlaq period exhibits stark simplicity and sobriety, probably indicating less financial resources as well as a puritanical taste. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq built the huge palace fort complex called Tughlaqabad. By blocking the passage of the Yamuna River, a huge artificial lake was created around it. A striking feature of the Tughlaq architecture was the sloping walls. This is called “batter” and gives the effect of strength and solidity to the building. A second feature of the Tughlaq architecture was the deliberate attempt to combine the principles of the arch and the lintel and beam in their buildings. This is found in a marked manner in the buildings of Firuz Tughlaq.

ARCHITECTURAL LANDMARKS OF THE SULTANATE PERIOD STRUCTURE LOCATION BUILDER Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque Delhi Qutub-ud-din Aibak Adhai din ka Jhopra Ajmer Qutub-ud-din Aibak Qutub Minar Delhi Iltutmish (Founded by Qutub-ud-din Aibak) Tomb of Hazarat Nizamuddin Delhi Alauddin Khalji Auliya Alai Darwaza Delhi Alauddin Khalji Jammat Khana Masjid Delhi Alauddin Khalji Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq Delhi Muhammad bin Tughlaq Delhi Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq Moth ki Masjid Delhi Prime Minister of Sikander Lodhi

DEVELOPMENTS OF MUSIC

The Turks brought a number of new musical instruments to India, such as Rabab and Sarangi. Sultans like Balban and Alauddin Khalji patronised music. Balban encouraged the formation of the society of dancers and musicians. Musicians such as Amir Khusrau and Gopal Nayak were patronised by Alauddin Khalji and were conferred the title of Nayak.

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La Excellence IAS Khusrau invented Sitar and also introduced many Perso-Arabic ragas. He enjoyed the patronage of Balban, Ala-ud-din Khalji and Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq. Though music was banned by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, his successors Muhammad-bin Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq gave encouragement to this art form. Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq was very found of music. During his time, Indian classical work on music, Ragadarpan, was translated into Persian.

DEVELOPMENTS OF LITERATURE

Fusion of different languages resulted in the development of Hindi, , Avadhi, Bengali, Gujarati, Oriya and Sindhi in the north and Marathi, Kannada, Telugu and Malayalam in the South. A new language “” (originally called Zaban-i-Hindavi) developed during this period. ‘Urdu’ means ‘camp’ in Persian. As the language developed in the military camp, it is so-called. Its grammar is mostly like that of Hindi, but its vocabulary consists of both Persian and Hindi languages. Amir Khusrau made extensive use of the new language. Regional languages were encouraged as a result of Bhakti saints. The literature in regional language also grew. Apart from the dohas, verses and songs composed by Ramananda, Kabir, Mirabai and Jayadeva, we also have secular literature as Parthasarthi Misra’s “Sastra Dipika”, Jimuta Vahana’s “Dayabhaga”. Sarangdhara’s “Hammir Raso” and “Hammirkavya”, Vaman Bhatta’s “Parvati Parinaya” and Krishna Raya of the Vijayanagar Empire authored . Malik Muhammad Jaisi’s is hailed as a major literary accomplishment. Prithviraj Raso of Chand Bardai and Mitakshara of Vigyaneswar are considered to be the most important treatise on Hindu law. Besides, many important Sanskrit works were also translated into . IMPORTANT SULTANATE LITERARY WORKS AUTHOR BOOK Alberuni Tahkik-i-hind Alberuni Qanun-i-Masudi Alberuni Jawahar-fi-Jawahir Minhaj-us-Siraj Tabaqat-i-Nasiri Amir Khusrau Laila-Majnu Amir Khusrau Khazain-ul-Futuh Amir Khusrau Tughlaqnama Amir Khusrau Nuh-Siphir Amir Khusrau Miftah-ul-Futuh Amir Khusrau Ayina-i-Sikandari Amir Khusrau Hasht Bihisht Amir Khusrau Shirin Khusrau Amir Khusrau Tarikh-i-Alai Zia-ud-din Barani Fatwa-i-Jahandari Zia-ud-din Barani Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi Firoz Shah Fatwa-i-Firoz Shahi Firozabadi Qamus Hassan Nizami Taj-ul-Maathir Abu Bakr Chach Namah Firdausi Shah Namah Ibn Batutah Kitab-ul-Rehla Shams-i-Shiraj Afif Tarik-i-Firoz Shahi

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VIJAYANAGAR AND BANMAHI

THE VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE

SOURCES OF VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE

LITERARY SOURCES Foreign Travellers Accounts: Ibn Battutah, an African (Moroccan) traveler, has left a good account of the Vijayanagar Empire under Harihara-I in his Book Rehla also called “Tuhfat-un-Nuzzar”.

Indigenous Works: Sri Krishna Deva Raya’s Amuktamalyada enables us to know about the polity and political ideas of the Vijayanagar rulers. Allasani Peddans’s Manucharitam gives us a detailed account of the social conditions, particularly the caste system, of the Vijayanagar Empire. Gangadhara’s Gangadasa Pralapa Vilasam, a contemporary drama, deals with the siege of Vijayanagar city by the Bahmanis and the Gajapatis of Orissa after the death of Deva Raya II. Saluvabhyudayam of Rajanattha Dindima was a historical eulogy of the Saluva dynasty.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES Inscriptions: The Bagapellsi Copper Plate Inscription of Harihara I tell us about his achievements. The Bitragunta grant of Sangama II (Son of Kampana) gives us the genealogy of the five Sangama brothers responsible for the foundation of the Vijayanagar Empire. The Channarayapateena inscription of Harihara II states that Bukka I was successful in conquering several areas. The Srirangam copper plates of Deva Raya II list the various achievements of the ruler. The Devulapalli copper plates of Immadi Narasimha give us the genealogy of the Saluva dynasty.

THE ORIGIN OF VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty. The two Sangama brothers were in the service of the Kakatiya ruler of Warangal, Prataparudra II. After the Muslim conquest of the Kakatiya kingdom in 1323, they joined the kingdom of Kampili in modern Karnataka as ministers in the royal court. When Kampili was also overrun by Muhammad Tughlaq for giving, the two brothers were imprisoned, converted to Islam, and appointed to deal with the rebellions in the province of Kampili. After establishing their sway over Kampili at first for the Sultan, the two Sangama brothers returned to the Hindu fold at the initiative of saint , proclaimed their independence and founded a new city on the south bank of the Tungabhadra, in 1336, which was called Vijayanagar (City of victory) or Vidyanagar (City of learning). The capital of the kingdom was Hastinavati (Hampi)

THREE MAJOR CONTENDERS OF VIJAYANAGAR The young kingdom had to contend with the Hoyasala ruler of Mysore and the Sultan of Madurai to establish their hold upon the region. In the war that continued for the next several years the Vijayanagar rulers defeated the Hoyasala kingdom in 1346 and the Sultans of Madurai in 1377. The Vijayanagar Empire then comprised the whole of south India upto Ramesvaram, including the Tamil country as well as Kerala. The next major contender of the Vijayanagar rulers was the Bahmani kingdom. The reason

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La Excellence IAS for conflict between these two kingdoms was the establishment of control over three major areas i.e.  The Tungabhadra doab, which was the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra  The Krishna-Godavari delta, which was very fertile and with its numerous ports controlled the foreign trade of the region  The Marathwada country, the main contention was for the control of Konkan and the areas which gave access to it.

DYNASTIES WHICH RULED VIJAYANAGAR: Vijayanagar was ruled by four dynasties. The Sangama Dynasty (1336-1485); the Saluva Dynasty (1485-1505); the Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570) and the Aravidu Dynasty (1570- 1649) The sons of Sangama, Harihara I (1336-1356) and Bukka I (1356-1379) laid the foundation of Vidyanagar. The city was renamed Vijayanagar by Bukka I. The war with Bahmanis started, in 1367, during the reign of Bukka I when he assaulted the fortress of Mudkal in the disputed Tungabhadra doab and slaughtered the entire garrison except one man. When this news reached the Bahmani Sultan, he was enraged and launched a successful campaign to recapture Mudkal. He then crossed the Tungabhadra and defeated the Vijayanagar ruler in a battle. The war dragged on for several months, but the Bahmani Sultan could neither capture the Raja nor his capital. Finally both sides were exhausted, and concluded a treaty which restored the old positions. Bukka I was succeeded by his son Harihara-II (1379-1404), who embarked upon a policy of expansion towards the eastern sea coast. This new policy of expansion consequently led the Vijayanagar Empire into fresh conflicts. It was responsible for the alliance of the Bahmani Kingdom with Warangal which lasted for about 50 years and was a major factor in the inability of the Vijayanagar Empire to overrun the Tungabhadra doab or to stem the Bahmani offensive in the area. However, it was to the credit of Harihara-Ii that he was able to maintain his position in the face of the Bahmani-Warangal combination. Harihara’s reign saw the conquest of the whole of south India including Mysore, Kanara, Tiruchirapalli, and Kanchi. His greatest success was in wresting and Goa in the west from the Bahmani kingdom. After his death the kingdom was involved in a civil war, in which one of his sons, Deva Raya-I emerged victorious in 1406. The reign of Deva Raya-I (1406-1422) began with a renewed fight for the Tungabhadra doab. He was defeated by the Bahmani ruler, Firoz Shah, and had to pay a huge indemnity. He also agreed to marry his daughter to the Sultan. However, this marriage could not by itself bring about peace. Deva Raya I undertook a number of schemes for the welfare of the people. In 1410, he got constructed a dam across the Tungabhadra, with canals leading to the city. This greatly helped in agriculture. He was also a great patron of scholars. Nicolo De Conti, an Italian (Venetian), visited the Vijayanagar Empire under Deva Raya I. Conti describes the city of Vijayanagar as having a circumference of 96 kilometers and employing 90000 potential soldiers. Besides describing the city and its king Nicolo also mentions the festivals like Dipavali, Navaratri etc. Deva Raya II (1422-1446) was the greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty. In order to strengthen his army, he inducted more Muslims in, and asked all his Hindu soldiers and officers to learn the art of archery from them. With his new army, he crossed the Tungabhadra River and tried to recover Mudkal, Bankpur, etc., which were to the south of the and had been lost to the Bahmani Sultans earlier. Three hard battles were fought, but in the end the two sides had to agree to the existing frontiers. Deva Raya II was called Immadi Devaraya and also Proudha Devaraya or the great

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La Excellence IAS Devaraya by his subjects. Some quarter varahas (gold coins of Vijayanagar) of Deva Raya- II describe him as “Gajabetakara” (the elephant hunter). Deva Raya-II was a great patron of literature and himself an accomplished scholar in Sanskrit. He is credited with the authorship of two Sanskrit works Mahanataka Sudhanidhi and a commentary on the Brahma sutras of Badarayana. The king had leaning for Vira Saivism, yet he showed tolerance in religious views. He appointed people belonging to different religions as his minister. He got constructed a mosque in the Vijayanagar and ordered that a copy of Quran be placed before his throne. The Ambassador of Persian king Shah Rukh visited in his court and gave a vivid account of the empire of Vijayanagar. There was confusion in the Vijayanagar Empire after the death of Deva Raya II. There were a series of civil wars among the various contenders to the throne. Many feudatories assumed independence in the process. The rulers were sunk in pleasure and neglected the affairs of the state. Finally in 1485 the throne was usurped by Saluva Narasimha, the ruler of Chandragiri and a powerful feudatory of the Sangama’s. Thus the Sangama dynasty came to an end and the Saluva dynasty was established. Saluva Narasimha restored internal law and order in the empire. The decline of the Sangama dynasty coincides with the decline of the Bahmani kingdom and its disintegration into five Bahmani Succession states. The Krishna River was the dividing line between the Vijayanagar and the Bahmani kingdom. The Saluva dynasty also soon came to an end, and a new dynasty called the Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha. He was in turn succeeded by his half-brother, Krishna Deva Raya (1509-29) who is considered as the greatest of all the Vijayanagar rulers for his military as well as other achievements. His most notable military achievement was the recovery of the (the region between Krishna and Tungabhadra) from Bijapur. Under him the kingdom of Vijayanagar reached the height of its prestige and prosperity. Krishna Deva Raya maintained friendly relations with Albuquerque the Portuguese governor whose Ambassador Friar Luis resided in Vijayanagar. He permitted Albuquerque to build a fort at Bhatkal. Domingo Peas and Daurte Edwardo Barbosa the Portuguese travelers visited Vijayanagar Empire during Krishna Deva Raya’s reign. Krishna Deva took the title of “Yavanaraja Sthapanacharya” (restorer of the Yavana kingdom i.e. Bahmani) and “Abhinava Bhoja” Krishna Deva was also a great patron of art and literature, and was known as ‘Andhra Bhoja’. Eight eminent luminaries in literature known as Ashtadiggajas were at his court. Allasani Peddana was the greatest and he was often described as ‘Andhrakavita- Pitamaha’. His important works include Manucharitam and Harikatha-Saramsamu. Besides, the king himself was the author of one Telgu work Amuktamalyada, and one Sanskrit work Jambavati Kalyanam. He built the famous temples of Krishnaswamy, Hazara Ramaswamy and Vitthalaswamy at the capital. He also built a new city, called Nagalapura, in memory of his mother, Nagamba. Besides, he built a large number of raya gopurams (towers) and other structures of lesser significance. After the death of Krishna Deva Raya, the power passed into the hands of Rama Raja, the son-in-law of Krishna Deva Raya. He took active part in the politics of Muslim states of Deccan (Bijapur, Golconda, and Bidar) and supported one against the other, changing sides as it suited his interests. He entered into a commercial treaty with the Portuguese where by the supply of horses to the Bijapur ruler was stopped. In a series of wars he completely defeated the Bijapur ruler. He then allied himself with the Bijapur ruler to inflict humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmadnagar. However, his enemies (except Berar) ultimately combined to inflict a crushing defeat on Vijayanagar at Bannihatti, near

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La Excellence IAS Talikota, in 1565. This battle is also known as the or the Battle of Raksasa Tangadi. Rama Raja was imprisoned and immediately executed. This battle is generally considered to mark the end of the great age of Vijayanagar. Although the kingdom lingered on for almost one hundred years under the Aravidu dynasty, its territories shrank steadily and the Raya no longer counted in the political affairs of south India. The Aravidu Dynasty was founded by Tirumala, the brother of Rama Raja. He shifted his capital to Penugonda. It was during his rule that the role of Nayaks (military chiefs) became important. Venkata II (1585-1614) was the most important ruler of this dynasty. He shifted the capital to Chandragiri. It was during his reign that the English and the Dutch began to establish themselves in the east coast of India.

VIJAYANAGAR ADMINISTRATION Kingship was based on the principle of absolute monarchy, but of the benevolent type. The king was to ensure people’s welfare, listen to their appeals, and remove all their difficulties. He enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislature matters. He was the highest court of appeal and the supreme law-giver.

Central Administration: There was a council of ministers, headed by a prime minister, to assist and advise the king in administrative matters. But it was left to the king’s discretion whether or not to abide by them. Central administration was divided in to several departments, each supervised by a minister.

Provincial and Local Administration: The empire was divided into different administrative units Manadalams or Rajyas (Provinces), Nadus (Districts), Sthalas (sub-districts) and finally into Gramas (Villages). The number and size of the Manadalams varied from time to time. Each province was under a governor, described as Mandalesvara or Nayaka. The village autonomy witnessed a decline during this period due to the imposition of Ayagar system. Gauda, village headman, looked after the administration of the village which was the basic unit of administration. Ayagar System: the Ayagar system was an important feature of village administration. Under this system body of twelve functionaries, known as Ayagars, conducted every village affairs. They were granted tax free lands which they were to enjoy in perpetuity. An important feature of Ayagar system was that Ayagars were hereditary officials and there could be no sale or purchase of land, in the village, without their permission.

Revenue Administration Land revenue from crown lands was the most important source of revenue. It was collected on the basis of assessment, fixed after careful survey. Its rate varied according to the nature of the cultivated land. It was fixed on the basis of crop cultivation and the quantum of yield obtained. Generally 1/6th of the gross produce was collected as revenue. But sometimes it was raised to fifty per cent. Tributes and gifts from feudal chiefs; customs collected at the ports, and tolls on inland commerce; taxes of various kinds and fines inflicted by courts, etc. were some other sources of revenue. Prostitution was regulated and heavily taxed. As suggested in the Amuktamalyada, the expenditure of the state was divided into four parts – charities and personal expenditure of the king, maintenance of horses, military conquests and security of the empire.

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SOME IMPORTANT REVENUE TERMS Fawwazil Surplus extracted from the area Mahsul Collected Revenue Kismat Subsidiary Tax Bhandaravada The Crown village Manyam Tax free village Devadana Land granted to Temple Amaram Village granted to military chiefs (Nayaks)

Judicial Administration: King administered the justice impartially. He presided over the Sabha, the highest court of appeal. Regular courts for administering justice were set up in different parts of the empire. They were headed by hierarchy of officials. There were also village courts, caste panchayats and guild organizations to dispose of petty offences like violation of caste rules and rules of trade. Dharmasastras generally formed the basis on which cases were decided. Harsh punishments were inflicted. For instance, decapacitation, mutilation, and throwing to elephants were quite common.

Military Administration: There was a well organized and efficient standing army. It consisted of the cavalry, infantry, and elephant crops. High-breed horses were procured from foreign merchants. Different grades of officers were there in the army, the top grades being the Nayakas. In addition to the regular standing army, armies of Feudal chiefs and governors assisted the king whenever necessary. In fact, some of the Nadaprabhus (In charge of Nadus) like the Gaudas of practically protected the boundaries from foreign invasions and even helped in suppressing the defiant provincial governors and vassals. Ordinary soldiers of the royal army were usually paid in cash, but big officers were granted territory (Amaram) with fixed revenue in lieu of their salaries. Nayankara System: Under the Nayankara system, military chiefs were assigned a piece of land called Amaram. These chiefs known as Nayaks of Palaiyagars, had revenue and administrative rights on their lands. They were required to maintain elephant horses and soldiers in certain numbers which were to be provided to king during wars. They also had to pay a particular sum of money to the central exchequer. The Nayaks were independent in their areas and were non transferrable. In the course of time, Nayaks began to assert their military, administrative and economic powers which later became a major cause of decline of the Vijayanagar Empire.

VIJAYANAGAR SOCIETY AND ECONOMY

SOCIAL CONDITIONS Allasani Peddana, in his Manucharitam, mentions the four castes that existed in the Vijayanagar society. Viprulu or Brahmins followed the traditional profession of teachers and priests. They sometimes also performed duties of soldiers and administrators. This is confirmed from the narration of Domingo Paes. Rajulu or rachavaru were generally associated with the ruling dynasty. The rulers as well as generals were actually Sudras, but called rachavaru on account of their position. As in the case of other parts of south India, the Kshatriya Varna seems to be absent here. Matikaratalu or Vaishyas were the same as merchants who carried on trade and commerce. Nalavajativaru or Sudras were mainly

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La Excellence IAS agriculturists, but some of them carried on several other professions. They were not segregated, although considered inferior. Women occupied a honourable position in the Vijayanagar society. Some of them were very learned and were eminent litterateurs. Gangadevi, wife of Kampana (one of the sons of Bukka-I), wrote Maduravijayam. The book deals with Kampana’s conquest of Madurai during the reign of Bukka-I. Hannamma was a prominent scholar in the court of Prauda Deva. Tirumalamma was a distinguished poetess in Sanskrit in the reign of Achyuta Raya. According to Nuniz (another Portuguese who visited the empire during the reign of Achyuta Deva Raya), a large number of women were employed in royal palaces as dancers, domestic servants and palanquin bearers. There were also wrestlers among them. Some women were also appointed as accountants, judges, bailiffs, bodyguards and even went to the battle fields. The practice of dancing girls attached to temples was also in vogue. From the account of Paes, we learn that Devadasis held a highly respectable position in society, and were given land grants, maid-servants, etc. The plight of widow was pitiable, but they could remarry. The state encouraged widow remarriage by not levying any tax on it. The prevalence of Sati or Sahagamana in the Vijayanagar Empire is proved both from inscriptions and foreign accounts of the period. Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers of Saivism. Virupaksha was their family God. Later they came under the influence of Vaishnavism. But Siva continued to be worshipped. Vaishnavism was professed in various forms. Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was highly popular. The Dvaita system of Madhava was also practiced. Epics and Puranas were popular among the masses, especially since they served as a means of education among women.

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS The Vijayanagar Empire was one of the richest state then known to the world. Several foreign travelers, who visited the empire during the 15th and 16th centuries, have left glowing accounts of its splendor and wealth. Agriculture was in a flourishing condition. It was the policy of rulers to encourage agriculture in the different parts of the empire and to increase agricultural production by a wise irrigation policy. Nuniz, the Portuguese traveler, speaks of the construction of a dam and excavation of canals. The agricultural wealth was supplemented by numerous industries, the most important of which were textiles, mining and metallurgy. Another important industry was perfumery. Industries and crafts were regulated by guilds. It was common practice for people of the same trade to live in one and the same quarter of the city. Abdur Razzak, the Persian diplomat and traveler, remarks: ‘The tradesmen of each separate guild or craft have their shops close to another’. There was flourishing inland, coastal and overseas trade which was an important source of general prosperity. The kingdom, according to Abdur Razzak, had 300 sea ports. The most important commercial area on the west coast was Malabar, with its important port of Cannanore. It had commercial relations with the islands of the Indian Ocean, Burma, the Malay Archipelago and China in the East, and Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia and Portugal on the West. Among the exports, the main items were cloth, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter, sugar, etc. The main imports consisted of horses, elephants, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silks and velvets. Ships were used for coastal and overseas trade. Vijayanagar had its own ships; the art of ship-building was known, but we do not know if ocean-going ships were built. Barbosa,

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La Excellence IAS another Portuguese traveler, says that south India got its ships built in the Maldive Islands. The Vijayanagar emperors issued a large number of gold coins, called varahas or Pagodas (Varahas because the most common symbol was Varaha- the Boar incarnation of Vishnu). Harihara I and Bukka I used the symbol in their coins and Krishna Deva Raya’s coins had the figures of Venkatesh and Balkrishna. Achyuta Raya used Garuda while Tirumala maintained the original Varaha. Some of them were full varahas, some half varahas and the rest quarter varahas. On the obverse the coins contain figures of various Hindu deities and animals like the bull, the elephant and the fabulous gandaberunda (A double eagle, sometimes holding an elephant in each beak and claw). On the reserve they contain the king’s name either in Nagari or Kannada script. Some quarter varahas of Deva Raya-II describe him as “Gajabetakara”. The accounts of foreign travelers speak of the high standards of living of the upper and middle classes. The splendor of the capital city bears testimony to the wealth which was, however, the monopoly of only a section of the population. But the prices of articles were low and the minimum necessities were probably not beyond the means of the common people. However, producers, mainly agricultural producers, apparently got inadequate prices for their produce. Another main defeat of the economic system was that the common people had to bear the burnt of taxation, which was quite heavy and the local authorities sometimes adopted oppressive methods of collection.

THE CULTURAL CONTRIBUTION OF VIJAYNAGAR

ARCHITECTURE: The temple building activity of the Vijayanagar rulers produced a new style, called the Vijayanagar style. Though often characterized as Dravida style, it had its own distinct features. The large number of pillars and the complicated manner in which they were sculptured are some of its distinct features. The horse was the most common animal to be depicted on the pillars. They Temples had a Mandapam or open pavilion with a raised platform, generally meant for seating the deity on special occasions. These temples also had a Kalyana Mandapam with elaborately carved pillars. In the Vijayanagar temples the central part was occupied by the Garbhagriha – the sanctum cell where the presiding deity was installed. Amman shrine was meant for the consort of the god. The most magnificent of the temples in this style are in Hampi (Vijayanagar). Vitthalaswamy and the Hazara Ramaswamy temples are the best examples. The raya gopurams, towers in commemoration of the visit of emperors in different corners of the empire, are also important examples of Architecture of the period.

LITERATURE: The Vijayanagar rulers were also great patrons of literature. Under their patronage, several religious as well as secular books were composed in different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil. The peak of literary development was reached during the reign of Krishna Raya, who is rightly called ‘Andhra Bhoja’.

THE BAHMANI KINGDOM Hasan Gangu, whose original name was Ismail Mukh, revolted and proclaimed his independence from the Sultanate. He assumed the title of Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah and founded the Bahmani Kingdom with Gulbarga as its capital. There were a total of fourteen Bahmani Sultans, important among them being: Alauddin Hasan (1347-58); Muhammad Shah I (1358-75) who was the immediate successor of Hasan; Taj-ud-din Firoz Shah (1398-1422) considered greatest among them all; Ahmad Shah Wali (1422-

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La Excellence IAS 35) who transferred the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar and whose reign marked the end of the ‘Gulbarga Phase’ of Bahmani kingdom and the beginning of the second phase, called the ‘Bidar Phase’. Ahmed Shah was known as Wali due to his association with a Sufi, Gesu Daraz. : He was the vakil as well as the Wazir of Muhammad Shah III (1463-81). The Bahmani kingdom saw resurgence under his guidance. His military conquests included Konkan, Goa and the Krishna-Godavari delta. His administrative reforms were all aimed to strengthen the control of the sultan over the nobility and provincial governors. The discontented nobles, particularly the ‘Deccani’ nobles who resented the rise of ‘Afaqis’ or new arrival from West Asia organized a conspiracy against Gawan (who was an Afaqi) and managed to get a death sentence for alleged treachery passed on him by the sultan in 1481. After Gawan’s execution, the Bahmani kingdom began to decline. Five independent Kingdoms raised on the ruins of Bahmani Kingdom, namely, Berar, Bidar, Ahmednagar, Golconda and Bijapur.

The Bahmani Dynasty 1347 - 1538 AD Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahman Shah 1347 - 1358 AD Muhammad I 1358 - 1375 AD Ala-ud-din Mujahid Shah 1375 - 1378 AD Daud Shah I 1378 - 1378 AD Muhammad II 1378 - 1397 AD Ghiyas-ud-din Tahmatan Shah 1397 - 1397 AD Shams-ud-din Daud Shah II 1397 - 1397 AD Taj-ud-din Firoz Shah 1397 - 1422 AD Shihab-ud-din Ahmad Shah I 1422 - 1436 AD Ala-ud-din Ahmad Shah II 1436 - 1458 AD Ala-ud-din Humayun Shah 1458 - 1461 AD Nizam-ud-din Ahmad Shah III 1461 - 1463 AD Shams-ud-din Muhammad Shah III 1463 - 1482 AD Shihab-ud-din Mahmud 1482 - 1518 AD Ahmad Shah IV 1518 - 1520 AD Ala-ud-din Shah 1520 - 1523 AD Wai-ullah Shah 1523 - 1526 AD Kalim-ullah Shah 1526 - 1538 AD

During the 191 years of Bahmani reign following rulers ruled with Gulbarga and Bidar as their capital:

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ADMINISTRATION OF BAHMANI KINGDOM Vakil-us-sultana Equivalent to the naib sultan of the Delhi sultanate, served as regent also. Attached to the vakil Wazir-i-Kul Prime minister; supervised the work of all other ministers Amir-i-Jumla Head of the finance department Wazir Deputy Head of the finance department Wazir ashraf Foreign affairs and royal court Sadr-i-Jahan Head of the judicial, ecclesiastical and charities department

Kotwal Head of the Police department Tarafs Provinces Tarafdars Provincial Governors.

Figure 4: GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF BAHMANI AND VIJAYNAGAR

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BREAK-UP OF THE BAHMANI KINGDOM

Nizam Shahi Dynasty of Ahmadnagar (1490-1636):

The founder of the dynasty was Malik Ahmed, son of Hasan Nizam ul Mulk, Prime Minister of the Bahmani kingdom after Mahmud Gawan’s execution. In 1494, Malik Ahmed founded the city of Ahmadnagar and shifted his capital there from . He died in 1510 and was succeeded by his son Burhan. Burhan was the first of the line to assume the title Nizam Shah. After conquering Berar in 1574, Ahmadnagar was involved in a long drawn out warfare with the Mughals. In 1576, Akbar decided to invade Ahmadnagar but the fort was defended by who purchased peace by surrendering Berar. Peace however does not last long and the Mughals again attacked the kingdom. It was during this second attack that Chand Bibi lost her life (1600). However the empire was defended strongly by an Abyssinian minister named Malik Amber. Malik Amber’s stubborn resistance continued over a long period but he was defeated by prince Khurram first in 1617 and again in 1621. His death in 1626 finally sealed the fate of the Nizam Shahi kingdom. Its last ruler Murtada III was captured by Shah Jahan in 1636 and the Nizam Shahi territories were parceled out among the Mughals and the ruler of Bijapur.

Adil Shahi Dynasty of Bijapur (1490-1686): It was founded by Founded by . His great achievement was the recovery of Goa from the Portuguese commander, Albuquerque, though the Portuguese recovered it in 1510. He was succeeded by his minor son, Ismail Shah, who recovered Raichur Doab from Vijayanagar. During the reign of Ibrahim Adil Shah, the kingdoms of Golconda, Bidar and Ahmadnagar attacked Bijapur but it was well defended by its able minister Asad Khan. Ibrahim died in 1557 and was succeeded by his son, Ali Adil Shah. Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1579-1626) was perhaps the greatest of the Adil Shahi kings. He was a good administrator and introduced a very efficient system of revenue settlement. He was tolerant of all creeds and faiths. He kept friendly relations with the Portuguese and allowed them to preach Christianity in his dominions. Gol Gumbaz, a tomb with the world’s second largest dome (St. Paul’s church in Rome being the world’s largest) was built by one of the Adil Shahi rulers, Muhammad Adil Shah (1627-1657) at Bijapur. It is also famous for the so-called ‘Whispering Gallery’. Muhammad lies buried in this magnificent Tomb. The kingdom was later conquered and annexed by Aurangzeb (1686).

Imad Shahi Dynasty of Berar (1484-1574): It was the first province to break loose from the Bahmani kingdom when in 1484, Fatullah Khan Imad ul Mulk, the governor of Gawilgarh, revolted against Mahmud Bahmani. The dynasty he founded was called the Imad Shahi dynasty because he bore the title of Imad- ul-Mulk. His capital was at Elichpur. The dynasty lasted for about ninety years until 1574 when it was annexed by the Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmadnagar.

Qutub Shahi Dynasty of Golconda (1518-1687): It was founded by Quli Qutub Shah (1518-43) who built the famous and made it his capital. Another Qutub Shahi ruler, Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah, was the greatest of all, and it was he who founded the city of Hyderabad (originally known as

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La Excellence IAS Bhagyanagar after the name of the Sultan’s favourite wife, Bhagyamati) and also built the famous in it. The kingdom was later annexed by Aurangzeb (1687).

Barid Shahi Dynasty of Bidar (1528-1619): It was founded by Qasim Barid, a former minister of Mahmud Gawan. Qasim Barid made himself virtually independent about the year 1492 though he did not assume the royal rank. His son Amir Barid openly assumed an independent position in 1525. The third Sultan Ali Barid assumed the title of Shah. The dynasty lasted till 1619 when it was finally annexed by the Adil Shahi of Bijapur.

Figure 5: BREAKUP OF BAHMANI KINGDOM

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BHAKTI MOVEMENT

Bhakti is a religious concept which means devotional surrender to a personally conceived supreme god for attaining salvation. It was for the first time in south India between the 7th and 10th century that Bhakti grew from a mere religious doctrine into a popular movement based on religious equality and broad based social participation.

The movement which was led by popular saints-poets reached its climax in the 10th century after which it began to decline.

The establishment of the Delhi sultanate in early 13th century witnessed great outburst of many diverse and widespread socio-religious movement in various parts of the country drawing upon the concepts of Bhakti.

These movements have been seen as continuation or revival of the older south Indian Bhakti movement. But each one of the later movement which grew in the sultanate period had a historical context of its own and its own peculiarities.

Moreover, some of them, namely, the non-conformist monotheistic movement which is associated with Kabir, Nanak and other “low caste” saints bear only superficial resemblance to the variants of the movement. Its social roots, its ideology, social composition of its leadership and even its concept of Bhakti and God set it fundamentally apart from the older Bhakti movement as well as from the rest of the later Bhakti movement.

BACKGROUND BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN SOUTH INDIA

The Saiva Nayanar saints and Vaishnava Alvar saints of South India spread the doctrine of Bhakti among different section of society irrespective of caste and sex during the period between the 7th and 10th century. Some of these saints come from the lower caste and some were women.

The saint poets preached Bhakti in an intense emotional manner and promoted religious egalitarianism. They dispensed with rituals and traversed the region several times singing, dancing and advocating Bhakti. The Alvar and Nayanar saints used the Tamil language and not Sanskrit for preaching and composing devotional songs. All these features gave the movement a popular character.

But, the south Indian Bhakti movement had its limitations as well it never consciously opposed Brahmanism or the Varna and caste systems at social level. It was integrated with the caste system and the “lower” caste continued to suffer from various social disabilities.

There was no elimination of Brahmanical rituals such as worship of idols, recitation of Vedic mantras and pilgrimages to sacred places in spite of the overriding emphasis on Bhakti as the superior mode of worship. This perhaps was also the reason why the Brahman dominated temples played an important role in the growth of south Indian Bhakti movement.

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La Excellence IAS Ultimately, after the movement reached its climax in the 10th century, it was gradually assimilated into the conventional Brahmanical religion.

But despite these limitations, the south Indian Bhakti movement in its heyday succeeded in championing the cause of religious equality and consequently the Brahmanas had to accept the right of the “low caste” to preach, to have access to Bhakti as a mode of worship and to have access even to Vedas.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN NORTH INDIA

There arose during the sultanate period (13th – 15th century) many popular socio – religions movement in north and east India and Maharashtra. Emphasis on Bhakti and religious equality was two common features of these movements.

There are unexpectedly striking similarities between the older Bhakti tradition of south India (7th – 9th century) and various Bhakti movements that flourished in the sultanate and Mughal period.

If we exclude the popular monotheistic movement of Kabir, Nanak and other “low” caste saints, the two sets of movement can be shown to have possessed many more common features.

For example, like the south Indian Bhakti movement, the Vaishnava Bhakti movement of north and eastern India and Maharashtra, though egalitarian in religious sphere, never denounced the caste system; the authority of Brahmanical scriptures and the Brahmanical privileges as such.

Consequently, like the south Indian Bhakti, most of the Vaishnava movements of the later period were ultimately assimilated into the Brahmanical religion, though in the process of interaction, the latter itself underwent many changes. However the similarities end here.

Bhakti movement was never a single movement except in the broad doctrinal sense of movement which laid emphasis on Bhakti and religious equality. Each one of them had its own regional identity and socio-historical and cultural contexts.

Thus, the non-conformist movements based on popular monotheistic Bhakti contained features that were essentially different from Vaishnava Bhakti movements. Kabir’s notion of Bhakti was not the same as that of medieval Vaishnava saints such as Chaitanya or Mirabai.

Within the Vaishnava movement, the historical context of Maharashtra Bhakti was different from that of the Bengal Vaishnavism or north Indian Bhakti movement of Ramanand Vallabhacharya, Surdas and Tulsidas.

POPULAR MONOTHEISTIC MOVEMENT AND VAISHNAVA BHAKTI MOVEMENT

Both these movement arose in northern Indian at the same time, i.e. in the centuries following the established of the Delhi sultanate and advent of Islam in that port of the country.

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La Excellence IAS The popular monotheistic movements arose and reached their peak in the sultanate period, while the Vaishnava movements began in the sultanate period but reached their climax during the Mughal period.

EXERGENCE OF THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT; FACTORS RESPONSIBLE

POLITICAL FACTOR:

Bhakti movement could not take root in northern India before the Turkish conquest because socio-religion milieu was dominated by Rajput-Brahmin alliance which was hostile to any heterodox movement.

The Turkish conquest brought the supremacy of this alliance to an end. The advent of Islam with the Turkish conquest also caused a set back to the power and prestige commanded by the Brahmins. Thus, the way was paved for the growth of non-conformist movement, with anti caste and anti Brahmin ideology.

The Turks deprived the Brahmins of their temple wealth and state patronage. This loss of power and influence, by the Brahmins and the new political situation ultimately created condition for the rise of popular monotheistic movements and other Bhakti movement in northern India.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTOR:

It has been argued that the Bhakti movement of medieval India represented sentiments of common people against feudal oppression.

According to this viewpoint, elements of revolutionary opposition to feudalism can be found in the poetry of the Bhakti saints ranging from Kabir and Nanak to Chaitanya and Tulsidas.

However, there is nothing in the poetry of Bhakti saints to suggest that they represented the class interest of peasantry against the surplus extracting feudal state.

The Vaishnava saints broke away from orthodox Brahmanical order only to the extent that they believed in Bhakti and religious equality. Normally they continued to subscribe to many basic principle of orthodox Brahmanism.

The more radical monotheistic saints rejected orthodox Brahmanical religious altogether but even they did not call for the overthrow of the state and ruling class.

This, however, does not mean that the Bhakti saints were indifferent to the living conditions of the people. They used images of daily life and always tried to identify themselves in one way or another with the sufferings of the common people.

The widespread popularity of the monotheistic movement of Kabir, Nanak, Dhanna, Pipa etc can be explained fully only in the context of certain significant socio-economic changes in the period following the Turkish conquest of Northern India.

The Turkish ruling class, unlike the Rajputs, lived in towns. The extraction of large agricultural surplus led to enormous concentration of resources in the hands of the ruling class.

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The demands of this resource wielding class for manufactured goods, luxuries and other necessaries led to the expansion of the class of Urban artisans in the 13th and 14th century.

The growing classes of urban artisans were attracted towards the monotheistic movement because of its egalitarian ideas as they were not satisfied with the low states accorded to them in traditional Brahmanical hierarchy.

MONOTHEISTIC MOVEMENTS OF NORTH INDIA

Kabir (C. 1440-1518) was the earliest and undoubtedly the most powerful figure of the monotheistic movements that began in the 15th century.

Guru Nanak (1469-1539) preached his ideas much in the same way as Kabir and other monotheists. But due to various developments later his teachings led to the emergence of mass religion, Sikhism.

COMMON CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE

Most of the monotheists belonged to a low caste and were aware that there existed a unity of ideas among themselves. Most of them were aware of each other teachings and influences. In their verses they mention each other and their predecessors in such a way as to suggest a harmonious ideological affinity among them.

All the monotheists were influenced in one way or another and in varying degrees by Vaishnava concept of Bhakti, the Nathpanthi movements and the . But more often than not they did not accept the element of these traditions in their original from and adoptions which gave new meanings to old concepts.

For the monotheists, there was only one way of established communion with God: It was of personally experienced Bhakti. But, the monotheistic Bhakti was Nirguna Bhakti and not Saguna which was the case with the Vaishnavites who believed in various human incarnations of God.

The God of Nanak, was non incarnate and formless (Nirankar), eternal (Akal) and ineffable (Alakh). The monotheists adopted the notion of Bhakti from the Vaishnava Bhakti tradition but gave it a Nirguna orientation

In addition to the oneness of God and Nirguna Bhakti, the monotheists also emphasized the crucial importance of repetition of divine name, spiritual Guru, community singing of devotional songs (Kirtan) and companionship of saints.

The monotheists followed a path which was independent of both dominant religions of the time i.e. Hinduism and Islam. They denied their allegiance to either of them and criticized the superstitions and orthodox elements of both the religions.

They rejected the authority of Brahmans and their religions scriptures. Kabir, in the harsh and abrasive style, uses ridicule as a powerful method for denouncing orthodox Brahmanism.

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La Excellence IAS The monotheists composed their poems in popular languages. Some of them used a language which was a mixture of different dialects spoken in various ports of North India.

The Monotheists also made use of popular symbols and images to propagate their teachings. Their utterances are expressed in short verses which could be easily remembered. Thus, for instance, Kabir’s poetry is unpolluted and had a rustic colloquial quality but it is essentially “poetry of the people”.

Most of the monotheistic saints were not ascetics; they led worldly life and were married. They lived and preached among the people. They had aversion to and disdain for professional ascetics.

The expression which has been used for them and by which they themselves referred to each other is “Saint” or “Bhagat”.

The monotheistic saints travelled widely to propagator their beliefs. The idea of Kabir and other monotheists spread to various regions and become popular among the “lower” classes.

The popularity of monotheists broke territorial barriers. This is clear from the high position accorded to Kabir, in the Sikh tradition and in the Dadu Panthi tradition of Rajasthan.

Despite the widespread popularity that the teachings of monotheist’s enjoyed among the masses the followers of each one of the major figures in the monotheistic movements like Kabir, Raidas and Nanak gradually organized themselves into sectarian order called Panths such as Kabir Panth, Raidas Panth, Nanak Panth etc.

Of all these, the Nanak Panth alone eventually crystallized into a mass religion. While most of the others continue to survive till today, but with a vastly reduced following and a narrow sectarian base

VAISHAVA BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN NORTH INDIA

Ramananda was the most prominent scholar saint of the Vaishnava Bhakti in northern India during this period. He is considered be the link between the south India Bhakti tradition and north India Vaishnava Bhakti. However, he deviated from the ideology and practice of earlier south Indian in three important respects.

He looked upon Ram and not Vishnu as object of Bhakti. In this sense he came to be regarded as the founder of the Ram cult in north India within the framework of Vaishnava Bhakti tradition.

He preached in the language of the common people, and not in Sanskrit, to propagate the Ram cult.

The most significant contribution to Vaishnava Bhakti was that he made Bhakti accessible to all irrespective of caste. He greatly relaxed the caste rule in respect of religious and social matters.

Another prominent Vaishnava preacher in the sultanate period was Vallabhacharya, he advocated Krishna Bhakti.

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In north India however, the Vaishnava Bhakti cult acquired a more popular base, only in Mughal period. Tulsidas (1532-1623) championed the cause of Rama Bhakti; while Surdas (1453-1563) Mira Bai (1503-73) and many other popularized Krishna Bhakti.

VAISHNAVA BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN BENGAL

In many significant ways the Vaishnava Bhakti in Bengal was different from its north Indian and older south Indian Bhakti.

The sources which influenced it can be traced to two different traditions. The Vaishnava Bhakti tradition of the Bhagvata Purana, with its glorification of Krishna Lila on one hand, and Sahajiya Buddhist and Nathpanthis on the other

The Vaishnava influence was transmitted by various Bhakti poets, beginning with Jayadeva in 12th century. He highlighted the erotic-mystical dimension of love with reference to Radha and Krishna.

Various non-Vaishnava cults such as these of Sahajiya Buddhist and Nathpanthi that survived in Bihar and Bengal influenced the growth of Bhakti movement in Bengal. These cults preached an easy and natural religion focusing on esoteric and emotional elements.

Vaishnava Bhakti poets such as Chandidas (14th century) and Vidyapati (14th – 15th century) came under the influence of these non-Vaishnava cults, though the Bhagvata tradition, was always the major source of influence.

The songs of Chandidas and Vidyapati highlighted the Krishna-Radha relationship. These songs become part of Vaishnava movement in Bengal.

Chaitanya himself did not come under the direct influence of Sahajiya doctrine. It is, however, possible that elements of esoteric cults entered into his movements through the influence of Chandidas and Vidyapati. But the most important source of inspiration was the Bhagvata Purana.

Chaitanya (1486-1533) was the most prominent Vaishnava Saint of Bengal. He popularized Krishna-Bhakti in many parts of Eastern India.

The advent of Chaitanya marks the shifting of the focus of Bengal Vaishnava Bhakti from devotional literary compositions to a full-fledged reform movement with a broad social base.

Chaitanya disregarded all distinctions of caste, creed and set to give a popular base to Krishna-Bhakti. His followers belonged to all castes and communities. He popularized the practice of Sankirtan or group devotional singing accompanied by ecstatic dancing.

However, Chaitanya did not give up traditional Brahmanical values together. He did not question the authority of the Brahmans and scriptures. He upheld the caste prejudices of the Brahman disciples against the “lower” caste disciples.

But Chaitanya movement had a great impact on Bengali society. His disregard for caste distinctions in the sphere of devotional singing promoted a sense of equality in Bengali life.

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In Bengal, Puri and Orissa, his movement remained popular. In these places his followers were not always scholarly Brahmans but included common people. They wrote in Bengali, propagated his Bhakti and looked upon Chaitanya as the living Krishna or Radha and Krishna in one body.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN MAHARASTRA

Like other Vaishnava Bhakti movements, the Maharashtra Bhakti tradition drew its basic inspiration from that of the Bhagvata Purana.

In addition, however, it was also influenced by the Saiva Nathpanthis who were quite popular in the “lower” classes of the Maharastrian society during 11th and 12th centuries. Jnaneshwar (1275-1296) was the pioneer Bhakti saint of Maharashtra. He wrote extensive commentary on the Bhagvata Gita popularly called Jnaneshwari. This was one of the earliest works of and served as the foundation of Bhakti ideology in Maharashtra.

He taught that the only way to attain God was Bhakti and in Bhakti there was no place for caste distinction.

Namadeva (1270-1350) belonged to tailor caste. He is considered to be the link between the Maharastrian Bhakti movement and north Indian Monotheistic movement.

Other prominent Bhakti saints of Maharashtra were Eknath and Tukaram.

INFLUVENCES OF OTHER TRADITIONS AND MOVEMENTS

Bhakti movements of the sultanate period were influenced in one way or another by certain existing traditions and movement whose history goes back to the pre-sultanate period.

These included the Bhakti tradition of the Bhagvata Purana, religious ideas and activities of scholar-saints such as Ramananda and such heterodox movement as that of Nathpanthis

The doctrine of Bhakti is fully developed in the most famous of the Puranas i.e. the Bhagvata Purana, a Vaishnavite work composed around the 9th century. Its most important feature is its emphasis on the Bhakti of Vishnu in his various incarnations, especially in the form of Krishna.

The Bhagvata accept the orthodox Brahmanical theory of origin of the Varna system but did not accept the superiority of the Brahmans simply on the basis of their status or birth, for it, Bhakti is the main criteria.

Bhagvata Purana is the link between various Vaishnava Bhakti movements of the medieval period. However, its influence on monotheistic saints such as Kabir and Nanak was not exerted in a direct manner. Most of these saints were illiterate and did not have any direct access to the Bhagvata and other scriptures.

Kabir and other non-conformist saints did not believe in incarnations either and rejected the Brahmanical and scriptural authority altogether.

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POPULAR MONOTHEISTIC SAINTS AND RAMANANDA

Ramananda teachings are considered to be the source of popular monotheistic movement of Kabir, Raidas and others.

Ramananda was strongly apposed to caste restrictions and opened the path of Bhakti to all. He also preached his ideas in popular dialect. But, on the whole, his ideas and his concept of Bhakti were essentially a part of the Vaishnava Bhakti.

On the other hand, Kabir and other monotheists went many steps further than even the most liberal Vaishnava Bhakt’s like Ramananda and denounced the Brahmanical religion in its entirety.

INFLUENCE OF THE NATHPANTI MOVEMENT ON MONOTHEISTIC SAINTS

A large number of Nathpanthi preachers called “siddhas” belonged to the “lower” castes such as Dome, Chamara (tanners) Washerman, Oilman, Tailors, Fisherman, Wood-cutters, Cobbler etc.

Nathpanthis influence on Kabir is clearly seen in his non-conformist attitudes, in his independent thinking, in his harsh style of utterances, in his “upside-down” language and partly in his mystical symbolism.

However, Kabir and other monotheists, adopted the Nathpanthi ideas on a selective basis only and even when they did so, they adopted these ideas to their own purpose.

Kabir rejected their asceticism and esoteric practices and also their physical methods such as breath control.

Thus, the influence of the Nathpanthis on the monotheistic saints of medieval India can be seen more in heterodox attitude towards the established Brahmanical religion than in their practices.

INFLUENCE OF ISLAMIC IDEAS AND ROLE OF SUFISM

Many scholars have argued that all the variants of the Bhakti movement and the doctrine of Bhakti itself come into being as a result of Islamic influence both before and after 12th century. This claim has been made on the basis of many similarities between Islam and the Bhakti cults.

On the other hand, it is pointed out that Bhakti and Bhakti movements had indigenous origins.

Bhakti as a religious concept had developed in the religions traditions of ancient India. The older south, Indian Bhakti movement also cannot be explained in terms of Islamic influence as its history goes back to the period before the advent of Islam in south India.

However, Islam did influence the Bhakti cults and in particular, the popular monotheistic movements in other ways.

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La Excellence IAS Non-conformist saints such as Kabir and Nanak picked up some of their ideas from Islam. These included their non compromising faith in one God, their rejection of incarnation, their conception of Nirguna Bhakti and their attack on idolatry and the caste system.

But they did not uncritically borrow from Islam and rejected many elements of orthodox Islam.

The Vaishnava Bhakti movements, on the other hand, cannot be interpreted in terms of such an influence of Islam as they neither denounced idolatry and caste system nor the theory of incarnation. They believed in Saguna Bhakti.

The relationship between monotheistic Bhakti movement and Islam seems to have been one of mutual influence and Sufism provided the common meeting ground.

Sufi concept of Pir and mystic union with the beloved (God) coincided in many respects with the non-conformist saints’ concepts of Guru and devotional surrender to God.

Though the Sufism and the monotheistic movement were historically independent of each other, there was remarkable similarity in many of their basic ideas, including their common rejection of Hindu and Muslim orthodoxies. The interaction between them, however indirect must have given impetus to both of them.

THEORY OF ISLAMIC CHALLENGE TO HINDUISM

One modern viewpoint, associated with communal interpretation of Indian history, tends to attribute the rise of the medieval Bhakti movements to alleged of the Hindu under ‘Muslim’ rule and to the challenge that Islam is supposed to have posed to Hinduism through its doctrine of “Unity of God”, equality and brotherhood.

According to this theory, the Bhakti movements were a two pronged defensive mechanism to save the Hindu religion by purging it of such evils as caste system and idolatry and at the same time defending its basis tents by popularizing it.

However, this theory of imagined Islamic threat to Hinduism is in essence a projection of modern communal prejudices into the past.

By the time Islam reached India, the Islamic doctrine of “brotherhood” had lost much of its appeal and social economic and racial inequalities had crept into the Muslim society. The Turkish ruling class possessed a strong sense of racial superiority and looked upon “low caste” Indian converts to Islam as low-born and not fit for high office.

The Hindu population continued to observe their religious practices and to celebrate their religious festivals. In fact the over whelming majority of population remained Hindu even in the vicinity of Delhi, the capital of sultanate.

The Monotheistic saints denounced the aspect of both orthodox Brahmanism and orthodox Islam and their ritualistic practices.

To assume that all monotheistic and Vaishnava Bhakti saints were reacting on behalf of the Hindus to Islamic thereat is not convincing because Kabir and other “low caste” saints hardly showed any unity of propose with the saints belonging to the Vaishnava Bhakti cults.

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SUFI MOVEMENT

SUFI MOVEMENT

IDEA OF GOD

The philosophy of Sufism believes in one God and regards every individual and everything else as part of him. The Sufi saints preached that God is one, all is in God, nothing is beyond or outside him one can find God by renouncing everything except loving devotion to God.

Sufism strove to achieve the inner realization of divine unity by arousing intuitive and spiritual faculties. Rejecting rational argument, the Sufis plunged into contemplation and mediation. Some of them were overpowered by ecstasy and frenzy, but sobriety was generally considered essential to Sufism.

The Sufis were devout Muslims who moved within the Shariat (laws of Islam) and believed it as the true way to attain salvation. However, they attached no importance to dogmatic formalism of Islam of the orthodox type. Instead, they emphasized on the inner spirit of the Islam. That is why while the orthodox Muslims emphasized on external conduct, the Sufis emphasized on inner purity and love to God as means of searching God.

The Sufi-Saints led a simple or rather ascetic life and believed in renunciation of all worldly possessions and pleasures. They did not believe in image worship in any form. They regarded God as kind and benevolent and therefore, they did not fear him but loved him. That is why they emphasized on loving every living-being and avoided meat eating.

They regarded desire as the primary enemy of human-being and, therefore emphasized on giving it up. They believed in leading an ascetic life devoted to God and remembering him always. Music inspired them to remember God and therefore they engaged themselves in music and dance with ecstasy while remembering God.

They believed in Guru (Master) whom they called Pir. They believed that none can approach near God without the assistance of Guru. They observed Tauba (repentance over bad deeds); Vara (Non-acceptance of what was not given freely); Juhud (kindness); Fakar (poverty); Sabr (tolerance); Shukar (acceptance of obligation); Khauf (fear); Raj (Hope); Tawakhul (contentment); and Riza [Surrender to God in order to achieve Vasl (salvation)]. They however did not believe in Namaz (daily prayers), Rauzas (fasts) and pilgrimage to Haj.

The Sufis urged their disciples to lead a life of poverty and asceticism. Their simple life devoted to Allah, their dependence upon the charity of ordinary people and their immediate distribution to the poor of any money they received made a favourable impression upon all sections of the Muslim population and even upon Hindus.

Much interest was aroused by their practice of pas-i-anfas (Control of breath) meditation, Chila (forty days of hard ascetic exercise in a cell or some lonely place), and Chilla i- makus (forty days of ascetic exercise performed with the head on the ground and the legs

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La Excellence IAS tied to the roof or a branch of a tree). Their most popular practice was Sama (the recital of holy songs which was intended to arouse a state of ecstasy in their audience.

By the twelfth century Sufis were divided into different (orders), each with its Pir (preceptor) also known as Shaikh or Khwaja as an infallible guide for the neophyte. Until the fourteenth century a Pir only initiated disciples into his own order but later on distinguished preceptors were authorized to initiate disciples into other orders too.

The Khanqah (hospice) was the centre of the Pir’s activity attracting from a far men seeking the spiritual life. Such disciples were graded into different categories; the most advanced joining the Pir in his prayers and meditational exercise. Some Khanqah’s provided board and lodging for a large number of disciples and visitors. Initially the inmates of the Khanqah lived on the charity of the local inhabitants but as time went by their affluence grew in step with their popularity. So much were they venerated that their relics were sanctified and worshipped by posterity.

Love towards God, non-violence. Tapa (practice of self-discipline), keeping apart from the material comforts of life, were common values accepted among the Hindus, the Buddhists and the Jains in India. Sufi saints were influenced by these virtues and they accepted them as their own. In the formative period: Sufis generally led a retired ascetic life: but gradually they evolved a corporate system of their own, ideas and practices being borrowed from Christian and Buddhist monasticism and philosophy from Neoplatonism and Upanishadic concepts. Their originality lay in incorporating these influences within the framework of Islam thus making them an integral part of Muslim life.

IMPACT OF SUFI MOVEMENT

The Sufi mystics were responsible for the spread of Muslim culture among the masses in the various parts of the country. The Islamic concept of equality and brotherhood of man greatly attracted the lower classes of the Hindus who had no access to the temples and were even forbidden to read the scriptures. They were looked down upon and were treated as untouchables by the upper classes.

In the Khanqah’s set up by these mystics, the atmosphere was quite different. There was no discrimination between the high and the low. All worked together and dined and slept together. The mystics laid emphasis on the brotherhood and equality of mankind. Many of the mystics particularly of the showed a spirit of toleration towards other religions and creeds. They stressed that there was essential unity between different religions. This broad and cosmopolitan outlook helped in breaking the spirit of mistrust and isolation which honeycombed relations between the various culture-groups of India and paved the way for rapprochements at all levels, social and ideological.

Muslim mystics were not so much interested in the theoretical aspect of Hindu philosophy and thought. They were more concerned with the actual practices and psychological and emotional content of Hindu religion. It alone would help them to make a direct and effective appeal to the Indian masses. The common medium of expression of dialogue was important for communication. It led to the use of Hindi words and the ultimate birth of the Urdu languages.

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La Excellence IAS The idea of the brotherhood of Islam and equality among its adherents powerfully appealed to the low casts among the Hindus. It led to large-scale conversions particularly in Bengal.

The mystics re-emphasized the unity of Godhead and superiority of the path of devotion over rituals and ceremonial pilgrimages and fasts. It made a great impression on the minds of the Indian reformers and thinkers who became the pioneers of the Bhakti Movement which tried to harmonize Hinduism and Islam and find a common meeting-ground for the devout of both the creeds in which the differences of rituals, dogmas and external marks of faith were ignored. It is not merely a coincidence that most of the leaders of the Bhakti Movement, such as Chaitanya, Kabir, Nanak, Dadu did not belong to the upper stratum of society.

These mystics and their Silsilas set a high standard of morality and discipline before the public. They raised their voice against all vices such as drinking, gambling, slavery etc. which did influence the general Indian population and were thus instrumental in maintaining the social equilibrium of the medieval society.

The Sufis often reflected the non-conformist elements in society, and on occasion even the rationalist forces, since their mysticism was not in every case religious escapism. Some opted out of society in order to pursue knowledge based on empirical observation, when they felt that the more established tradition of rational thought had become entangled with the rigid doctrines of the orthodox.

Important Sufi saints

Khwaja Ali Hujjwiri (11th Century): Also known as Data Ganj Baksh, the earliest Sufi saint of eminence known to have settled in India, the author of the celebrated manual of Sufism entitled ‘-ul-Mahjub’.

Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262): The founder of the Suharawardi order who founded the first leading Khanqah in India at Multan. He was given title Saikh-ul-Islam. The other important saints of Suharawadi were Hamiduddin Nagori and Jalluddin Bukhari.

Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti (1141-1236): He was the founder or the Chisti order the first and most popular liberal Sufi order in India. He settled down at Ajmer about 1206. Other Chisti Sufi saints who followed Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti or Khwaja Ajmeri were:

Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in whose memory Qutub Minar was built by Iltutmish

Baba Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar (1175-1265) popularly known as Baba Farid, built his Khanqah at Ajodan (Punjab) and was the first great Punjabi poet of Sufism.

Shaikh (1236-1325) who gained the popular title Mehboob-i-Ilahi (the beloved of the God) and Sultan-ul-Auliya, he built his Khanqah in Delhi and was one of the most famous Sufi saints of the Chisti Order. He witnessed the reign of 7 Sultans in Delhi. Amir Khusrau, the great poet, was his follower.

Shaikh Nasiruddin Mahmud: He was the charismatic Chisti saint, who was later known as Chirag-i-Delhi (the Lamp of Delhi)

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La Excellence IAS Syed Muhammad Gesu Daraz: He settled down at Gulbarga (Karnataka) was popularly known as Bandanawaz (Benefactor of God’s creatures) and authored more than 30 books on Sufism-he was one of the early writers and poets in Urdu.

Except Nasiruddin Mahmud rest all of the Chisti saints were married

Shaikh Badruddin Samarkandi (13 Century): He founded Firdausi order which was restricted to Bihar.

Mughal Emperor Humayun was the follower of the Sattari silsila. This silsila was founded by Shah Abdullah Sattari. The kankah of this silsila was established at Gawalior. Muhammad Gaus was an important saint of this silsila who was the teacher of .

Miyan Mir (1550-1635) was the most popular Sufi saint of the Qadiriya order.

Khwaja Baqi Billah (1536-1603): He founded the Naqsbandiah order and its most famous saint was Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1625) known as Mujaddid Alif. They opposed the policies of Akbar.

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La Excellence IAS THE MUGHALS

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (1526-1540)

The Mughal rule begins with the victory of Babur over Ibrahim Lodi in the (1526). With a brief interval of fifteen years, when Shershah and his successors ruled the country, the Mughal Empire lasted from 1526 to 1707 for 181 years Thereafter the decline began. The Mughal dynasty produced six great kings-Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jehangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb. These Mughal kings are known as the Great Mughals. They gradually made India their home. They gave an efficient administration and political unity to India. During this age, the fame of India spread throughout the world. The country generally enjoyed peace and prosperity and was full of wealth and luxury. Arts, architecture and literature progressed. Many new cities and grand buildings were erected. Trade flourished and the people on the whole were prosperous and happy.

ZAHIRURDDIN MUHAMMAD BABUR (1526-1530)

Babur was the founder of the Mughal Empire in India. He was descendent in the male line from Timur and in the female line from Changez Khan. His family belonged to the Chaghtai section of the Turkish race. Babur was born on 14th February, 1484. He succeeded his father, Umar Sheikh Mirza, as ruler of Farghana in central Asia at the age of eleven. Unable to fulfill his political ambitions in central Asia, due to the influential dynasty of Uzbeks, Babur turned his eyes towards India. Moreover Babur, being a descendent of Timur, put forward legitimate claims over Indian territories as Punjab was a part of Timurid Empire.

Babur's move over Punjab and India was also prompted by the changes in the political situation in India. The death of Sikander Lodi at Agra towards the end of 1517, gave an opportunity to the afghan nobles, to try to regain some of the power and influence they had lost under his strict rule. This led to conflict between Ibrahim Lodi, the son and successor of Sikander Lodi, and the older nobility. Harsh punishments meted out to them by the sultan only led to further distrust and disaffection. The nobility wanted to get rid of Ibrahim.

Under these circumstances the governor of Lahore, Daulat Khan Lodi, who was in arrears in settling the accounts of his charge with Ibrahim Lodi, and was apprehensive of action against him by young sultan, sent his son Dilawar Khan, to Babur at Kabul in 1521-22. He invited Babur to invade India since, he said, the ruler, Ibrahim Lodi, was a tyrant, and had maltreated the afghan nobles. Alam Khan Lodi, the son of Bahlol Lodi, and another claimant to the throne, also visited Kabul. It seems that it was at this time that Babur also received an envoy from (Sangram Singh) of Mewar, the most powerful Rajput prince of the time. Though Babur needed no invitation to attack India, the arrival of these envoys convinced him that the situation was ripe for undertaking the conquest on India.

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La Excellence IAS TABULAR REPRESENTATION OF BABUR’S CAMPAIGNS

YEAR PLACE REMARKS 1518-19 Bajaur and Bhira First invasion of India Babur’s artillery played a decisive role Gun powder was used for the first time. 1520 Sialkot 1524 Lahore and Dipalpur April 1526 Panipat Fifth expedition in India Defeated Ibrahim Lodi March Khanwa (near Defeated Rana Sanga 1527 Fatehpur Sikri) This war was declared by Babur as Jihad. This victory secured Babur’s position in Delhi-Agra region 1528 Chanderi Defeated the Rajput ruler Medini Rai May 1529 Ghagra (near Patna) Fought against the allied forces of Afghans, under Mahmud Lodhi, a brother of Ibrahim Lodhi, in Bengal and Bihar. Sultan Nusrat Shah of Bengal faced crushing defeat.

Babur’s success is attributed to the effective use of artillery under Ustad Ali and Mustafa. Though his army was not huge, he was a good general with a keen sense of military strategy and arranged his men to facilitate easy movement from one part of the battle to another. He brought under his hold Punjab, Delhi and the Ganga plains up to Bihar.

Babur died in 1530 and was buried at Arambagh in Agra; later his body was taken to Kabul and buried there. He was, besides being a good general, a cultured and literary man who wrote Persian poetry. His memoir in Turki Tuzuk-i-Baburi is a valuable work and shows his humane outlook and sensitivity to the beauty of nature.

HUMAYUN (1530-1556)

After the death of Babur in 1530, his eldest son, Humayun, succeeded him to the throne at Agra. He was then 23 years old. On his death bed, Babur had advised Humayun to remain on friendly terms with his brothers. Accordingly, as soon as Humayun came to the throne, he divided the mughal territories with his three brothers. Kamran, the governor of Kabul and Kandahar, was confirmed in his possessions, and when he occupied the Punjab, Humayun did not object. He gave Mewat (South of Delhi) and Alwar to Hindal, and Sambhal (Rohilkhand) to Mirza Askari. This division of empire was Humayun’s first mistake and it proved very harmful for him. He made Delhi his capital.

After accession to the throne Humayun had to face a number of serious problems, some of them having been left behind by Babur, and some which had arisen following his death in December 1530. A major problem was the unsettled state of administration, the insufficient treasury and the ambition of the nobles (begs) who wanted to assert themselves. Humayun found himself surrounded by enemies on all sides. In the east were Muhammad Lodhi and other Afghans under Sher Khan. In the south was Sultan Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, and in the North-West, Kamran younger brother of Humayun.

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La Excellence IAS

Six months after his accession, Humayun besieged the powerful fort of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand. The Chandela ruler had a reputation for bravery, but he surrendered Kalinjar to Humayun after a siege of a month. He was allowed to keep the fort in return for accepting Humayun’s suzerainty and giving 12 mans of gold. This enhanced Humayun's reputation.

The Afghans, though defeated by Babur, had not been completely crushed. They were still strong in the east and were advancing towards Agra. They wanted to expel Mughals and set up an independent Afghan kingdom in India. So first of all, Humayun turned his attention towards Afghans.

The Afghan sardar, Sher Khan, who had once been in the service of Babur, but had defected, had established his hold on the powerful fort of Chunar. This fort was considered the gateway to Bihar. To assert his claims over the fort, Humayun marched from Kalinjar to Chunar and invested it. After some time negotiations began and Sher Khan was forced to make peace and accept a huge indemnity. At this, Humayun returned to Agra without completely subduing him. The acceptance of nominal submission of Sher Khan, proved to be a mistake on the part of Humayun. Sher Khan was thus left free to consolidate his power in the east. Humayun accepted the offer, because at the moment he did not contemplate an attack on Bihar, and did not consider Sher Khan to be a danger to him. The events that followed proved him wrong.

After Chunar, Humayun spent almost a year at Agra. During the period he tried to organize administration and court society. His instituting a drum of justice (tabl-i-adl) to enable grievances to be brought to the notice of the king may be considered a first step to ensure public support for the new Mughal state.

Next Humayun led an army against the Afghans under Mahmud Lodhi, and defeated them at Dadrah or Daurah, on the banks of river Gomti, near Lucknow. Seeing little hope of success against the Mughals, some of the Afghan sardars fled to the court of Bahadur Shah, and found refuge there. This was towards the end of 1532. Humayun now turned his attention to the problem of Malwa, eastern Rajasthan and Gujarat where Bahadur Shah was emerging as a challenge.

Bahadur Shah annexed Malwa in 1531, captured the fort of Raisin and defeated the chief of Chittor in 1533. No wonder Humayun marched against him. Bahadur Shah has seiged Chittor. Rani Karnawati appealed to Humayun for help by sending him a Rakhi. Humayun did not attack Bahadur Shah as long as siege of Chittor lasted. It was only after the fall of Chittor that Humayun started his operations against Bahadur Shah, who had escaped to Mandu. Humayun captured the fort of Mandu, Champaner and Mandsor. Bahadur Shah fled and took refuge with the Portuguese in Diu. Thus Malwa and Gujarat fell into the hands of Humayun.

With the conquest of Gujarat (1535), Humayun completed his conquest in Central India. After this, Humayun received the news that Sher Khan was increasing his power in Bengal. He, therefore, left his brother Askari in Gujarat, and advanced against Sher Khan. As soon as his back was turned, Bahadur Shah recovered both Gujarat and Malwa. Thus Humayun conquered and lost Gujarat and Malwa within two years.

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La Excellence IAS During Humayun’s absence from Agra, Sher Khan had further strengthened his position. He had made himself the unquestioned master of Bihar. The Afghans from far and near had rallied round him. Though he continued to profess loyalty to the Mughals, he systematically planned to expel the Mughals from India.

Humayun marched against Sher Khan and besieged Chunar towards the end of 1537. However, the fort was strongly defended by the Afghans, and it took full six months for Humayun to capture it. In the meanwhile, Sher Khan invaded Bengal, and captured its capital Gaur.

Next Sher Shah defeated Humayun at Chausa. After the defeat at Chausa (1539) only the fullest unity among the Timurid princes and the nobles could have saved the Mughals. However Humayun was unfortunate in this context. The army hastily assembled by Humayun was no match against Sher Khan, and therefore Sher Shah defeated him finally in the Battle of Kannauj (1540). The battle finally decided the issue of supremacy in India between Sher Khan and the Mughals.

Humayun now became a prince without a kingdom, Kabul and Qandhar remaining under Kamran. He wandered about in Sindh and its neighboring countries for the next two and half years, hatching various schemes to regain his kingdom. But neither the rulers of Sindh nor Maldeo, the powerful ruler of Marwar, was prepared to help him in this enterprise. Worse, his own brothers turned against him, and tried to have him killed or imprisoned.

Humayun faced all these tribulations with fortitude and courage. It was during this period that Humayun’s character showed itself at its best. Ultimately, Humayun took Shelter at the court of the Iranian king, and recaptured Kabul and Qandhar with his help in 1545, and in 1555. Following the breakup of the ; he was able to recover Delhi. But he did not live long to enjoy the fruits of the victory. He died from a fall from the library building at Delhi. Thus, Humayun went from riches to rags and again from rags to riches.

THE SUR EMPIRE (1540-55)

The original name of Sher Shah, the founder of Sur Empire, was Farid. He began his career with the administration of his father Hasan’s Iqta at Sahasram in south Bihar. Later he moved to the court of the Afghan ruler of Bihar, Bahar Khan Lohani, who gave him the title ‘Sher Khan’ for his bravery.

Sher Shah learnt that Maldeva, the ruler of Marwar, had opened negotiations with Humayun to overthrow Sher Shah, but the Afghan’s conquest of Malwa frightened this Rajput ruler and forced him to retract his undertaking to help Humayun. When Sher Shah marched towards Marwar, Maldeva was so panic-stricken that he fled. The Rajput army nevertheless fought stubbornly. Though Sher Shah emerged victorious, he often remarked, referring to the barren Marwar territories, that he had nearly lost the empire of Hindustan for a handful of millet.

Sher Shah captured the chain of forts from Malwa to Marwar, but the ruler of Kalinjar, who sympathized with Humayun, remained defiant. So Sher Shah decided to capture this fort and launched the attack. But he was very badly burnt and died due to accidental explosion in 1545. After Sher Shah’s death, his second son, Jalal Khan, was crowned, adopting the title Islam Shah. Islam concentrated on breaking the power of Afghan leaders whom his

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La Excellence IAS father had tamed and trained. But his early death in 1552 dislocated the administrative machinery. Before Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, three different rulers were crowned. During this time the real power lay in the hands of a Brahmin general, named .

THE SUR ADMINISTRATION

Great as a conqueror that he was, Sher Shah was greater still as a ruler. His short rule was marked by many beneficent reforms in every branch of administration. For administrative convenience Sher Shah divided his whole empire into 47 divisions called sarkars and these were again subdivided into smaller administrative units called Parganas.

Central Administration  Based on autocratic monarchy.  No actual powers to the ministers.  Constant supervision and control by the Sultan.  Its main defect was excessive centralization.  Four main central departments, were as follows:

i. Diwan-i-Wizarat: The department was related with financial matters such as collecting taxes and maintaining accounts of the state exchequer. ii. Diwan-i-Arz: Headed by Arz-i-Mamalik, it was a military department. iii. Diwan-i-Insha: Working as a secretariat, it issued royal orders. The head of this department was called dabir. iv. Diwan-i-Risalat: Headed by Sadr, this department dealt with the religious and foreign affair matters. Diwan-i-Kaza, headed by qazi, worked under this department. The qazi looked after judicial administration.

Provincial Administration  Lack of enough information about provincial administration.

Local Administration  Division of the provinces into sarkars, which were under Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran (in- charge of law and order, general administration and criminal justice) and munsif-i- mansifan (in-charge of local revenue and civil justice).  Division of the sarkars into paraganas, which were under shiqdars (Law and order, criminal justice, etc.), and munsif or amin (Land revenue and civil justice).  Division of the Parganas into villages, under headmen;  By appointing two persons of equal rank at Pargana and sarkar levels. Sher Shah divided the executive functions thus ensuring balance of power.  By assuming the power of appointment and dismissal of even Pargana and sarkar officials, Sher Shah effected greater centralization.

Revenue Administration Sher Shah’s land revenue policy is an important landmark in the history of Indian agrarian system. After a survey of the lands (Under the supervision of Ahmad Khan), according to a uniform system, Sher Shah settled the land revenue directly with the tillers of the soil. He abolished the system of landlords and middlemen in his revenue administration. His revenue management is compared with the modern Ryotwari settlement. Todar Mal

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La Excellence IAS contributed greatly in the development of the revenue policy of Sher Shah. During the rule of Sher Shah, peasants had also to pay Jaribana (Survey charge) and Muhasilana (Tax collection charge). The rates of these charges were 2.5 per cent and 5 percent respectively. Sher Shah’s land revenue system, with some modifications was adopted by the Mughals under Akbar. Some important features of Sher Shah land revenue arrangement were:

 Assessment of land revenue on the basis of measurement of land. For measurement of the land, “sikandari gaja” (32 inches) was made the base.  Drawing up of schedules of crop rates on the basis of the quality of land.  Classification of land into three categories on the basis of their yield (Good, bad and middling).  Computation of the produce of three kinds of land and fixing 1/3rd of their average as the land revenue, payable either in cash or kind.  The rights and liabilities of the tenants were clearly defined in documents known as pattas (Title deeds) and qabuliyats (deed of agreement). Each peasant thus knew what he had to pay.  Collection of a cess of two and half seers per bigha (unit of land) from the peasants for famine relief fund.

Military Administration  Dispensation of tribal levies, and beginning of direct recruitment of soldiers.  Payment of salaries to the soldiers in cash  Maintenance of chehra or descriptive rolls of soldiers and dagh or the branding of horses.  Setting up of cantonments in different places and posting a garrison in each of them.

Other Reforms

Sher Shah improved communications by building roads. Four important roads constructed by him were as follows: (i) Grand trunk road from Sunargaon in East Bengal to Peshawar; (ii) road from Agra to Multan via Burhanpur and Delhi, (iii) road from Multan to Lahore; and (iv) road from Mandu to Agra. Of these four roads, the first was the most important. The roads built by Sher Shah are called ‘the arteries of the empire’.

Sher Shah introduced a regular postal service and attempted the standardization of weights and measures. His currency reform deserves high praise. He issued a large number of silver coins (dam) and abolished all old and mixed metal currency. His silver “rupia” after elimination of its inscription was in use till 1835 and formed the basis of the later British Indian currency.

Other reforms include collection of customs duty on goods only twice, once at the time of entering the country and another at the time of sale of goods; making the local headmen and zamindars responsible for the loss of the goods of merchants on roads.

SUR ARCHITECTURE: Sher Shah was also a great builder. He got build sarais or rest houses along the roads for the convenience of the traders and travelers. Subsequently with the settlement of villages around sarais they developed into qasbahs or market towns. The octagonal mausoleum which he built for himself at Sasaram is one of the finest in India. It is considered as a

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La Excellence IAS culmination of the Sultanate architecture and the beginning for the developed later. The old Fort () in Delhi, whose surviving monuments are Qila- i-Kuhna Masjid and the Sher Mandal library, is another important architectural creation of Sher Shah.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (1556-1707)

JALAL-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD AKBAR (1556-1605)

On his way to Sind Humayun happened to see Hamida Banu Begum, daughter of his brother Hindal’s teacher, and married her. Accompanied by Hamida, Humayun left for Jodhpur to seek the help of Maldeva. On the way they passed through Amarkot, whose ruler, Rana Prasad, received them warmly; there in 1542, Hamida gave birth to Akbar. Meanwhile Humayun was warned by his ambassador at Maldeva court of the Raja’s designs to imprison him. So he abandoned his journey to Jodhpur and set out for Kandahar. There Askari also sought to imprison him. Humayun therefore set off to seek help from Shah Tahmashp in Iran. After lot of vacillation, the Shah gave him a force of 12,000 soldiers, with which he conquered Kandahar from Askari and Kabul from Kamran. In the meanwhile the Sur Dynasty was disintegrating rapidly.

Humayun reconquered India by defeating the Afghan forces under Sikander Sur and occupied Agra and Delhi in 1555, but his accidental death cut short his aspirations for consolidating Mughal suzerainty in India. Humayun was neither a good general nor an efficient organizer, but was optimistic and persevering. He was passionately devoted to the study of astronomy, loved painting, and wrote Persian poetry.

Second Battle of Panipat: Akbar received news of his father’s death during his campaign against the Afghans in the Punjab. Though Bairam Khan promptly crowned Akbar king, the latter’s position was quite precarious. The most formidable claimant of Akbar’s throne was Hemu, the Hindu minister of Muhammad Adil Shah. The Afghans drove out the Mughals from the Agra-Bayana region and Delhi, had been seized by Hemu. Thus Akbar was extremely insecure at his accession. However, in the (1556) against Akbar, Hemu was about to win the day when an arrow pierced his eye; instantly Hemu’s army broke and fled. The army of Akbar in the battle was led by Bairam Khan

Bairam Khan’s Regency: After appointing a renowned Iranian scholar, Abdul Latif, as Akbar’s tutor, Bairam consolidated the administration of the reconquered region as Akbar’s vakil (Regent). His growing predominance alienated the ‘Atkah Khail’, consisting of the families of Akbar’s relations. Akbar was eighteen years old by 1560 and wished to rule independently. In the same year, Maham Anaga, one of his step-mothers, managed to have Akbar transferred from Agra to Delhi. From there Akbar wrote to Bairam ordering him to leave on a pilgrimage to Mecca. But court politics goaded Bairam to revolt. When he finally surrendered Akbar ordered him to resume his pilgrimage. In 1561 Bairam was unfortunately assassinated by an Afghan at Patan in Gujarat on his way to Mecca, but his four-year-old son, Abdur Rahim, was sent to court.

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THE CONQUESTS OF AKBAR:

DATE YEAR REMARKS 1561 Malwa The ruler of Malwa was Baz Bahadur 1564 Garhkatanga, Rani Durgavati and her minor Son, Bir Narayan, (a kingdom in died fighting Mughals. The Mughal army was led ) by Asaf Khan. 1567 Chittor The storming of the fortress of Chittor was one of the most famous military feats of Akbar. Rana Udai Singh was its ruler. 1572-3 Gujarat Akbar built the famous Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri in commemoration of this victory 1574-76 Bihar and Akbar personally marched against Bihar and drove Bengal out Daud from Patna and Hajipur. 1576 Battle of Rana Pratap, the son of Udai Singh of Mewar, was Haldighati severely defeated by the Mughal army under Man Singh and Asaf Khan. 1581 Kabul Mirza Hakim was defeated 1586 Kashmir and Baluchistan 1591 Sind 1592 Orissa The Mughal Army was led by Man Singh 1595 Qandhar The Mughal Army in this battle was commanded by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. 1601 Asirgarh The capture of Asirgarh marked the climax of Akbar’s career of conquest.

Despite Akbar’s success in regions of Rajasthan his object in Mewar remained unfulfilled. The independent attitude of his principality proved too much for Akbar’s ambition and he laid siege of Chittor in AD 1567. Jai Mal, the brave general of Udai Singh, offered stout resistance to the attackers but died fighting in the battlefield. The fall of Chittor was followed by the submission of the chiefs of Ranthambhor and Kalinjar. But still a formidable enemy remained in Rana Pratap, the son of Udai Singh. He defied Akbar and refused to acknowledge his supremacy. A fierce battle was fought at the pass of Haldighati near Gogunda in 1576. Rana Pratap was defeated after a stubborn contest. However, the Rana succeeded in recovering the greater art of his kingdom and founded the new capital of Udaipur. He died in 1577, leaving his son Amar Singh as his heir. Finally at the time of the death of Akbar, Rajasthan was merely a ‘Suba’ or province with its headquarters at Ajmer.

In 1585 Akbar moved to the north-west frontier in order to foil the attempts of the ambitious Abdullah Khan Uzbek to seize Kabul, and stayed there until Abdullah Khan’s death in 1598. During his fourteen year’s presence in the area, Akbar sent three expeditions. One left for Kashmir and another set out against Baluchistan. The third force went to subdue the Afghan tribes and an afghan religious movement called the Raushaniyas. Akbar’s early military operations against the Raushaniyas and the tribes were unsuccessful, and in 1586 his trusted friend Birbal (a Brahmin) was killed by the Yusufzais. Raja Bhagawan Das, one of the general of the Kashmir expedition, succeeded in persuading Yusuf Khan, the last ruler of Kashmir, to surrender. Akbar, however, refused to accept his terms and instead had him and his son arrested. The army sent by Akbar conquered Kashmir in 1586, and it

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La Excellence IAS was made a sarkar of Kabul province. The army sent against Baluchistan persuaded the Baluchi chiefs to surrender and in 1590-1 Sind was also conquered.

In 1591 Akbar began his attempt to conquer the Deccan. While Khandesh offered submission, Ahmednagar was gallantly defended by Chand Bibi; Akbar annexed parts of Ahmednagar in 1600. Berar was also annexed.

THE SECULAR OUTLOOK OF AKBAR:

Akbar proved successful in his empire-building not merely because of his military prowess but also because of his enlightened religious policy and his attitude towards the Rajputs. One of the greatest humanitarian measures of Akbar was abolition of slavery and the practice of converting prisoners of war to Islam, in 1562. He abolished Pilgrimage tax in 1563 and Jaziya in 1564.

Rajput Policy: Akbar made the Rajputs not only his friends but also took many Rajput princesses as his bride. He established matrimonial alliances with the royal families of the Rajput states, such as Amber, Bikaner and Jaisalmer. Raja Bharamal Kachchhwaha of Amber married his eldest daughter to Akbar. Raja Bhagawan Das (Raja Bharamal’s heir) and Man Singh (His nephew and adopted son) were subsequently given senior positions in the imperial hierarchy. He granted the Rajputs equal rights with the Muslims and appointed them on high and elevated positions. However, he also fought wars against those Rajput rulers who did not accept his authority. He fought continuous battles against Rajput states like Gondwana, Ranthambhor, Kalinjir and Mewar. When a conquest was completed, he treated the subdued Rajput ruler with utmost politeness and due honour. One by one all the Rajput states were subjugated and they submitted to Akbar. Actually, the essence of Akbar’s Rajput policy was that at first they should be brought under his control, and thereafter they should be treated with due regards and friendless.

Ibadat Khana (House of Worship): In 1575 Akbar ordered the construction of the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) near the Jami Masjid in his newly built town of Fatehpur Sikri. Only the Sunnis were initially allowed to participate in religious discussions. Abdul Qadir Badayuni and Abul Fazl were the principal debaters. Both had been trained by Abul Fazl’s father, Shaikh Mubarak. After the , Akbar resumed the theological debates with representatives of all religious groups such as Shias, Hindus, Christians and Zoroastrians. He grew convinced that all religions contained some truth and that this was not the prerogative of Islam. Father Monserrate, a member of the first Jesuit mission at Akbar’s court (1580-3), who accompanied the emperor in the Kabul campaign (1581) against his half-brother Mirza Hakim, has left a lively account of the religious debates during the journey.

SPECIAL INVITEES TO IBADAT KHANA Hinduism Purushottam and Devi Zoroastrianism Maharji Rana Christianity Aqaviva and Monserrate (Both Portuguese) Jainism Hira Vijaya Suri

Mahzar: Shaikh Mubarak advised the emperor to obtain the written verdict of Ulema as to whether the ruler was empowered to decide in accordance with expediency on controversial legal questions. A document dated August-September 1579, known as the

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La Excellence IAS Mahzar, was consequently signed by the leading Ulema under the guidance of Shaikh Mubarak. This made Akbar the final interpreter of Islamic law (Mujtahid-Imam-i-Adil) in case of any controversies. It made him Amir-ul-Momin (Leader of the faithful) and Amir-i- Adil (A just ruler). However it was not an ‘infallibility decree’ as claimed by VA Smith.

Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith): Father Daniel Bartoli, a later Jesuit author, claims that after his return from Kabul, Akbar made himself the founder and head of a new religion. This religion, Bartoli continues, was discussed by a council of learned men and commanders. This council is regarded by modern scholars as the inauguration of Akbar’s new faith, the Din Ilahi (Divine Monotheism).

The letters and reports of three Jesuit missions which visited Akbar, however, indicate that no new religion was ever promulgated. The examination of contemporary sources does not lead us to the conclusion that Akbar invented a new religion. Badayuni believed that Akbar was creating a new religion but contemporary historians believe that he was only trying to attain the status of Insaan-i-Kamil. Some important tenets of Tauhid-i-Ilahi or Din-i-Ilahi were

 It could be adopted on Sunday by performing Paibos. (The emperor placed his feet on the head of the initiated), following which Akbar gave Shat (Formula).  The initiated had to express greeting in the form of Allah-o-Akbar and Jalle-Jalalhu.  He had to abstain from meat and give alms.  There were no scriptures and priests.  Tauhid-i-Ilahi had four grades of devotion in the ascending order-sacrifice of property, life, honour and religion to promote the interest of the imperial master.  Birbal, Abul Fazl and Faizi joined in order.

In the Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl deals with a number of laws made by Akbar for secularizing the state, which were, however, termed as ‘illegal’ by the orthodox Badayuni. For instance, Akbar prohibited polygamy and allowed a second wife only in exceptional circumstances. He also prohibited child marriages, the circumcision of boys below the age of twelve, and the slaughter of animals on certain days totaling about half the year.

PRINCE SALIM’S REBELLION

Prince Salim, the long-awaited heir to the Mughal throne, was born in 1569 due to the blessings of Shaikh Salim Chisti, after whom the infant was named. His mother was a Kachchhwaha princess. But when prince Salim rebelled, in Allahabad in 1601, Akbar asked Abul Fazl to help deal with the rebellion. Abul Fazl rushed to the north, but Salim had him killed by the Bundela chief, Bir Singh, near Gwalior on his way to Agra. Salim had ignored his duties from 1591, refusing to lead an expedition either to the Deccan or to Transoxiana.

The real threat to Salim’s accession came from his own son, Khusrau, born to Man Singh’s sister. Akbar did not want to pass over Salim in favour of Khusrau but saw in him a weapon to use against Salim and thus declared Khusrau as his successor to the throne. However, Akbar’s mother, Hamida Banu Begum, and his aunt, Gulbadan Begum, interceded for the prince and softened Akbar’s resentment.

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NINE JEWELS (NAV-RATNAS) AT AKBAR’S COURT

Following the footsteps of Chandragupta Vikramaditya of the Gupta period, Akbar maintained a court of nine distinguished persons who were known as nine jewels or navratnas.

NAME REMARKS ABDUL RAHIM  Got the title of Khan-e-Khana by Akbar  Was a celebrated Hindi Scholar.  Remembered for the compilation of Rahim Satsai (a collection of dohas).  Was also a great scholar of Turki  Translated Baburnama into Persian language.  He wrote two books on Astrology, Kheta Kautukama and Dwawishd Yogavali. ABUL FAZAL  A profound thinker and writer,  Known for the authorship of, Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari. BIRBAL  A Brahman of Kalpi  Known for his gift of humour and wits.  Original name was Mahesh Dass.  Was in charge of administration of justice at the royal court.  Died fighting with the Yusufzai tribe on the north-west frontier of India. FAIZI  A poet laureate of Akbar’s court  Faizi is credited with the translation of Leelawati into Persian. HAMIM HUMAM  A very close friend of Akbar  Was the chief of royal school (Pathasala). RAJA MAN SINGH  A great Rajput general of Akbar  Credited with defeating , in the battle of Haldighati, and the Afghans. SAIKH MUBARAK A Sufi, Shaikh Mubarak was the brain behind Akbar’s Mahzar. TANSEN  Born at Gwalior  Known as Geet Samrat, Tansen was a court singer of Akbar. TODAR MAL  Known for his expertise in land revenue matters.  Starting his career under Sher Shah, he evolved a land revenue system which was followed not only by Sher Shah and Akbar but also by the Marathas.

NUR-UD-DIN MOHAMMAD JAHANGIR (1605-1627)

Prince Salim assumed the title of Jahangir (World Conqueror) and adhered to Akbar’s ideals of the coexistence of all religious communities. He remitted some local taxes on trade and the manufacturing of goods. He also forbade the killing of animal for food on Thursdays and Sundays. Besides, he sought to enhance the importance of the mazolim court.

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In 1611 Jahangir married Mihr-un-nisa, the widow of Sher Afghan, who was killed fighting the governor of Bengal. After her marriage Mihr-un-nisa was given the title Nur Mahal (Light of the palace) and, later, (Light of World). Nur Jahan was an accomplished lady. She is said to have been the real power behind the throne. She conferred high titles on her relatives, and her father (Mirza Ghiyas Beg) was given the title of ‘Itimad-ud-daula’ and was appointed as Wazir. Nur Jahan’s elder brother, Mirza Abul Hasan, was given the title Asaf Khan and was appointed Khan-i-Saman. In 1612 Asaf Khan’s daughter Arjumand Banu Begum (later entitled Mumtaz Mahal) married Jahangir’s third son prince Khurram.

At the end of Jahangir’s reign, his son, Shah Jahan, rebelled against him. Another crucial event of his reign was that when he fell ill (1622) his queen, Nur Jahan, took active interest in the matters of state, and Jahangir was reduced to a figure-head. Even the coins were issued jointly in the names of Jahangir and Nur Jahan. A skilled connoisseur of Persian art and painting, Jahangir patronized the best painters of the period like Abul Hasan and Mansur who laid unprecedented emphasis on scenic beauty, birds and beasts.

Most noteworthy military success of Jahangir was his triumph over the Rajputs of Mewar. Jahangir used both military force and diplomacy in trying to secure the surrender of Maharana Pratap’s successor, Amar Singh. In 1613, Jahangir personally proceeded to Ajmer to guide the expedition, the supreme command of which was given to Prince Khurram. Though the Rajputs displayed dauntless heroism, they suffered heavy losses. Finally both rulers showed understanding towards each other and concluded peace (1615). The treaty that was signed between Jahangir and Rana of Mewar and Rana recognized the suzerainty of Mughals.

After Mewar, the Deccan was Jahangir’s main concern. Jahangir followed the policy of his father with regard to the Deccan. Ahmednagar which had been partly conquered by Akbar declared its independence in 1611 under (A Habshi or Abyssinian slave). Jahangir sent his son Khurram against him. In 1617, Ahmednagar fell and Khurram was rewarded with the title ‘Shah Jahan’. But the Mughals could not establish their rule. Malik Amber pursued his guerrilla tactics with greater vigour and Mughal invasions were repeatedly beaten back.

In 1606 Jahangir’s son, Khusrau, revolted, but was defeated and imprisoned. One of Khusrau’s well-wishers, Guru Arjun Dev (5th guru of the Sikhs), was beheaded. Later Khusrau was blinded in order to disqualify him permanently from gaining the throne. Khusrau died at Burhanpur in 1621 in the custody of Khurram. His youngest brother, Shahryar, was incompetent, although his marriage to Ladili Begum, Nur Jahan’s daughter by Sher Afghan, made him the real contender to the throne.

In 1622, the Mughals lost Kandahar to the Iranian king, Shah Abbas. Khurram was given the command to repel the Iranis, but Khurram procrastinated. Shahryar was then commissioned to lead the campaign against Qandhar. Nur Jahan’s preference for Prince Shahryar to succeed Jahangir forced Shah Jahan to revolt against his father. Khurram marched towards Agra. Asaf Khan supported Khurram in the civil war (1622-24) which lasted for more than three years. Khurram ultimately surrendered and was pardoned.

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La Excellence IAS Jahangir’s second son, Parvez, and Mahabat Khan, who had exhibited considerable perseverance in crushing Khurram’s rebellion, now posed a threat to Empire. Mahabat was transferred to Bengal as governor. Another royal mandate ordered Mahabat to furnish an account of the large sums forfeited to the government from the dismissal of disloyal Jagirdars and Zamindars. Mahabat Khan realized the threat posed by the situation. In 1625 Mahabat took control of the emperor and his camp. However the diplomacy of Nur Jahan saved the situation.

In 1627 the emperor died at Bhimbar in Kashmir. The emperor’s dead body was sent from Bhimbar to Lahore for burial in the Dilkhusha garden of Shahdra (Lahore). In his Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri (Autobiography), he described his drinking bouts without inhibition. It is informative and reflects the author’s deep appreciation of nature as well as his inherent inquisitiveness.

SHAH JAHAN (1627-1658)

Jahangir’s death made the struggle for the throne imminent. Nur Jahan alerted Shahryar to prepare for war. Asaf Khan sent messengers to Khurram, who was in Deccan, urging him to come to Agra. Meanwhile Asaf placed Khusrau’s son Dawar Baksh, on the throne as a stop gap sovereign. Shahryar, who was supported by Nur Jahan, proclaimed himself king but Asaf Khan defeated him, and imprisoned him along with Daniyal’s two sons. Before Khurram reached Agra, Dawar Baksh, his brother Shahryar, and Daniyal’s two sons were beheaded. Parvez had already died. The cold-blooded murder of all possible contenders for the throne had removed any threat from the imperial family to Shah Jahan’s rule. Thus Shah Jahan proclaimed himself as an Emperor.

In the first years of his reign, Shah Jahan had to overcome the revolts of the Bundelas at Bundelkhand and the Afghan noble named Khan Jahan Lodi, an ex-viceroy of Deccan. During Jahangir’s reign Bir Singh Bundela had become the emperor’s favourite by assassinating Abul Fazl. After his death his son Jujhar Singh succeeded him. Jujhar and his son, Vikramajit, rebelled against the Mughals, but the imperialist forces pursued them relentlessly and eventually murdered them.

Shah Jahan pursued the Mughal designs of the complete conquest of the Deccan. However, it could not be completed during Shah Jahan. After the death of Malik Amber his son, Fath Khan, failed to get the cooperation of the Nizam Shahi nobles, and consequently he surrendered to Mughals. Ahmednagar was annexed to the empire in 1633. Next Shah Jahan forced the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda to accept his overlordship. Both Bijapur and Golconda signed a treaty with the emperor. Khandesh, Berar, Telengana and Daulatabad were made into four Mughal provinces. This brought twenty years of peace to the Deccan, till war broke out again in 1656

The first viceroy of Deccan, Aurangzeb, controlled all four provinces from 1636 to 1644. Six viceroys succeeded him, each working for a short period only. In 1652 Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of the Deccan for the second time. He made Khirki, founded by Malik Amber; the capital of the Mughal’s in Deccan and named it Aurangabad. The land revenue collected was, however, insufficient to maintain the huge army necessary to control the hilly terrain. The financial bickering between father and son forms a large part of Aurangzeb’s correspondence known as the Adab-i-Alamgiri.

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La Excellence IAS Shah Jahan enticed some Maratha leaders into his service. The most eminent among them was Shahji . Shah Jahan also expelled the Portuguese from Hooghly, as they were abusing their trading privileges and indulging in piracy and slave-trade. Kamarup was also annexed.

Shah Jahan’s policy towards central Asia was to secure a possession of Qandhar which the Persians had re-occupied during the Jahangir’s reign. He had recovered Kandahar in 1638 only to lose it in 1649. But his three expeditions to regain it were without success. Thus Kandahar was forever lost to the Mughal Empire. Shah Jahan, wanting to conquer Badakshan and Balkh, sent his forces there in 1646 but the campaign proved a failure. The Mughal inability to fight prolonged wars in mountains frustrated Shah Jahan’s ambitions to conquer Transoxiana, his ancestral lands. The Mughals lost more than five thousand lives during their successive invasions between 1638 and 1647. Shah Jahan became more realistic and stopped dreaming of ruling over his former ancestral lands.

Shah Jahan’s sudden illness in 1657 plunged the empire into a civil war (1657-59) among his four sons – Dara Sikoh (Crown-prince), Shah Shuja (Governor of Bengal), Aurangzeb (Governor of Deccan) and Murad Baksh (Governor of Malwa and Gujarat). Of their sisters, Jahanara Begum called Begum Sahiba supported Dara; Roshanara supported Aurangzeb, and Gauharara acted as a spy for Murad. Shah Shuja and Aurangzeb had made a friendly alliance. Murad also became friendly with Aurangzeb. On hearing of Shah Jahan’s illness, their clandestine correspondence became more frequent.

Though Shah Jahan had recovered by November 1657, the princes refused to believe the news and raised the issue of liberating Shah Jahan from Dara’s control. Murad declared himself king, and Shah Shuja proclaimed his independence in Bengal. When Shah Shuja reached Banaras, Dara’s son, Sulaiman Shikoh, defeated him. But Aurangzeb moved cautiously. Early in 1558 he set off from Aurangabad and met Murad at Dipalpur near Ujjain, and the two armies camped at Dharmat. The imperial forces under Maharaja Jaswant Singh had already arrived at Ujjain to prevent the princes from proceeding to Agra. In the battle that followed the forces of Jaswant Singh were defeated. Next Shahjahan defeated Dara in the battle at Samugarh, near Agra.

After besieging Agra, Aurangzeb rejected all Shah Jahan’s invitations to visit him. The emperor was confined within the ladies palace along with Jahanara, and Aurangzeb refused to see his father until he had killed Dara, whom he declared an infidel.

Aurangzeb and Murad marched together from Agra towards Delhi in pursuit of Dara. But on the way Aurangzeb treacherously took Murad captive and later sentenced him to death. Aurangzeb then moved to Delhi, forcing Dara to flee the Punjab. At Delhi, Aurangzeb formally crowned himself king’ with the title Alamgir (Conqueror of the Universe). He was also called as Zinda Pir, the living saint. Next in the Battle of Khajwa (1658) Shuja’s army was defeated. Finally in 1660 Shuja left Bengal and sailed for Arakan with his family.

Meanwhile Dara was taken captive by his treacherous Afghan chief, Malik Jiwan, who handed him over to Jai Singh. Dara was brought to Delhi and was sentenced to death for committing apostasy (Ridda or iritidad) by stating in his Majma-ul-Bahrain that Islam and Hinduism were twin brothers (1659).

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La Excellence IAS Shah Jahan spent eight years in confinement in the . In 1666 Shah Jahan died, having been tended throughout his captivity by Jahanara. His remains were buried beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal.

AURANGZEB (1658-1707)

The second coronation of Aurangzeb took place when he defeated Dara (1659). Initially Aurangzeb introduced a few administrative changes. An official was appointed as chief censor of Morals (Muhtasib) and the enforcement of all moral reforms was incorporated into their duties. Finally, in 1699 they were allotted the task of destroying Hindu temples. The celebration of the Iranian Nauroz festival was banned. The Kalima was no longer stamped on coins, to prevent the holy words from being defiled by unbelievers or heretics. He forbade music in the court, ended Jharokha Darshan, use of almanacs and weighing of the emperor (Tula Daan).

Aurangzeb’s reign can be divided into two equal periods of about 25 years: (i) from 1658- 1681 during which time he concentrated on North India, and (ii) from 1682-1707 when he went over to the Deccan. During his reign, the Mughal Empire reached its territorial climax, stretching from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the south, from the Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the east.

The north Indian period of Aurangzeb reign was marked by a gradual departure from Akbar’s policy of coexistence. His early regulations were designed to offer relief to Muslims and reduce urban taxation. Customs duty on all imports was fixed in 1665 at 2.5 per cent of their value in the case of Muslim traders and 5 per cent for Hindus. Two years later all customs duty for Muslims was abolished. In 1669 a general order to demolish temples and Hindu centres of learning was issued. The celebrated Visvanatha temple of Banaras and the Kesava Rai Temple of Mathura were reduced to ruins. In April 1679, he reimposed Jaziya despite Hindu protests.

The first ten years of Aurangzeb’s rule were military and politically a great success. By 1661 Mughal governor of Bengal, Mir Jumla, seized Kooch-Bihar and marched up the Brahmaputra. Next year he entered Garhgaon (Near Gauhati), the Ahom capital. The Ahom army was defeated but Mughals failed to suppress the felling of regional independence among the people of . Finally, Mir Jumla made peace with the Ahom Raja. After Mir Jumla’s death Aurangzeb appointed as governor of Bengal.

Aurangzeb’s early success is overshadowed by his later setbacks. The excesses committed by Abd-un-nabi, the faujdar of Mathura, aroused the Jats around Mathura and Agra to rise in revolt in 1699-70. Gokula, a Zamindar of Tilpat, became the Jat leader and killed the faujdar. The emperor himself marched to the area and put down the rebellion temporarily by capturing and executing Gokula (1669). After Gokula, the leadership of revolt passed to Rajaram, the Jat Zamindar of Sinsani, Agra. Under his leadership, the Jats virtually blockaded the overland route to the Deccan. The Jats were suppressed but their simmering discontent led them again to rise in revolt in 1691 under Churaman. Churaman, Rajaram’s son and successor, strengthened the Jat fort of Sinsani near Bharatpur, and they fearlessly sacked regions around Agra and Delhi. Even Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara was dug open in the hope of obtaining hidden treasure. The death of Aurangzeb led to the establishment of an independent Jat kingdom with its capital at Bharatpur.

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The revolt by the Satanami peasants of Punjab in 1672 was sparked off by a minor dispute between a Satanami peasant and a mughal foot soldier. Satanamis established an independent government, but the imperial army crushed the rebellion.

The Bundelas under the leadership of Champat Rai and Chhatrasal Bundela in Bundelkhand revolted against the reactionary policies of Aurangzeb. Chhatrasal attacked imperial troops and began collecting from the neighbouring tracts of the Mughal Empire. He soon captured Kalinjar and Dhamoni and later became the champion of freedom in Bundelkhand. After the death of Aurangzeb an independent Bundela state was established in the early eighteenth century.

The peaceful spiritual movement Sikhism, started by , was pushed on to the path of militancy under Guru Hargobind after the martyrdom of Guru Arjun by Emperor Jahangir. The Sikhs maintained animosity with the since then. When Aurangzeb ascended the throne, Har Rai (1645-61) was the Guru of the Sikhs. His good relations with Dara Sikoh brought him into direct conflict with the emperor. The next Guru, Tegh Bahadur, opposed the religious policy of Aurangzeb openly and resented against it at a public meeting. Aurangzeb arrested him and forced him to accept Islam. Guru’s refusal led to his torture and finally his execution. In 1675, Tegh Bahadur was beheaded on the orders of the qazi of Delhi. Guru Gobind, the tenth guru of the Sikhs, reinterpreted the Sikh ideologies to justify military action and created Khalsa (the army of pure). The Sikhs and the imperial troops went clashing till Aurangzeb’s death.

The most serious challenge to Aurangzeb, however, came in 1678 when Maharaja Jaswant Singh died in the north-western tribal region. He had no heirs, but one of his pregnant queens gave birth to a posthumous son Ajit Singh. As the paramount power, Aurangzeb escheated the Maharaja’s property upon his death and resumed the whole of Marwar into the Khalisa. Indra Singh Rathor, a grand-nephew of Jaswant, was subsequently made Raja of Jodhpur. Though Ajit was put under house arrest in Delhi, the Rathors under Durgadas rescued and took him to Marwar. Maharana Raj Singh of Mewar joined Jaswant’s chief queen, Rani Hadi, in pressing Ajit’s right to his father’s throne.

In 1679 the emperor ordered his fourth son, Akbar, to invade Marwar. But the prince instead declared himself emperor in 1681 with the support of the Rajputs. Aurangzeb, marched against him and managed to alienate the Rajputs from Akbar by having a counterfeit treacherous letter, addressed to Akbar, delivered to Durgadas camp. Rajputs deserted Akbar. He then fled to the court of Shivaji’s son . Meanwhile Raj Singh’s son, Jai Singh, made peace with the emperor.

Aurangzeb left for the Deccan in September 1681 never to return to the north. In the Deccan, Shivaji had carved out an independent Maratha state in the territories north and south of Konkan. To contain the Marathas, Aurangzeb decided to invade Bijapur, which at that time was being ruled by Sikandar Adil Shah. Bijapur was annexed in 1686 and the came to an end

Now it was the turn of Abul Hasan Qutub Shah of Golconda. Aurangzeb ordered prince Muazzam to march against Golconda Madanna and his brother Akkanna were killed by the leading Qutub Shahi nobles, who accused them of causing Aurangzeb’s invasion. However Muazzam himself was condemned as a traitor by Aurangzeb and imprisoned with

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La Excellence IAS his entire family. In 1687 a treacherous Afghan opened one of the gates of the fort to the Mughal army and Golconda was annexed.

Sambhaji was taken captive and executed at Sangamesvar and his family, including his son Sahu, was captured. Aurangzeb gave Sahu the Mansab of 7,000 and treated him well. But he misjudged the strength of the Maratha guerrillas and the situation deteriorated. The Marathas never allowed Aurangzeb to rest in peace. For about 25 years (1682-1707), he made desperate efforts to crush the Marathas, exhausting himself and his empire in the process.

Aurangzeb’s death in 1707 at the ripe age of eighty nine finally ended the age of the Great Mughals. He was buried near Daulatabad near the grave of Shaikh Jail-ul-Haq. His failures are ascribed to his bigotry and narrow-minded religious policy. What caused the real breakdown, however, was his unrealistic estimate of the Deccan problems. The booty from Bijapur and Golconda relieved the emperor temporarily from the need to utilize his reserves, but this was not sufficient to cover the cost of the last phase of the Deccan wars. After Prince Akbar’s rebellion, Aurangzeb never trusted his remaining three sons and he shivered at the memory of Shah Jahan’s last days. His main concerned was as much to neutralize his sons’ intrigues as to destroy the Marathas.

THE MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION POLITICAL IDEALS

Theory of Kingship: Abul Fazl introduced a new dimension to the Mughal theory of kingship. To him, the institution of kingship, rather than the individual who held the office, was endowed with farr-i-izadi (divine light). His padshah or shahanshah (King of Kings) was a unique personality and was the vice-regent of God on earth. Another important scholar on this subject was Shaikh Abul Haqq Dihlawi who wrote the Nuriyya-i- Sultaniyya, a treatise covering all aspects of this subject, during Jahangir’s reign.

Complete Sovereignty: Complete independence of the sovereign or the king, both internally and externally. Internally, every institution and person was subordinate to the king. Externally, the Mughal sovereign did not recognize any superior authority like the caliph, which was done by the Delhi Sultans.

Imperialism: The desire of the Mughals to bring under their imperial rule not only the whole of India but also territories outside India such as Afghanistan, Central Asia, etc.

Dynastic loyalties: The Mughal administration was reared on dynastic loyalties. Though in theory administrative posts were open to all, in practice mostly those persons having royal origins were taken into administration. And the government servants owed loyalty to the dynasties rather than to the institutions.

CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION

Emperor: The form of Mughal government was despotic monarchy. The king was the head of the executive, legislature, judiciary and the army. His main duty was benevolence towards the subjects. The only limits on the autocracy of the king were the nobility and the Ulema. Though in theory the nobles owed their position to the king, in practice the king could not easily ignore the strength of the nobility.

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Vakil: Representative of the king and hence exercised all powers on behalf and in the name of the king; decline of the powers of this office after Bairam Khan, and continuation of this post mainly as a decorative one.

Wazir or Diwan: In his capacity as diwan-i-kull (Principal Diwan), he was the head of the revenue department. When there was no vakil, he acted as the P.M as well and hence called the Wazir.

Mir Bakshi: Head of the military department, and also became the paymaster general after the introduction of the Mansab system. He was entrusted with the task of recruiting the army and maintaining the troops in good order. With the growth of the Mansab system and the expansion of the empire, he became as powerful, if not more than, as the Wazir, thus acting as a check on the latter.

Sadr-us-Sudur: Head of the ecclesiastical department, He acted as the guardian of Islamic law and the spokesman of the Ulema, hence regulated the religious policy of the state. He was also in charge of public charities and endowments; combination of the office of the chief Sadr and the chief qazi (qazi-ul-quzat), and hence head of the department of justice also. The Mughal counter-part of the Delhi Sultanate’s secular judge (amir-i-dad) was the Mir adl, who was likewise responsible for implementing the qazis’ decisions. There were also the muhtasibs and muftis, who continued as subordinate officers of the qazis.

Khan-i-Saman: Head of the royal household and the royal Karkhanas or buyutats (Workshops); initially he looked after only the royal household, while diwan-i-buyutat looked after the workshops. But later he was made senior to the latter, thus bringing the latter’s charge also under his supervision.

Others: Apart from the above, there were many other ministers and officers at the centre, though not as important as the above. They were: Diwan-i-Khalisa (In-charge of crown lands), Diwan-i-tan (In-charge of jagirs), Mushrif-i-mumalik (Accountant-general), Mustauf-i-Mumalik (Auditor-general), Daroga-i-dak chauki (Postmaster-general), Mir-i- arz (In-charge of petitions), Mir-i-mal (In-charge of privy purse), Mir-i-tozak (in-charge of ceremonies), Mir Bahri (In-charge of ships and boats), Mir Manzil (In-charge of quarters), Mir Atish or Daroga-i-topkhana (Head of artillery).

Besides, certain other officials worked in various parts of the empire under the supervision of their respective heads at the centre. They were: Muhtasibs (Enforced public morals), Waqia navis (News reporters), Khufia navis (secret letter writers), Harkaras (Spices and special couriers) etc.

Some elite troops, called Ahadis, were maintained directly by the emperors without placing them under the Mansabdar’s. Their equipment was of high standard and each had to muster five horses. They were placed under a separate Diwan and Bakshi.

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION:

The reign of Akbar witnessed the division and systematic organization of the empire into different provinces or subas. Their number was 15 at the time of the death of Akbar, rose to

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La Excellence IAS 19 under Shah Jahan, and 21 under Aurangzeb. Akbar established a uniform pattern of administration, based on the principles of ‘check’ and balance’ in all the provinces. Right and duties of the provincial officials were distributed in a way which prevented the misuse of offices and promoted interdependence among various officials. The administrative agency in the provinces was an exact miniature of that of the central government.

The governor was known as Subedar or Sipah-Salar, and also some times as Nazim. Appointed by the king, he was the head of the provincial administration and was also known as prantapati or Sipah-Salar or sahib-i-suba. His functions included maintenance of law and order, enforcement of imperial decrees, administration of criminal justice, etc.

The provincial Diwan or Diwan-i-Suba was incharge of revenue administration of the province. Appointed by the king, his responsibilities were similar to those of the central Diwan (Diwan-i-kull). He acted as a check on the Subedar and was directly responsible to the central Diwan. The provincial Bakshi was directly responsible to the Mir Bakshi, and discharged duties similar to those of the latter. Other provincial officials were Qazi, Sadr, Muhtasibs, etc.

Sadr at the provincial level was appointed by the king on the recommendation of sadr-us- sadur, he, as a Sadr, watched the religious activities of Muslims. As a qazi, he performed judicial functions.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION:

There was a division of a province into sarkars. The sarkar was further divided into paraganas, which consisted of a group of villages. The administration of the sarkars and paraganas was more or less on the lines laid down by Sher Shah. Only a few changes were made by the Mughals in this respect.

Two important officials at the Sarkara level were Amalgujar and Kotwal. Amalgujars were appointed for collecting revenue and looking after other financial matters. Kotwal was appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Mir-Atish; his main function was to punish the criminals. He also informed the centre about all the happenings within a sarkar.

Following officers were appointed at the Pargana level.  Amil also known as munsif, he determined revenue at the Pargana level. He established direct contact with the peasants for collecting revenue.  Kunungo He was responsible for surveying land in Pargana.  Qazi Qazis were appointed at the Pargana level to perform judicial function. They were under the provincial qazi.

Groups of villages which had been combined for fiscal purposes only were known as the Mahals. Further, the provinces were also subdivided into smaller units, known as fawjdaris, for administrative convenience. The fawjdaris were composed of smaller units known as thanas or military outposts, controlled by thanedars. The Faujdars performed military, police and judicial functions and also helped in revenue administration. They were required to deal with any rebellions by the Jagirdars, zamindars and amils.

Relationship between centre and Provinces: The centre appointed the officials of the provinces, sarkars and paraganas, and hence they were directly responsible to the

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La Excellence IAS centre. Further the centre could frequently transfer the provincial and local officials in order to prevent them from acquiring local roots and interests. Frequent tours were undertaken by the central officers and the emperor himself in order to make the local officials function properly. Further, horsemen as well as dispatch runners transmitted news and reports expeditiously from different parts of the empire. According to Ibn Battutah, the horse post, called uluq, used royal horses stationed at four mile intervals. The foot-post, which was called dawa, had three stations per mile. Between the two, the human runner traveled faster than the horseman. Despite all the above precautions, the control of the centre above the provinces and local units was not always very effective, particularly during the reign of weak rulers.

THE MANSAB SYSTEM

Mansab (or Rank) under the Mughals indicated the position of its holder (Mansabdar) in the official hierarchy. Apart from determining the status of its holder, it also fixed his pay and the number of troopers with horses and equipment to be maintained by him. The Mansab system under the Mughals was a system in which the civil and military administrations were all rolled into one complex whole. Under the system, Mansabs (ranks) in terms of numbers were assigned to nobles and commanders, who were also placed in important administrative positions. Thus, the Mughal Mansab system included all public services (such as military, civil and financial).

MAIN FEATURES UNDER AKBAR

Dagh and Chehra: Dagh (Branding of horses) and Chehra or Tashiha (Descriptive roll of soldiers) which were meant to decrease the possibility of fraud and to fix rank according to the size of the contingent maintained (Maratib) and also to check evasion of military obligation. They were introduced in the 18th regnal year of Akbar’s reign (1574), Henceforth correlation between the Mansabdar’s rank and the number of horsemen maintained by him came into effect.

Zat and Sawar: The Mansab system under Akbar came to be represented by the dual rank of Zat and Sawar from the 41st regnal year (1597). The former determined the personal pay and status in the official hierarchy. The latter determined the number of horsemen to be maintained and the salary for the maintenance of those horsemen. ZAT DESIGNATION i. Below 500 Mansabdar ii. 500-2500 Amirs iii. 2500 and above Amir-i-Umda or Umda-i-Azam

Three Categories: Those who had Sawar ranks equivalent to their Zat ranks; those whose Sawar ranks were less than their Zat ranks but not lesser than half of their Zat ranks; those whose Sawar ranks were less than half of their Zat ranks.

Other Features: Direct subordination of Mansabdar’s to the emperor; grant of Mansabs of 5,000 and above only to the princes and members of the royal family; Mansab was not hereditary, but based on merit; Sawar rank was always normally either equal to or lower than the Zat rank; Sawar rank was always preceded by the Zat rank, the latter being more important than the former; possibility of the existence of a Zat rank without a Sawar rank, but never a Sawar rank without a Zat rank.

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According to the Ain-i-Akbari, the ranks ranged from the dahbashi (Commander of 10) to the “dah hazari” (Commander of 10,000), taking the total to 66, though only 36 actually appear in the work.

MAIN ADDITION BY JAHANGIR

Duaspa-Sihaspa Rank: Introduction of the Duaspa-Sihaspa (2-3 horses) rank, literally meaning troopers having 2 or 3 horses; and hence related to the Sawar rank. Its grant by the emperor to those selected nobles as a special favour. It was also given to those Mansabdar’s engaged in military operations and expeditions. This rank doubled the ordinary Sawar rank, and hence doubled the obligations and the privileges that went with it. It implied that a Mansabdar or noble holding Duaspa-Sihaspa rank had to maintain double the quota of troopers indicated by his Sawar rank. They were paid accordingly.

FURTHER CHANGES BY SHAH JAHAN

Rule of one-third, one-fourth: It scaled down the obligations of the Mansabdar’s. If a Mansabdar was serving in a province where his Jagir was, then his contingent should be equal to at least 1/3rd of his Sawar rank; if elsewhere then only 1/4th; for those serving in Balkh, Badakshah and Kabul, only 1/5th.

Month Scales: A Mansabdar often found that the hasil (actual revenue collected from a Jagir) was less than the jama (Stipulated or assessed revenue from a Jagir), on which his salary was actually fixed. So recognizing this difference and its inevitability the emperor classified Jagirs on the basis of hasil into ‘8 month Jagir’ or ‘6 month Jagir’ i.e. the income from a Jagir assigned for one year actually yielded a revenue equal to what was expected in 8 months or 6 months instead of 12 months. Thus the month scale was a devise to express the ratio between the jama and the hasil, and hence gave some relief in service obligations to Mansabdar’s. The Mughal emperors maintained a large and efficient army till the reign of Aurangzeb. The credit of organizing the Mughal nobility and army systematically goes to Akbar. The steel- frame of Akbar’s military policy was the Mansabdari system. Through it he set up a bureaucracy who was half-civil and half-military in character. However the Mansabdari system was not without defeats. As the soldiers were recruited and paid by the Mansabdar’s, their loyalty and attachment were to their immediate master rather than to the emperor. This gap between the emperor and the bulk of his army was a source of serious danger to the government.

THE JAGIR SYSTEM

Meaning: Jagir or tuyul was a unit of land, whose revenues were assigned to a Mansabdar in lieu of his salary. The Jagirs assigned in lieu of salary were known as “tankhwah jagirs”. Besides, there were the “Watan jagirs” (Hereditary possessions) of the autonomous chiefs. Under the Mughals, apart from the Jagir lands, whose revenues went to pay the salaries of the Mansabdar’s for their services to the state, there were also the Khalisa lands, whose revenues were earmarked for the maintenance of the imperial court and the personal expenditure of the emperor. Hence the Jagir of the Mughal times was similar to the Iqta of the Delhi Sultanate.

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La Excellence IAS Like the Iqta, the assignment of a Jagir to a Mansabdar did not confer any hereditary rights to that Jagir on the Mansabdar. He could enjoy the revenues of the Jagir only as long as he held the Mansab or official rank and rendered services to the state. In other words, the Jagirdars, (Holders of jagirs) owed their position to the Mughal emperor, there being no practical difference between the state and the emperor in Mughal times. The Mughal emperors jealously guarded their privileged position against any hereditary claims to the jagirs by the Jagirdars by following the policy of frequent transfer of jagirs of the Jagirdars.

Thus, the Jagir system was closely related to the Mansab system. In fact it was a subsidiary system of the all-in-one Mansab system. We should note here that all Jagirdars were Mansabdar’s, but not all Mansabdar’s were Jagirdars, because some Mansabdar’s were paid in cash and not through the assignment of jagirs.

Jagirdari Crisis: In a narrow sense, Jagirdari crisis means crisis in the Jagir system resulting in the attempt of the nobles to corner the most profitable jagirs for themselves. But in the broader sense it means a crisis in the economic and social relations of medieval Mughal India, more specifically in the agrarian relations and the administrative superstructure reared upon these relations. The following were the causes for this crisis.  The nature of medieval India society, which limited agricultural growth, and whose delicate balance was liable to be upset on a number of counts, such as serious struggle for power at the centre, disaffection in the nobility, etc. was the main cause of this crisis.  Further, the breakdown of the Mughal administrative system, and the weaknesses of the later Mughals also led to this crisis.  Another cause was the growth in the size and demands of the ruling class, viz. the nobility and their dependents, both of whom subsisted on the revenue resources of the empire. The number of Mansabdar’s increased from around 2000 in 1605 to almost 12,000 by 1675.  The expansion of the Khalisa lands by both Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb in order to meet the growing administrative expenses as also the cost of the wars which were a continuous feature of Aurangzeb’s reign also initiated this crisis.  Finally, opposition and revolts of the zamindars and the peasants against the illegal exactions of the nobles aggravated this crisis.

REVENUE ADMINISTRATION:

Up to Akbar’s 8th regnal year, Sher Shah’s system continued to be the basis with some modifications to meet the growing need for granting Jagirs. A series of experiments were made till Akbar’s 24th regnal year, after which the land revenue administration was stabilized. It can be examined under several heads.

Land Ownership: Proprietorship (i.e. hereditary rights only) of peasants on soil was recognized. Abul Fazl, for instance, says: ‘Field belongs to him who clears away timber.’ King, zamindars and Jagirdars had only the superior rights over the revenue.

Occupancy Right and Types of Land: The Lands in the Mughal period was divided into the following four categories on the basis of authority. A. Jagir: It was a class of land whose revenues were assigned to a Jagirdar or Mansabdar: Jagirs were of two types: (a) Tankhwah Jagirs which were assigned in lieu of salary, and (b) Watan Jagirs which were hereditary possessions of the autonomous chiefs.

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La Excellence IAS B. Khalisa: It was a class of land which was in direct control of the central administration. C. Madad-i-Mash: It was a category of land which was granted to scholars, religious persons for their maintenance. In Rajasthan, such a land was called sasan. D. Paibaki: It was a class of land which was theoretically under the centre. However, its incomes were not earmarked for the central government’s works. The revenues from such land were used for Jagirdars.

Methods of Calculation: Central government usually fixed rates annually according to yield which fluctuated. Akbar, however, wanted a uniform system of assessment through which he could make an accurate estimate of crops, so that there would be minimum chances of oppression by officers and less fraud by the cultivators. Some of the prevailing methods are discussed below.

Batai or Galla-Baksh or crop division: In this sharing was done in different ways. Firstly, after the harvest of the crop, government claim was taken by directly going to the fields. Secondly, after the harvest, crop was divided into equal heaps and specified heaps were taken by the government officer. Thirdly, before the harvest itself, the standing crop was surveyed and state share fixed by making a line of demarcation.

Kankut: Cultivator and official arrived at a general estimate of produce of the whole area on the basis of sample survey by mutual agreement.

Nasaq or Estimate: In this method the revenue payable by the cultivator was estimated on the basis of past experience.

Measurement: Introduced by Alauddin Khalji and followed by Sher Shah also; system of dividing land into 3 categories – good, bad and middling.

Categories of Agriculturists: The agriculturists in the Mughal period were grouped into the following three categories on the basis of availability of land: A. Khudkashta: Also known as Malik-i-Jamin, Khudkashta were peasants who cultivated their own land. Also known as Mirasdars (In Maharashtra) and Gaveti (In Rajasthan), Khudkashta were the original settlers of the village. B. Muzarian: Muzarian or tenants were the agriculturists who lived in their own villages, but cultivated the land taken on Batai (rent) from the Khudkashta. C. Pahikashta: The peasants who lived in other villages on temporary basis were called Pahikashta. They were given a share in their produce as remuneration.

REVENUE MEASURES ADOPTED BY AKBAR

Zabti or Bandobast System: Todar Mal framed a regulation or standard system of revenue administration known as the Zabti system. Under this system lands were accurately surveyed and a new Jama was prepared. Raja Todar Mal (a khatri) found the old Jama figures unreliable and hence collected correct figures from the qanungos and in the 15th regnal year the new Jama came into force. The demand of the state was one third of average produce. The settlement under the Zabti system was made directly with the cultivator. This system was applied from Multan to Bihar and in large parts of Rajputana, Malwa and Gujarat.

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La Excellence IAS Dahsala System: On the basis of the above Zabti system fresh reforms were undertaken by Todar Mal. These reforms, collectively known as Ain-i-Dahsala, were completed in 1580. Under this system land was classified into four categories, viz. Polaj – annually cultivated, Parauti – left fallow for a short period (1 or 2 years), Chachar – left fallow for 3 to 4 years, and Banjar – uncultivated for 5 years or more. Further as Abul Fazl mentioned, according to Ain-i-Dahsala, a 10 years state of every Paragana was ascertained in regard to the category of cultivation and level of prices. The aim was to introduce a permanent Jama (Dastur-ul-amal) and remove difficulties and delays associated with yearly sanction. So in the 24th regnal year final dasturs giving cash rates per bigha were prepared for different localities. Average cash rate of previous 10 years’ harvest was derived, and cash rate was fixed once for all. Dasturs for cash crops were fixed separately. In 1588 Todar Mal introduced a uniform unit of measurement, Ilahi Gaz, which was a medium gaz of 41 digits (33 inches).

ADVANTAGES OF DAHSALA SYSTEM  It enabled the administrators to guess fairly the revenue of the state.  Cultivators knew what they were required to pay.  The government also promised to reduce the revenue in case of unforeseen circumstances of natural calamities.  The state advanced loans to the cultivators.  Remissions of revenue was granted in bad season

The Karori experiment was began by Akbar with the extension of Khalisa land, so as to provide facilities to revenue department to collect extensive data. Khalisa land was divided into circles, each yielding the revenue of one karor. That is why it is known as the Karori experiment. Each circle was placed under a revenue official Karori. Aim was to make as extensive a measurement as possible, then use it as a basis for compiling a new general assessment. Instead of a rope, a “Tanab” made of bamboo sticks joined by iron rings, came to be used for measuring land in 1575.

Measurement was not possible in all of the empire. That is why in some Subahs the old system, viz. Batai, Kankut, etc. continued. Thus wherever possible measurement was undertaken and sufficient information was acquired. All these measures were part of a new system of revenue calculation, called the Zabti or Bandobast system.

Mode of Payment

The payment was made generally in cash, though there were some exceptions. For example in Kashmir and Orissa it was in kind. Cash payment was a source of great hardship to the peasants. They had to immediately dispose of the harvested crop even when the prices were very low, since revenue was to be paid in cash. Hence there was greater demand for money, which in turn increased the hold of middlemen (baniya) on the peasants

Machinery for collection

There was the Patwari at the village level. He kept a bahi, i.e. a register containing information about cultivators, their lands and assessed revenue. It was the most important document and served as evidence in settling disputes. The village headmen, who assisted

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La Excellence IAS paraganas revenue collectors in their task, received two-and-a half per cent of the tax as remuneration.

There were the qanungos at the Paragana level. The post of qanungo was hereditary. He maintained records. In Deccan and Gujarat, this officer was known as desai. He was also responsible for advance of Takkavi loans to peasants and assessment of revenue.

At the sarkar (district) level, Amil or Amalgujar was assisted by the karkun (Accountant) and Khazanadar (Treasurer).

All these officials worked under the supervision of the provincial Diwan, who was directly under the Diwan at the centre.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS DURING THE MUGHAL RULE

The society in the time of the Mughals was stratified into different grades, at the top of which was the king. Below him were the official nobles and the Mansabdar. The common people formed something like an unprivileged class as there was a considerable gap in standards of living between the nobility and the common people. Among the social customs, the two most prominent were Sati and Child Marriage. Akbar tried to mitigate the evils but with title success. The purdah system was in vogue both among the Hindus and Muslims.

The economic condition of India was good. Trade and commerce flourished and the nations of Europe vied with one another to have a share in India’s lucrative trade. The Mughal emperors encouraged production through both agriculture and industries. Besides edible crops, the agricultural products included Cotton, Indigo and Opium. Tobacco was introduced in about 1604. Its consumption increased rapidly, so that Jahangir prohibited smoking in 1617. In the Mughal age crafts and industries were both private and state- owned. India carried on an extensive foreign trade. The principal articles of export to Europe and other countries were Indigo, Opium, Saltpeter, Pepper, etc. its imports included Horses, Chinese Porcelain and African slaves. The principal ports were Surat, Cambay, Cochin, and Masulipatam.

THE MUGHAL CULTURE

The Mughal period saw remarkable cultural development in which Indian and Islamic traditions were fused into a composite style. The Mughal emperors were very fond of art. Under their patronage, all arts, particularly architecture, painting and music made special progress and all kinds of artists used to receive encouragement from state.

Mughal architecture was the admixture of various influences – foreign and Indian, Muslim and Hindu. Babur and Humayun had a great liking for the Persian style but by the passage of time during the reign of Akbar some Indian elements got blended in it, while in the time of his successors, slowly and slowly, the Persian style was altogether abandoned and the Mughal style entirely became Indian.

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La Excellence IAS DEVELOPMENT OF MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

Fort-Building: The Mughal emperors were great builders and that is why the Mughal period is called the ‘Golden Age of Architecture’ in the Indian history. The first to undertake construction on a large-scale was Akbar. He adorned his capital, Agra, with magnificent buildings Most of the buildings built during his reign were of red sandstone. He constructed a series of forts, the most important being the Agra fort (1565), built in red sandstone. He built the Jahangiri Mahal in Agra fort according to Hindu design based on Man Mandir. His other forts are at Lahore (1572) and Allahabad (1583). Akbar built a Tower called Haroon Minar in memory of his elephant (Horoon)

The reign of Shah Jahan saw the climax of fort building as seen in the Red Fort at Delhi, main buildings within it being the Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas.

Palace-Building: Humayun laid the foundation of the city Din Panah at Delhi. Akbar adorned his capital, Agra, with magnificent buildings and the palace known as Jahangiri Mahal.

During Akbar’s reign a palace-cum-fort was built at Fatehpur Sikri (the capital township he founded). It is also known as Epic Poem in Red Sandstone. The architecture at Fatehpur Sikri is an excellent blending of Persian, Central Asian and various Indian (Bengal and Gujarat) styles. Gujarat style buildings were for his Rajput wives. The Persian influence can be seen in the glazed blue tiles. Most magnificent building in it is the mosque (Jami Masjid) and its gateway Buland Darwaza, built after Gujarat victory, which stands 176 feet in height. It is built in the Iranian style of half dome portal.

Other important buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are Jodha Bai’s Palace (Influence of Hindu style), palaces of Mariam and Sultana, Birbal’s house, Anup Talao, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas, and Panch Mahal (Five storey building which shows influence of Buddhist Viharas).

Some of the important buildings built by Shah Jahan at Agra are Khaas Mahal, Musamman Burz (Jasmine palace where he spent his last years in captivity) and Sheesh Mahal with mosaic glasses on walls and ceilings. He laid the foundations of Shahjahanabad in 1637 where he built the Red Fort and Taqt-i-Taus (Peacock throne).

Building of Mausoleums: During Akbar’s reign, Humayun’s tomb at Delhi was the first Mughal tomb to be placed in the centre of a large park-like enclosure. It was built by his widow Haji Begum. It has a double dome of marble, while the central dome is octagonal. It also marked the beginning of the use of white marble by the Mughals.

The tomb of Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri was also built during Akbar’s reign. Redone in marble by Jahangir, it is the first Mughal building in pure marble. Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara near Agra was started by Akbar himself, but completed by his son, Jahangir. Influence of Buddhist Viharas could be seen in it.

Tomb of Itimad-ud-daula at Agra, built by Nur Jahan for her father, Mirza Ghiyas Beg, was constructed wholly of white marble with Pietra-dura. The reign of Jahangir witnessed

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La Excellence IAS beginning of the practice of putting up buildings entirely of marble, and a new method of decoration, viz. Pietra-dura (Decoration of walls with floral designs made of semiprecious stones).

During Shah Jahan’s reign large-scale use was made of Pietra-dura in his buildings, especially Taj Mahal, which is considered as the jewel of a builder’s art and which portrayed all Mughal architectural features. It was built at the cost of Rs. 50 lakhs at that time supposedly by Ustad Isa. at Shahdara Lahore was built during his reign.

Aurangzeb built Bibi ka Makbara which is the tomb of his wife Rabbia-ud-Daurani in Aurangabad.

Building of Masjids: During Babur’s reign four mosques, one each at Sambhal (in Rohilkhand), Panipat (in Kabul Bagh), Agra (Old fort) and Ayodhya were built. Humayun’s troubled reign left him little opportunity to indulge in artistic taste. Only one mosque of his time still stands – at Fatehabad in Punjab. Jami Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri built during Akbar’s reign is one of the most magnificent buildings. Shah Jahan’s reign saw the climax as seen in at Agra (built entirely in white marble) and Jama Masjid at Delhi (Built in sand stone). Aurangzeb cared little for architecture. He built Moti Masjid in the red fort and in Lahore.

Gardens: The special contribution of the Mughals was the laying out of beautiful gardens Babur laid the first such garden in Agra – the Nur-i-Afshan. All the Mughal buildings generally incorporate gardens. Jahangir, perhaps, is most famous for his gardens – Shalimar at Srinagar and the garden in Lahore. Asaf Khan, Nur Jahan’s brother laid out the famous Bagh in Srinagar. Scientifically planned, these gardens made a careful selection of plants and had well laid-out waterways and fountains.

The Mughal architectural traditions were continued into the 18th and early 19th centuries. Their influence in provincial and regional kingdoms is clearly visible. Many features of Mughal tradition can be seen in the Golden Temple at Amritsar.

DEVELOPMENT OF :

The Mughal art of painting, like the Mughal architecture, was the outcome of many influences. In the beginning, during the reign of Babur and Humayun, it was affected altogether by the Persian influence. During the reign of Akbar, the policy of religious toleration and the mutual feelings of friendship between Hindus and Muslims deeply affected the art of painting also and in this way it became an admixture of the Persian and the Indian influences. Thus, slowly and slowly, the Persian influence began to decrease, so much so that in the reign of Jahangir, this art became really Indian and the Persian influence on it was insignificant. The Mughals introduced new themes depicting the court, battle scenes and the chase and added new colours (Peacock blue and Indian red).

Humayun: During his stay at the court of the Persian ruler, he could admire the collection of illuminated manuscripts and see the artists at work. At Tabriz he met two young painters, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd-al-Samad (or Abdus Samad), to whom he gave hope of future

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La Excellence IAS employment in case he regained his kingdom. Later on those two joined him in Kabul and Abdus Samad gave drawing lessons to little Akbar.

Under the supervision of Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad the imperial atelier of painters and calligraphers took shape. Their first endeavour was to complete the pictures for the earliest Mughal illustrated manuscript, the Dastan-i-Amir Hamza. Begun in 1550 under Humayun, it took twenty-five years to finish.

Akbar: Though illiterate, Akbar had great thirst for knowledge and commissioned the illustrations of several literary and religious texts. He called a great number of artists to his court. Going by their names, the majority of these seemed to be Hindu. Thus Akbar became the real founder of the Mughal School of painting. Akbar gave employment to many artists. A hundred and fifty or so are known since the illustrations in the manuscripts produced during Akbar’s reign bear the names of the artists.

The chief painters were Mir Sayyid Ali, Abdus Samad (already in the service of Humayun), Farruk Beg, Basawan and Daswant Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad trained the mughal craftsmen in all the technical details of Persian miniatures. Many Indians such Basawan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions as court artists and Abul Fazl in his Ain-i-Akbari (Biography of Akbar) bestows high praise on them. Baswan is mentioned in twelve of the best miniatures illustrating the Razm Namah (Mahabharata), which originally contained a hundred and sixty-nine full page illustrations. In this and the Persian version of the Ramayana, Indian artists could introduce some of their cherished figure types and details of landscape.

After 1595 Mughal paintings reveal the assimilation of western techniques – modeling of three dimensional figures by means of shading and a limited adaptation of perspective. Western influence may be seen in the fables, another favourite topic of Akbar’s atelier. Illustration of Persian books of fables (Humzanama), took place during his reign. The Tuti Namah (The Parrot’s tale) and Anwar-i-Suhaili show each bird and animal with detailed realism. This portrayal of animals foreshadows the perfection attained under Jahangir.

Illustrations of historical manuscripts became the distinctive contribution of Akbar’s studio. These included Tarikh-i-Alfi (History of the world), Jami-ut-Tawarikh and Jami-al- Tawarikh (History of the Mongols by Rashid-ud-din), Darab Namah, Shah Namah, Timur Namah and Babur Namah. The Spiritual works illustrated during Akbar’s reign include Yoga Vasisht (Hindu Vedanta Philosophy) and Nafhat-ul-Unsa (Breaths of fellowship), a prose treatise by Jami on Sufi Saints.

Jahangir: He had a predilection for the art of painting which he cultivated much more than architecture. During his residence at Allahabad as Salim, he had already employed a number of painters, notably Aqa Raza, whose son Abul Hasan later served under Jahangir. Other renowned painters of his time included Bishan Das, Madhu, Anant, Manohar, Govardhan and Ustad Mansur, through whom Mughal painting reached its zenith. The co- operation of several painters on one work continued but Jahangir could distinguish which part each artist had contributed.

During this period European influence manifested itself more and more. The custom of copying European paintings and engravings continued. By that time book illustrations became outdated except for the representation of fables, for example iyar-i-Danish and

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La Excellence IAS Anwar-i-Suhaili. The portrayal of officers also continued. Jahangir preferred group portraits as well as court scenes and different episodes of his life. ‘Jahangir embracing Shah Jahan’ shows the same careful portrayal as in Akbar’s time.

Soon after his accession Jahangir ordered muraqqa (Albums) composed of mounted pictures of uniform size (40x24 cm). Completed around 1618, each folio has either one or several paintings on one side and on the other exquisite calligraphy. Arabesque or floral and animal motifs around the borders, all richly interspersed with gold, frame these paintings beautifully. The original idea of decorated borders came from Persia around 1570, but it attained perfection in Jahangir’s time.

A new type of painting, born of the emperor’s great love of nature, produced the most delightful pictures of his time, namely the animal and flower representations. His painters used to accompany him on his outings and often the emperor asked them to paint the lovely blossoms, plants, birds and animals he noticed. These masterpieces show much fresher inspiration than the countless court scenes and constitute the highest achievement in the paintings of his reign. They illustrate the emperor’s charming memoirs, Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri, which record many episodes from his daily life.

Portrait paintings reached a climax in his period. The early portraits show the persons standing or seated either in front of the buildings or inside. During the last ten years of Jahangir’s reign Mughal paintings witnessed a change: an increased predilection for symbolism. Mysticism also attracted him; so he entertained and visited Sufi holy men and ascetics. ‘Jahangir preferring Sufi Shaikh to kings’, an allegory painting by Bichitr around 1625 shows the emperor sitting on a big hourglass. He hands a book to a shaikh, most probably Shaikh Hussain, the head of the shrine of Khawaja Moin-ud-in Chisti in Ajmer. Next to him, the Ottoman Sultan humbly folds his hands, while below him waits James I, king of England.

After his death the art of painting started declining. However, with the artists dispersing to various provincial capitals, development of various other schools of painting took place – the Rajasthani, the Pahari, etc.

Shah Jahan: Though interested mainly in architecture, he continued to patronise painting. The visit of the emperor with his nobles and royal ladies to ascetics and constitutes a predominant theme of this period. Many night scenes were also painted for the first time in the Mughal period. A new technique, consisting of fine, delicate line drawings slightly tinted with washes of pale colours and gold and known as Siyahi Qalam, became fashionable.

‘Emperor Shah Jahan on the peacock throne’, one of the best known Mughal miniatures, shows the famous peacock throne – now lost, but much admired by contemporaries and described by the French traveler Bernier. On the other hand, it typifies the portraits of this time. The emperor sits in strict profile, a halo behind his head and a flower in his right hand.

Aurangzeb: He did not patronize any arts. Culture lost its vitality and finally declined. Perhaps during his waning years he may have consented to have his portraits painted, for there are surviving examples where he is shown either as a bearded old man hunting or holding a copy of the Quran in his hand.

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La Excellence IAS Besides the Mughal painting, there grew up in this age two more schools of painting: (a) Rajput School of Painting, and (b) Kangra School of Painting.

The Rajput school of Painting was developed in Rajputana, particularly Jaipur, in the 18th century. The Rajput paintings were excellent masterpieces from Hindu mythology. In it, familiar and popular themes have been taken and an effort has been made to show or depict village life, an ordinary citizen, his religious rites and amusements. Religion and art are very closely related to each other in it and the spiritual and emotional themes have special importance in this school of painting.

Towards the end of the 18th century, another kind of painting was developed in Northern India, particularly Kangra, known as the Kangra School of Painting. The theme relates to Hindu gods and goddesses in this art. Many subjects were selected from the Hindu religious books like the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Ram Mala, Geet Govinda etc. and they were depicted beautifully in pictures. Similarly, beautiful paintings (Portraits) of Shiva-Parvati, Radha-Krishna etc. were produced.

DEVELOPMENT OF MUSIC

The Mughal kings, expect Aurangzeb, had a great attachment with music. Babur is said to have composed songs. However, it was due to Akbar’s interest and patronage of this art that both kinds of music – instrumental and vocal – made unusual advancement. In his time, the ‘National Indian Music’ took its birth by the blending of the Hindus and Muslims types of music. His court was adorned by famous musicians like Tansen of Gwalior and Baz Bahadur of Malwa. Shah Jahan was fond of vocal and instrumental music. The two great Hindu musicians of his time were Jagannath and Janardhan Bhatta. It is said that once Shah Jahan was so pleased with the singing of Jagannath, the royal poet of Sanskrit, that he weighed him against gold and gave him the whole of this gold as a prize. But Aurangzeb who was a puritan dismissed singing from his court. However, ironically, the largest number of books on classical music was written in his reign.

DEVELOPMENT OF LITERATURE

During the Mughal period, Persian was the state language and, therefore, most of the literatures – prose, poetry, history – were written in this language. Babur’s autobiography, Tuzuki-i-Baburi, written in Turkish is an invaluable gem of literature. In it, Babur has described each event and subject in a very interesting way and in simple language without exaggeration. Humayun’s sister, Gulbadan Begum, too was a well-educated woman, who wrote ‘Humayun Nama’.

Akbar: During Akbar’s reign many historical works were written. They were; Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Namah by Abul Fazl; Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh by Badayuni; Tarikh-i-Alfi by Mulla Daud; and Tabaqat-i-Akbari by Nizam-ud-din Ahmad.

Translation of several works was undertaken during Akbar’s reign. Different sections of the Mahabharata were translated into Persian by many scholars under the title of Razm Namah. The Ramayana was translated by Badayuni, Atharva Veda by Hazi Ibrahim Sarhindi, Lilawati (A work on mathematics) by Faizi and Rajatarangini by Shahabadi.

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La Excellence IAS Jahangir: He wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri famous for its style, frankness and sincerity of views. He patronised many scholars and learned men like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan, and Niamatulla etc.

Shah Jahan: He patronised many writers and historians like Abdul Hamid Lahori who wrote Padshah Namah and Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Namah. His son, Dara Shikoh, besides writing a treatise on the technical terms of Hindu pantheon, wrote a biography of the Muslim saints and got the Hindu scriptures like the Gita and Upanishads translated into Persian.

Aurangzeb: He was a great scholar of Islamic the theology and jurisprudence. He appointed a board of Ulema to compile authoritative passages from the standard works of Hanafi fiqh (School of law) for the guidance of the qazis. Known as the Fatawa-ul- Alamgiri, it was completed in 1672. Many important historical works were also written during his reign, namely, Muntakhab-ul-Lubab by Khafi Khan; Alamgir Namah by Mirza Muhammad Kazim; Masir-i-Alamgiri by Muhammad Saqi; and Futuhat-i-Alamgiri by Iswar Das.

Hindi Literature: Malik Mohammad Jayasi wrote a poetical composition Padmavat on Padmani, the queen of Mewar in 1540. This composition has an exalted place in . Akbar also gave impetus to Hindi poetry. His reign was the golden age of the Hindi poetry because it was in his time that some Hindi poets of immortal fame, such as Tulsi Das, Sur Das, Mira, Rahim and Ras Khan lived. The greatest Hindi poet of Akbar’s time was Sant Tulsi Das (1532-1623) who wrote the famous Ramcharitamanas. Sur Das, the blind bard of Agra, has elucidated in very beautiful words of Brij Bhasa in his book, Sur Sagar, the childhood of Lord Krishna and the true love of Krishna and Radha.

Keshav Das was another noted poet of this age, who was the author of several books, such as ‘Kavi Priya’, ‘Ram Chandrika’ ‘Rasik Priya’, ‘Alankri’, ‘Manjari’ etc. During the Shah Jahan period, great poets like Sunder, Senapati, Bhushan and Behari lal lived who wrote very good books. Sunder wrote a book named ‘Sunder Srinagar’ in 1634. Shah Jahan decorated him with the distinctions of ‘Kaviraj’ and ‘Maha Kavi’.

Sanskrit Literature: Akbar was the first Mughal monarch who patronized Sanskrit as well as Hindi. During his reign, many Hindi writers were also writers of Sanskrit. In his time, the first Sanskrit-Persian dictionary, named ‘Parsi Prakash’ was compiled. Jahangir too extended royal patronage to Sanskrit writers and kept them in his court. Jagannath Pandit, Kavindra, Acharya Saraswati and Vedangacharya were famous writers of his court. Jagannath was the Royal poet of Sanskrit in Shah Jahan’s Court.

LITERATURE OF THE MUGHAL PERIOD Author Name of the Work Remarks Gulbadan Begam Humayun Namah History of Humayun Abul Fazl Ain-i-Akbari History of Akbar’s reign Abul Fazl Akbar Namah History of Akbar’s reign Badauni Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh History of Akbar’s reign Mulla Daud Tawarikh-i-Alfi History of Akbar’s reign Nizam-ud-din Ahmad Tabaqat-i-Akbari History of Akbar’s reign Jahangir Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri Autobiography Mutamad Khan Iqbal Namah History of Jahangir’s reign

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Abdul Haqq Nuriyya-i-Sultaniyya Theory of Kingship Abdul Hamid Lahori Padshah Namah History of Shah Jahan’s reign Muhammad Waris Padshah Namah History of Shah Jahan’s reign Inayat Khan Shah Jahan Namah History of Shah Jahan’s reign Muhammad Salih Shah Jahan Namah History of Shah Jahan’s reign Dara Shikoh Safinat-ul-Auliya Biographies of Sufi saints Dara Shikoh Sakinat-ul-Auliya Translation of Upanishads Dara Shikoh Hasanat-ul-Arifin His religious and Philosophical Ideas Dara Shikoh Majma-ul-Bahrain His religious and Philosophical Ideas Aurangzeb Raqqat-i-Alamgiri A collection of his letters Khafi Khan Muntakhab-ul-Lubab History of Aurangzeb’s reign Muhammad Kazim Alamgir Namah History of Aurangzeb’s reign Muhammad Saqi Masir-i-Alamgiri History of Aurangzeb’s reign Aquil Khan Zafar Namah-i-Alamgiri History of Aurangzeb’s reign Muhammad Rafi Khan Hamlai-Haidari History of Aurangzeb’s reign Sujan Rai Khatri Khulasat-ul-Tawarikh History of Aurangzeb’s reign Bhimsen Nuskha-i-Dilkusha History of Aurangzeb’s reign Iswar Das Futuhat-i-Alamgiri History of Aurangzeb’s reign Nimat Khan Ali Waqai-i-Hyderabad Conquest of Golconda by Aurangzeb

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La Excellence IAS MARATHAS

THE The Marathas were an ancient tribe who had settled in the Deccan. The country of these people is called Maharashtra. At the beginning of the 17th century, most of the territory in Maharashtra was under the possession of the Nizamshah of Ahmednagar and the Adilshah of Bijapur. They took the help of local, Marathi speaking people to run their administration. They recruited a large number of Maratha sardars and soldiers in their armies. The Mores, Ghatages, Nimbalkars, Jadhavs, Gorpades, Sawants and Bhonsle were Maratha sardar families who rose to fame during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Deshpandes and traditionally performed the duty of collecting land revenue. They were granted tax-free land in return for their services. Such a land grant was called a Watan.

Malik Ahmad of Ahmednagar made friends with the Marathas and using their best talent and cooperation, both for war and administration; he improved the financial condition of that kingdom and successfully opposed the Mughal advance for a quarter of century. In this grand political struggle, Shivaji’s father, Shahji, and grandfather, Maloji, were associated with Malik Amber in such a manner that they gradually realized their strength and asserted their power in course of time. Politically, the ground for establishment of independent Maratha state was prepared by the advance of Mughal armies in the south. The fall of Khandesh, the gradual disappearance of Ahmednagar and the creation of the Mughal viceroyalty in the Deccan affected every aspect of Maratha life, which induced an awakening among the Marathas as a nation under the leadership of Shivaji and others.

SHIVAJI (AD 1627-1680)

Shivaji was born in the fort of Shivner in 1627. He belonged to the Bhonsle family of Poona district. The family acquired military and political prominence in the Ahmednagar kingdom at the close of the 16th Century. Shahji Bhonsle, the father of Shivaji, was a military officer at first in the state of Ahmednagar and then, from 1636, in the state of Bijapur, and he owned the territory of Poona as a Jagir. His mother was Jija Bai, a very religious lady. Shivaji was brought up at Poona under the careful supervision of his mother and an able Brahman Dadaji Kondadev. Dadaji Kondadev made Shivaji an expert soldier and an efficient administrator. Shivaji also came under the religious influence of Guru Ramdas, which made him proud of his motherland. In 1937 Shivaji's father entrusted the administration of the Jagir to him. The administration of Jagir remained under the Dadaji’s de facto control till 1947 when Shivaji assumed the full charge. Before that at the age of 18 he overran a number of hill forts near Poona. He captured the fort of Torana in 1646. Shortly afterwards he built new forts like Raigarh and Pratapgarh. Shivaji began his real career of conquest in 1656, when he conquered Javli from the Maratha chief, Chandra Rao More. This made him the master of highlands area of Mavala (Mavali foot soldiers became a strong part of his army). Next he attacked the Adil Shahi kingdom of Bijapur in 1657-58. In 1659, the Sultan of Bijapur sent his general, , to capture Shivaji. But Shivaji was too clever for him and killed him with a deadly weapon called Baghnakh or tiger’s claw.

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La Excellence IAS In 1660, a combined Mughal-Bijapuri campaign started against Shivaji. Shaista Khan (Maternal uncle of Aurangzeb) was appointed as governor of Deccan, by Aurangzeb, to check the rising power of Shivaji. However, in 1663 Shivaji made a bold attack on military camp of Shaista khan and plundered Surat (1664) and later Ahmednagar. Next Aurangzeb sent his own son, Prince Muazzam, and then, on his failure, Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Amber against Shivaji. Jai Singh succeeded in besieging Shivaji in the fort of Purandhar. Consequently the Treaty of Purandhar (1665) was signed according to which:

 Out of the 35 forts held by him, Shivaji agreed to keep only 12 forts (with annual income of one lakh of huns) in his possession. The remaining 23 forts (which yielded four lakh huns every year) were to be returned to the Mughals.  Shivaji agreed to the condition attached with his possession of 12 forts – service and loyalty to the Mughal throne.  Shivaji agreed to help the Mughals against Bijapur.  Shivaji was to keep possession of the territory worth four lakh huns a year in the Bijapuri Konkan region.  The Balaghat territory of Bijapur was granted to Shivaji.  Shivaji agreed to visit the imperial court of Aurangzeb at Agra.

Shivaji reached Agra in 1666, and was admitted in the hall of public audience. The emperor gave him a cold reception by making him stand among the Mansabdar’s of lower grade. A humiliated and angry Shivaji walked out of the court. He along with his son was put under house arrest. However, they tricked the royal guards and managed to escape in a basket of sweets which was to be sent as a gift to the Brahmins. Shivaji reached Maharashtra in September 1666. He remained in relative silence for three years (1666-1669). After consolidating his position and reorganizing his administration, Shivaji renewed his war against the Mughals by his second plunder of Surat in 1670 and gradually recovered many of his forts. Shivaji declared himself the independent ruler of the Maratha kingdom and was crowned Chattrapati in 1674 at Raigarh. He made Raigarh his capital. Shivaji’s coronation symbolizes the rise of the people to challenge the might of the Mughals. It was significant due to the following reasons: 1. By coronating under the title Haindava Dharmodharak (protector of Hinduism) of the new and independent state Hindavi Swarajya, Shivaji proclaimed to the world that he was no just a rebel son of a Maratha Sardar in Bijapur court, but equal to any other ruler in India. 2. Only a coronation could give Shivaji the legitimate right to collect revenue from the land and levy tax on the people. Shortly after his coronation Shivaji formed an alliance with the Qutub Shahi rulers of Golconda and led a campaign into Bijapuri Karnataka (1676-79) and conquered (Jingi), Vellore and many forts in Karnataka. He died at Raigarh in 1680 after ruling for only six years.

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Figure 6: Maratha Kingdom at the death of Shivaji

THE SUCCESSORS OF SHIVAJI

SAMBHAJI (1680-89): The war of succession between Sambhaji, the elder son and Rajaram, the younger son, of Shivaji, resulted in the victory of the former and imprisonment of the latter. Sambhaji or Shambhuji ascended the throne on July 20, 1680. Distrust upon Maratha leaders led him to place his confidence in a Brahmin, named Kanauji, whom he invested with the supreme control of the administration and the title of Kavi-Kalash in 1680-81. Sambhaji provided protection and support to Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb. But Akbar failed against his father and departed to Persia. Aurangzeb was determined to crush Sambhaji. In 1689, Sambhaji and Kavi-Kalash were captured at Sangamesvar by a Mughal general, Muqarrab Khan, and put to death.

RAJARAM (1689-1700): At the time of Sambhaji death, his son Sahu was only seven years old. Rajaram, the younger son of Shivaji and stepbrother of Sambhaji, who had been kept in prison by the latter, was proclaimed king by the Maratha Council of Ministers and crowned at Raigarh in February 1689. But soon thereafter, apprehending a Mughal attack, Rajaram left

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La Excellence IAS Raigarh and moving from place to place ultimately reached Jinji or Gingee in Karnataka. The Maratha Council of Ministers and other officials also joined him at Gingee which, till 1698, remained the centre of Maratha activity against the Mughals. With his two able generals, Santaji Ghorpade and Dharaji Jadav, Rajaram launched an attack upon the Mughal territories in Deccan. Rajaram’s administrative changes included the creation of the new post of Pratinidhi, thus taking the total number of ministers, in Ashtapradhan, to nine. In October 1689, Mughal army, under Zulfikar Khan, launched an attack upon Raigarh. All members of Sambhaji’s family, including his son Sahu, were made captive. Although Sahu was given the title of Raja and granted a Mansab, he virtually remained a prisoner in the hands of Mughals till the death of Aurangzeb (1707) Jinji fell to the Mughals (1698) and Rajaram escaped to Visalgarh (Maharashtra). He died in March 1700 at Satara, which had become the capital after the fall of Jinji.

SIVAJI II AND (1700-1707): After the death of Rajaram, Tarabai, the widow of Rajaram put her other son, Shivaji II on the throne and herself became the regent. Tarabi’s energy and ability made her the de- facto ruler. She saved the Maratha State during a period of a grave crisis. Tara Bai directed the conduct of both civil and military affairs with equal success. During the period Marathas attacked Berar (1703), Baroda (1706) and Aurangabad. In the midst of this confusion and disorder, Aurangzeb died on March 3, 1707, while Tarabai was still in power. The Mughals, however, succeeded in dividing the Marathas into two rival camps – one under Tara Bai and the other under Sambhaji’s son, Sahu, who succeeded in deposing Tara Bai with the help of a Chitpavan Brahman named .

SHAHU (1707-1749): Shahu was released by the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah and this was the beginning of civil war (1707-14) between him and Tarabai. Tarabi’s army was defeated by Shahu at the battle of Khed (October 12, 1707) and Shahu occupied Satara. Now the Maratha Kingdom was split up into two antagonistic sub states. Sahu was the head of the State at Satara while Shivaji II or really Tarabai, was the head of the other at Kolhapur. When Shivaji II died, another son of Rajaram, Sambhaji II, ascended the gaddi of Kolhapur. The feud between these two rivals was finally settled by the “Treaty of Warna” in 1731 which provided that Sambhaji II should rule over the southern division of the Maratha kingdom with Kolhapur as its capital and the northern part with the capital at Satara would be the preserve of Sahu. Shahu’s reign saw the rise of Peshwaship and transformation of the Maratha kingdom into an empire based on the principle of confederacy.

MARATHAS ADMINISTRATION

CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION Shivaji laid the foundations of a sound system of administration. Shivaji’s system of administration was largely borrowed from the administrative practices of the Deccan states. Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were based on Malik Amber reforms in Ahmednagar. The king was the supreme head of the state. He assisted by a group of eight ministers known as the Ashtapradhan. It cannot be termed as the council of ministers, as there was no collective responsibility and each minister was directly responsible to Shivaji. The council of ministers could not initiate policy; its functions were purely advisory. The Ashtapradhan included

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Peshwa or the Chief Minister Prime Minister, he looked after general administration and later assumed great importance Amatya or Majumdar Accountant general, he later became Revenue and Finance Minister Sachiv or Surunavis Also called Chitnis, he looked after the Royal correspondence Sumant or Dabir Foreign affairs, and the master of Royal ceremonies Senapati or Sar-i-Naubat Military commander. He looked after the Recruitment, training and discipline of the army Mantri or Waqia navis Personal safety of the king, he looked after the intelligence, posts and household affairs Nyayadhish Administration of justice Pundit Rao Looking after charitable and religious affairs of the state. He worked for the moral uplift of the people.

All the ministers, except the Nyayadhish (Chief Justice) and Pundit Rao usually held military commands besides their civil duties. Shivaji did not allow the high offices to become hereditary. Shivaji divided the territory directly under his rule () into three provinces, each under a viceroy. He further divided the provinces into Prants each of which was subdivided into Parganas and Tarafs. The lowest unit was the village, and each village had its headman or Patel.

REVENUE ADMINISTRATION:

Shivaji abolished the Jagirdari system and replaced in with Ryotwari system. Shivaji brought about changes in the position of hereditary revenue officials, variously called Deshmukhs, Deshpandes, Patils and Kulkarnis. Shivaji strictly supervised the Mirasdars, that is, those with hereditary rights in land. Though he did not completely do away with these officials, he considerably reduced their powers by close supervision and strict collection of revenue from them. Appointment of revenue officials (subahdars or karkuns, in charge of revenue administration of prants) helped in establishing a strong revenue system. The revenue system seems to have been patterned on the Kathi system of Malik Ambar in which land was carefully measured with the help of a measuring rod or Kathi. The assessment of revenue was made after a careful survey and classification of the lands according to their quality and yield. The share of the state was fixed at two-fifths of the gross produce. The cultivator was given the option of paying either in cash or kind. A new revenue assessment was completed by Annaji Datto in 1679. Besides the land revenue, Shivaji had other sources of income, of which the most important were the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. These taxes were levied on those living outside Maratha kingdom (Swarajya), on an undefined belt of land which was legally part of the Mughal Empire or the Deccan states. The Chauth amounted to one-fourth of the standard revenue assessment of the place, paid to Marathas as a safeguard (a kind of protection money) against Shivaji’s forces plundering or raiding their territory. While the Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10 per cent demanded from areas outside his kingdom because he claimed to be the hereditary Sardeshmukh (Chief Headman) of the entire Maratha country.

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La Excellence IAS MILITARY ADMINISTRATION:

Shivaji organized a disciplined and efficient Army. The ordinary soldiers were paid in cash, but the big chiefs and military commanders were paid through the grant of Jagirs (Saranjam or Mokasa). The Army consisted of Infantry (Mavali foot soldiers playing the most important role), the Cavalry (consisting of bargirs and silahdars, the former were provided with horses and equipment by the state, while the latter maintained their own) and the Navy (consisting of two squadron each under a Hindu and a Muslim). The important officials/terms associated with the military administration of Shivaji were:

Sar-i-Naubat (Senapati) In-Charge of the army Qiladars Officers of forts Nayak Head of the Nine-member unit (Smallest) of infantry Havaldar Head of five Nayaks Jumladar Head of two-to-three havaldars Ghuraw Boats laden with guns Gallivat Rowing boats with 40-50 rowers

A special feature of his military administration was the maintenance of a large number of forts. Each fort was under the joint command of three officers of equal rank (qiladars) as a precaution against treachery, and they were frequently transferred. . Detailed instructions were issued for the provision of stores and arms. Appointments were made after careful scrutiny and by Shivaji himself. By the end of his reign Shivaji had 240 forts under him. The army was an effective instrument of his policies where rapidity of movement was the most important factor. The army depended for its salaries to a considerable extent on the plunder of the neighbouring areas. The army only rested during the rainy season. For the rest of the year it was engaged in expeditions.

MARATHA POWER UNDER THE

After his released by the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah in 1707, Sahu got the loyal and sincere help of a capable officer Balaji Vishwanath. At his coronation in January 1708, Sahu conferred upon Balaji Vishwanath the title of Sena-Karte (Maker of the Army) and later on elevated him to the post of Peshwa in 1713. With Balaji’s appointment as the Peshwa, the office of the Peshwa became hereditary. Balaji and his successors became the de facto rulers of the Maratha kingdom. From now onwards the Chattrapati became just a figure-head. In all, there were seven Peshwas. Of these the ablest was and the weakest and most incompetent was Baji Rao II.

REIGN OF THE PESHWAS 1. Balaji Vishwanath 1713-1720 2. Baji Rao I 1720-1740 3. 1740-1761 4. Madhav Rao 1761-1772 5. 1772-1773 6. Sawai Madhav Rao 1773-1776 7. Baji Rao II 1796-1818

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BALAJI VISWANATH (1713-20): He began his career as a small revenue official by Shahu in 1708 and was appointed as a Peshwa of Maratha empire in 1713. He made the post the most important and powerful as well hereditary. He played a crucial role in the civil war and was responsible for the final victory of Shahu by winning over almost all the Maratha sardars to the side of Shahu. He concluded an agreement with the Sayyid brothers (1719) by which the Mughal emperor () recognized Shahu as the king of the Swarajya, and allowed him to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan.

BAJI RAO I (1720-40): Baji Rao, the eldest son of Balaji Vishwanath, succeeded him as Peshwa at the young age of 20. He was considered the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji and Maratha power reached its zenith under him. His period saw the beginning of the system of confederacy and the rise of Maratha chiefs. Under the system, each prominent Maratha chief was assigned a territory as his sphere of influence, which he was supposed to conquer on his own and which he could administer autonomously. Consequently several Maratha families became prominent and got themselves entrenched in different parts of India – (a) the Gaekwad at Baroda (b) The Bhonsle at Nagpur (c) the at Indore (d) the at Gwalior and (e) Peshwas at Poona. After defeating and expelling the Siddhis of Janjira from the mainland (1722), he conquered Bassein and Salsette from the Portuguese (1733). He also defeated the Nizam-ul-Mulk near Bhopal and concluded the Treaty of Durai Sarai by which he got Malwa and Bundelkhand from the latter (1737). He led innumerable successful expeditions into north India to weaken the Mughal Empire and to make the Marathas the supreme power in India. He said: “Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the branches will fall of themselves”.

BALAJI BAJI RAO (1740-61): Popularly known as , he succeeded his father at the age of 20. After the death of Shahu (1749), the management of all state affairs was left in his hands. Shahu died childless, and though he had nominated Ramraja (A grandson of Rajaram) as his successor, the latter was imprisoned at Satara by the Peshwa on the suspicion that he was an imposter. An agreement was reached between the Mughal emperor (Ahmad Shah) and the Peshwa (1752) that the latter would protect the Mughal Empire from internal and external (Ahmad Shah Abdali) enemies in return for the Chauth of the north-west provinces and the total revenues of Agra and Ajmer provinces. This agreement brought the Marathas in direct conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan. The battle of Panipat (January 14, 1761) resulted in the defeat of the Maratha by Ahmad Shah Abdali and the death of Viswas Rao (Son of Nana Saheb) and Sadasiv Rao Bhau (Cousin of Nana Saheb) and several other Maratha leaders and 28,000 soldiers. The battle decided who was not to rule India instead of who was to. Nana Saheb died on hearing the news on June 23, 1761. He was succeeded by Madhav Rao (1761-72), Narayan Rao (1772-73), Sawai Madhav Rao (1773-95), and Baji Rao II (1795-1818).

MARATHA CONFEDERACY

The origin of the Maratha confederacy may be traced to the revival of the Jagir or Saranjam system by Rajaram. But it was only in the time of Baji Rao I that the system

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La Excellence IAS made a base for itself. In this process, Sahu issued letters of authority to his various Maratha sardars for collecting Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from various parts of India. These letters of authority were called Saranjam; the holders of these Saranjams were called Saranjamdars. They merely recognized the Maratha Peshwas as their nominal head after the death of Sahu. In this way arose the Maratha confederacy, consisting of very important Maratha Jagirdars

Figure 7: MARATHA EMPIRE UNDER CONFEDERACY

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La Excellence IAS

Modern History

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La Excellence IAS THE CHRONOLOGICAL ASPECT OF MODERN INDIA

1857 Beginning of the revolt of Sepoy’’s at Meerut on 10th May. Foundation of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras Universities 1858 Trial of Emperor Bahadur Shah (Jan-March). Proclamation of peace by Lord Canning (July). Act for the better government of India (August). British India placed under the direct control of the Crown. Queen’s Proclamation (November). Lord Canning appointed Viceroy (November) 1859 Withdrawal of Doctrine of Lapse. Indigo disputes in Bengal (1859-60) 1860 Enactment of Indian penal Code 1861 Indian Councils Act. Establishment of High Courts. Civil Service Act. Enactment of the Code of Criminal Procedure. 1862 Retirement of Lord Canning. Lord Elgin I appointed Viceroy (1862-63). 1863 Death of Dost Amir Muhammad. Afghan war of succession, Sher Ali, Amir of Afghanistan receives an annual grant of six Lakhs rupees. 1864 Sir John Lawrence appointed viceroy. Bhutan War 1865 Orissa famine (1865-67). Opening of Telegraphic communication with Europe. 1868 Opening of railway from Ambala to Delhi 1869 Lord Mayo became Viceroy (1869-72). Visit of the Duke of Edinborough. Birth of M.K.Gandhi (Oct 2nd) 1871 First time in India census was held 1872 Murder of Lord Mayo. Lord Northbrook appointed viceroy (1872-76). Kuka revolt. 1873 Famine in Bihar (1873-74) 1875 Deposition of Malhar Rao Gaekwad. Visit of Edward, Prince of Wales. M.A.O. college, Ajmer, founded by Syed Ahmed Khan. founded by Swami Dayanand. 1876 Retirement of Lord Northbrook. Lord Lytton I became viceroy (1876-80). The Royal Titles Act. Occupation of Quetta. Indian Association of Calcutta founded. 1877 Delhi Durbar (1 January). Queen Victoria proclaimed empress of India. 1878 Vernacular Press Act. Second Afghan War (1878-80)

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1879 Madam Blavatsky (Russian) and Colonel Olcott (American) founded Theosophical Society at Adyar, Madras. 1880 Resignation of Lord Lytton I. Lord Ripon viceroy (1880-84). Famine Commission. 1881 Rendition of Mysore. First Factory Act. Holding of the first decennial and regular census which put the population at the figure 254 millions. 1882 Repeal of Vernacular Press Act. Indian Education (Hunter) Commission. University at Punjab set up. 1883 Beginning of legislation establishing local self-government in India. The Ilbert Bill 1884 Resignation of Lord Ripon. Lord Dufferin appointed as the Viceroy 1885 Third Burmese War. First meeting of the Indian National Congress. Bengal Tenancy Act. Third Anglo- Burmese war. 1886 Annexation of Upper Burma. 1888 Resignation of Lord Dufferin and Lord Lansdowne became viceroy (1888-94). Allahabad University founded. 1889 Second visit of Edward, Prince of Wales. Foundation of British committee of the Indian national congress at London. 1890 Publication of a Journal named “India” by the British committee if I.N.C. 1891 Second Factory Act. Rebellion. Age of Consent Act. 1892 Indian Councils Act introduces the principle of election. 1893 Inauguration of Ganapati festival by Tilak. Durand’s Mission to Kabul. Mrs. Besant arrives in India. 1894 Lord Elgin II Viceroy (1894-99) 1895 Inauguration of Shivaji festival by Tilak. Deccan Sabha founded by Gokhale 1896 Plague in Bombay (1896-1900). 1897 Famine Commission. Imprisonment of Tilak for 18 months on the ground of treason. 1899 Lord Curzon Viceroy (1899-1905) 1900 Famine commission. Land Alienation Act. 1901 Death of Queen Victoria and accession of King Edward VII. North West Frontier Province created 1902 Gurukul Kangri started at Haridwar. 1903 Tibetan expedition (1903-04) 1904 Indian Universities Act. Co-operative Society Act. Archaeological department established by Curzon 1905 Announcement of the scheme for Partition of Bengal by Curzon (July). Partition of Bengal took place (Oct.).

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Swadeshi and boycott movement. Establishment of National Council of Education (Nov.). Lord Minto II Viceroy (1905-10). Morley appointed Secretary of State for India. 1906 Foundation of the Muslim League. Calcutta Congress, President declared ‘Swaraj’ as the goal of the Congress. Starting of the National college with Aurobindo Ghosh as principal in Calcutta. 1907 Congress split at Surat. Mrs. succeeds Colonel Olcott as President of Theosophical Society. First Annual session of Muslim League at Karachi. 1908 Newspapers Act. Tilak convicted of sedition, imprisonment for 6 years- sent to Mandaley 1909 Indian Councils Act (Morley-Minto Reforms). It introduced separate electorates for Muslims or Communal electorates. First Indian (S.P.Sinha) appointed to the Viceroy’s Executive Council. Madan Lal Dhingra shot dead Curzon Wyllie in London (July 1st) 1910 Lord Hardinge Viceroy (1910-16) 1911 King George V and his Queen visited India, Delhi Darbar. Partition of Bengal revoked. Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi announced 1912 Removal to imperial capital from Calcutta to Delhi. Lord Hardinge wounded by a bomb attack in Delhi. Constitution of a separate province of Bihar and Orissa. 1913 Nobel Prize for Rabindranath Tagore 1914 Declaration of First World War (4 August), landing of Indian troops in France (26 September) Kamagatamaru incident 1915 Gandhi arrives in India (January). Foundation of Sabarmati Ashram by Gandhi at Ahmedabad. Defence of India Act. Death of Gokhale 1916 Lord Chelmsford Viceroy (1916-21). Foundation of the Home Rule Leagues, by Tilak (April) and Annie Besant (September). Banaras Hindu University established at Varanasi, by Pt. Madan Mohan Malviya. Unity between the Moderates and the Extremists. The Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the League. Saddler Commission. Foundation of the Women’s University at Poona. 1917 Champaran by Gandhi (April). Declaration by Mr. Montague, secretary of state, in the House of Commons, that the policy of British Government aimed at gradual development of self governing institutions in India with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government (Aug.) 1918 Organization of All India Depressed Classes Conference (March). Ahmedabad Satyagraha by Gandhi. Kheda Satyagraha by Gandhi. Publication of Montague Chelmsford Report and debate on the same in the Parliament. End of the First World War. submits its report.

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1919 Foundation of Satyagraha Sabha by Gandhi against the introduction of (Feb.). Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act popularly known as Rowlatt Act passed (March). Massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar (April 13th). Martial law in Punjab (April 15th). Gandhi suspended the Rowlatt Satyagraha. Appointment of Hunter Commission, to enquire into Punjab disturbances (October). Foundation of All India Khilafat Committee (November). Government of India Act, 1919 (December). Third Afghan war. 1920 Non-cooperation proposal passed by the Khilafat committee at its Allahabad session (June). Non-cooperation Movement launched from the Khilafat platform. Death of . The Indian National Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi started the Non-cooperation Movement. Lord Sinha appointed Governor of Bihar and Orissa. All India Trade Union Congress founded. Aligarh Muslim University established. 1921 Continuance of Non-cooperation movement. Chamber of Princes. Moplah rebellion, at Malabar Coast (Aug.). Visit of Edward, Prince of Wales. General Census. Harrapa excavation begins. Lord Reading viceroy (1921-26) 1922 Gandhi decided to launch Mass Civil Disobedience, at Bardoli (1stFeb.). Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement, after Chauri Chaura (5th Feb.). Mohenjodaro excavation begins. Vishvabharati University founded by Rabindranath Tagore (May) 1923 Foundation of . Decision to Indianise command of certain regiments of the Indian army. Compromise between Swarajists and the No-Changers in the Congress in special session of the Congress at Calcutta. 1924 Gandhi of fast for 21 days, as a penance for communal riots. Kanpur conspiracy case. 1925 case (Aug.) Death of C.R.Das. Formation of the Inter-University Board. Foundation of Communist Party by M.N.Roy. Foundation of Hindustan Republican Association by . Lord Lytton II as officiated viceroy. All India depressed class association. Sikhs Gurudwaras Act passed, to enable Sikhs to take control of Gurudwaras from Mahants. Vithalbhai Patel elected as the First Indian president of the Legislative Assembly.

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1926 Lord Irwin Viceroy (1926-31). Trade Union Act passed. First All India Non Brahmin Conference held at Belgaum under the presidentship of Ramaswamy. Swami Shraddhanand assassinated (December 23rd) 1927 Appointment of Simon Commission. National Congress at its Madras session adopted independence as its goal Convening of the All India States People Conference by the States people (Dec) 1928 Simon Commission visits India (Feb). All Parties Conference. The Nehru Report. Foundation of Independence for India League within the Congress by Jawaharlal Nehru and in opposition to Nehru report prepared by , which demanded Dominion status for India. Assault on in Punjab during the boycott of Simon commission. Assassination of Saunders by . Appointment of the Royal commission on Agriculture. Hindustan Republican Association renamed as Hindustan Socialist Republican Association, under the leadership of Chandra Shekhar Azad. under , on the issue of increase in Land Revenue. 1929 14 points of Jinnah (March). Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt drop bombs in the Legislative Assembly (April 8th). All India Congress Committee observed (Political Sufferers Day” (18th Aug.). Jatin Das died in Jail after 64 days of fast (Sept.) Lord Irwin’s announcement (31 October) that the natural issue of India’s constitutional progress was the attainment of Dominion Status. Meerut conspiracy case Trial, of the communist leaders begins. Sharda Act, prohibiting the marriage of girls below 14 and boys below 18 years, passed. The Lahore Session and ‘Poona Swaraj’ Resolution. Dropping of Nehru Report and the decision of the Congress to launch Civil Disobedience Movement. 1930 Congress observed (26th Jan.). Civil Disobedience Movement started with the Dandi March of Gandhi (12th March). by (April). Report of Simon Commission published. Rebellion in Burma. First Round Table Conference (Nov-Jan) 1931 Irwin-Gandhi Pact (5 March). Suspension of C.D.M. Census of India. Execution of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru. Second Round Table Conference, which Gandhiji attended as the sole representative of Congress (September-December). Lord Wellingdon Viceroy (1931-36). 1932 Imprisonment of Gandhi (Jan.). Congress proscribed severe repression. Communal Award by British P.M. Ramsay Mac Donald (August). Gandhi’s fast. Poona pact (Sept).

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Third Round Table Conference (Nov.). Foundation of the Indian Military Academy at Dehradun 1933 Temple Entry Day observed (Jan.). White paper on proposed reforms published. Joint Select Committee. The term Pakistan mentioned for the First time. 1934 Civil Disobedience Movement called off (May). Withdrawal of Gandhi from active politics. Foundation of Congress by Acharya Narendra Dev, Jai Prakash Narain and Minu Masani (Oct) Factories Act. 1935 Government of India Act 1936 Lord Linlithgow, Viceroy (1936). Formation of . 1937 Provincial autonomy inaugurated (1 April). Formation of Congress Ministries in Seven provinces (July). In N.W.F.P. the pro Congress Red Shirt Party of Khan wins majority. Federal court started. 1938 V.D.Savarkar elected President of Hindu Mahasabha. 1939 Formation of Forward Bloc by S.C.Bose. Second World War (3 September). Viceroy Linlithgow declared India to be a belligerent country and at war with Germany without consulting the Indian Leaders and its people. Congress demands an immediate definition of war aims. Congress Working Committee demanded that the Indian people must decide the issue of war and Peace of India (Sept.). Viceroy’s announcement (17 October) of Dominion Status to be the goal of constitutional development after the war. Resignation of the Provincial Congress Ministries (Nov). Observance of the Day Of Deliverance, from the tyrannical Congress rule by Muslim League (22nd Dec.). 1940 Muslim League passed Pakistan resolution in Lahore session (March). Annual session of the Congress at Ramgarh (March) and the party offered to cooperate the British Government if the provisional national Government was set up at the Centre. August Offer by Viceroy Linlithgow (10th Aug.). August Offer rejected by the Congress, J.L.Nehru said the whole idea of Dominion status on which the Offer was based was “as dead as door nail”. Congress launched Individual Satyagraha, with Vinoda Bhave as the First Satyagrahi (17th Oct.). 1941 Death of R.N.Tagore Subhas Bose escaped to Germany. 1942 British capitulation in Burma and evacuation leaving 90,000 Indian soldiers behind. Japan bombarded Vizag (April). Cripps Mission under Sir , a member of British cabinet, to find a solution in consultation with Indian leaders. The mission stayed for three weeks in India (March-April). The passing of Quit India resolution by All India Congress Committee at Wardha (14th July). The All India Congress Committee ratified the Wardha resolution at Bombay (7th Aug.). ‘Quit India’ Movement started (8th August). Disturbances and repression. Imprisonment of Congress leaders. Establishment of Indian National Army by S.C.Bose (1st Sep)

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1943 Lord Wavell, Governor General (1943-47). Proclamation by S.C.Bose to form the Provincial Government Of Free India (Oct.). Muslim League in it’s Karachi session adopted the slogan Divide And Quit (Dec) 1944 Gandhi Jinnah talks at Bombay, on Rajagopalachari formulae (Sep.). INA reaches Indian soil, near Kohima in Manipur. Sergeant report on education. 1945 The Viceroy Lord Wavell proposed a plan, popularly known as Wavell Plan (14th June). End of Second World War. I.N.A Surrenders to British. First trial of I.N.A men (Nov. 5th). Elections to the legislative Assembly held, (December), Muslim League captured majority of Muslim seats in all provinces except NWFP while the Congress captured the majority of the general seats in all provinces and at the Center. In the central Legislature the Congress secured 91.3 percent votes and in the Provincial Legislature it won absolute majority in Bombay, Madras, United Provinces, Bihar, Orissa and Central Provinces. In Punjab the coalition Government of the Congress, Akalis and Unionists was formed. by Viceroy to discuss the Wavell Plan. 1946 Revolt by a section of Indians serving in the Royal Indian Navy, known as Ratings i.e. non commissioned officers and sailors, at Bombay (18 February). The ratings went on Hunger Strike to protest against the hardship regarding salary and food and the most outrageous Racial discrimination, in particular the derogatory references to their national character. Cabinet Mission composed of Three British Cabinet Ministers i.e. Sir Pathick Lawrence, Secretary of State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade and A.V.Alexander, First Lord of Admiralty arrived in (24th March). Cabinet Mission announced its recommendation (16th May). Muslim League accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan (6th June). Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan (29th July). (16 August) observed by the Muslim League with bloody communal riots in Calcutta. Communal riots in Dacca (20 August). Lord Wavell invited J.L.Nehru to for the Interim Government. Formation of the Interim Government (2 September) composed of 12 members (including 3 Muslim) nominated by the Congress with Nehru as its President. Muslim League joined the Interim Government (26 October). First session of the Constituent Assembly (9 December). The League boycotted the Constituent Assembly. 1947 British P.M.Attlee announcement of transfer of power to “responsible hands” not latter than June 1948 (February 20th). Lord Mountbatten appointed as the Governor General. Mountabatten’s announcement of the grant of independence on the basis of the partition of India into India and Pakistan (3rd June). The Congress Working Committee approved the Plan (3rd June). The Congress finally ratified this decision in its session at New Delhi (14th June). Pt. Govind Vallabh Pant who moved the resolution for ratification said, “This was the only way to achieve freedom and liberty for the country”. Independence of India Bill introduced in the British Parliament (4th July). Independence of India Act passed (15th July). India wins Freedom (15th Aug.).

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La Excellence IAS THE REVOLT OF 1857

The Revolt of 1857 was a prolonged period of armed uprisings as well as rebellions in Northern and Central India against British occupation of that part of the subcontinent. Small precursors of brewing discontent involving incidences of arson in cantonment areas began to manifest themselves in January.

Later, a large-scale rebellion broke out in May and turned into what may be called a full- fledged war in the affected regions. This war brought about the end of the British East India Company's rule in India, and led to direct rule by the British government () of much of the Indian subcontinent for the next 90 years, although some states retained nominal independence under their respective princes.

EARLY PRECEDENTS

In 1806, the Sepoys at Vellore mutinied but were crushed with terrible violence In 1824, the 47th Regiment of sepoys at Barrackpore refused to go to Burma by the sea- route. The Regiment was finally disbanded. In 1844, seven battalions revolted on the question of Bhatta and salaries.

THE CAUSES OF REVOLT

The issue of greased cartridges and military grievances has been over-emphasized, as the factor for the revolt of 1857. However the recent research has proved that the cartridge was neither the only cause nor even the most important. Infact the multiple causes i.e. social-religious-political-economic worked together to produce the rebellion.

The chronology of Dalhousie’s annexation through “Doctrine of Lapse”

Satara 1848 Jaitpur (UP) 1849 Sambhalpur (Orissa) 1849 Baghat 1850 Udaipur 1852 Jhansi 1853 Nagpur 1854

 The annexation of Baghat and Udaipur were however, cancelled and they were restored to their ruling houses.  When Dalhousie wanted to apply the doctrine of lapse to Karauli (Rajputana), he was overruled by the court of Directors  Dalhousie annexed in 1856 on the ground of Misrule. The annexation of Awadh was also resented by Bengal army, 3\5 of whom belonged to Awadh  Sir James Outram, who had been the British Resident in Awadh since 1854, was appointed as the first Chief Commissioner in 1856, but he was replaced by Sir Henry Lawrence (He was the Chief Commissioner when revolt broke out).

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 Dalhousie abolished the titles of the Nawab of Carnatic and the Raja of , and refused to grant the pension to the adopted son (Dhondu Pant, better known as Nana Sahib) of the last Peshwa (Baji Rao II after the latter’s death in 1851.  The last major extension of the British Indian territory took place during the time of Dalhousie  Dalhousie announced in 1849 that the successor of Bahadur Shah II would have to leave the Red Fort.  Canning announced in 1856 that the successors of Bahadur Shah were to be known only as princes and not as kings.  The extension of British dominion in India had adversely affected the service condition of the sepoys. They were required to serve in area away from their homes without the payment of extra Bhatta.

The RELIGIOUS DISABILITIES ACT of 1850 modified the traditional Hindu law. According to it, the change in religion would not debar a son from inheriting the property of his heathen father. Another important cause of Military discontent was the GENERAL SERVICE ENLISTMENT ACT, 1856, which made it compulsory for the sepoys to cross the seas, whenever required. The POST OFFICE ACT of 1854 withdrew the free postage facility for them. The myth of the British invincibility was broken when its army suffered major reverses in the First Afghan war (1838-42), in the Punjab wars (1845-49) and in the Crimean war (1854-56)

THECOURSE OF REVOLT

MARCH 1857:

The Revolt was sparked on 29th March 1857. The 19th infantry at Berhampur (Barrackpore), refused to use the newly introduced Enfield rifle. The infantry was disbanded. Colonel Mitchell was its commanding officer. One Brahmin boy , a sepoy of the 34th Native Infantry at Barrackpore attacked and fired at his British officers (Mangal Pandey severely wounded Lt. Baugh, Adjutant to the C.O of Barrackpur, General Hearsey). The mutiny was suppressed and the leader of the mutiny, Mangal Pandey, was finally tried and executed.

APRIL-MAY 1857:

Ninety men of the Third Native cavalry stationed at Meerut refused to use the greased cartridge. Eighty-five of them were dismissed and sentenced to 10 years imprisonment of 9th May. The next day, on 10th May, the entire Indian garrison revolted. On 11 may, 1857 a band of sepoys from Meerut, who had defied and killed the European officers the previous day, marched to the Red Fort (Delhi). They entered the Red Fort through the Raj Ghat gate to appeal to Bahadur Shah II, the Mughal Emperor to become their leader and give legitimacy to their cause. Bahadur Shah II was proclaimed the Shahenshah - E - Hindustan. The sepoy then set to out to capture and control the imperial city of Delhi. Very soon the rebellion spread throughout Northern and central India at Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur, Bareilly, Benares, in parts of Bihar, Jhansi and other places. However the Southern India remained quiet. Mutinies took place at a few places in Punjab (Naushera and Hoti Mardan), but Sir John Lawrence (chief commissioner of Punjab) easily put them down.

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La Excellence IAS EVENTS AT DELHI:

Simon Fraser, the political agent, and several other Englishmen were killed. Lieutenant Willoughby, the officer in charge of the magazine at Delhi, offered some resistance but was overcome. Bahadur Shah, after initial vacillation, wrote the letters to all the chiefs and rulers of India urging them to organize the confederacy of Indian states to fight and replace the British regime.

EVENTS AT LUCKNOW:

The rebellion broke out at Lucknow on 4th June. Begam Hazrat Mahal, the queen of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh declared her 11-year-old son Birjis Qadir as Nawab after the British defeat at the Battle of Chinhat (30 June 1857) and the whole of Awadh rallied around her authority. The more popular leader was Maulvi Ahmadullah. Henry Lawrence (the British resident), the European inhabitants and a few hundred loyal sepoys took shelter in the residency. The Indian rebels besieged the residency and Sir Henry was killed during the siege. The command of the besieged garrison devolved on Brigadier Ingles, who held out against heavy odds. Arrival of Havelock, Outram and Neil with reinforcements on 25th September 1857 Death of Havelock in December 1857 and occupation of Lucknow by Tantia Tope its final reoccupation by Campbell on 21st March 1858.

EVENTS AT KANPUR:

At Kanpur, the natural choice was Nana Sahib (Dhondu Pant), the adopted son of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao II. Nana Sahib was declared the Peshwa and was assisted by Tantia Tope. General Sir Hugh Wheeler, commanding the station, surrendered on June 27. Some European, men women and children were murdered while they were living the palace in boats on 27th June. British control was established by Major General Havelock after defeating Nana Sahib in a series of battles. Later Kanpur was recaptured by the mutinous Gwalior contingent under Tantia Tope in November 1857. The rebels defeated General Windham outside Kanpur. It was finally recovered, for the British, by Colin Campbell in December 1857.

OTHER IMPORTANT EVENTS:

At Jhansi Rani Laxmibai, the widowed queen of Raja Gangadhar Rao, the last Maratha ruler of Jhansi, led the rebellion. In Bihar , of Arrah, raised the banner of rebellion, which soon spread to many parts of Bihar, including Danapur, Chotanagpur, Ranchi, Palamau etc. The tribals of the region also joined the rebellion. Kunwar Singh overthrew the British authority in Shahabad and established his own government. He marched to Kalpi to help Nana Sahib for a joint attack on Kanpur. Prince Firoz Shah raised the banner of revolt at Mandsor (MP) and kept the British forces engaged in central India. Driven out of central provinces, he campaigned in Ruhelkhand and Awadh. He also joined the forces of Tantia Tope in Rajputana. Khan Bahadur Khan raised the banner of revolt in Ruhelkhand with epicenter at Bareilly. He proclaimed himself the Nawab Nazim.

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La Excellence IAS SELECT OPINONS ON THE NATURE OF THE1857 REVOLT

SIR JOHN SEELEY Wholly unpatriotic and selfish sepoy Mutiny with no native leadership and no popular support. L.E.R.REES A war of fanatic religionists against Christians T.R. HOLMES A conflict between civilizations and barbarism. OUTRAM AND TAYLOR A Hindu- Muslim conspiracy V.D.SAVARKAR Indian war of independence BIPIN CHANDRA The entire movement lacked a Unified and forward looking Programme to be implemented after the capture of power S.N.SEN What began as a fight far religion ended as a war of independence BENJAMIN DISRAELI Is it a military mutiny or is it a National revolt DR. R.C.MAJUMDAR The so-called first national war of Independence of 1857 is Neither First, nor national, nor war of Independence.

BOOKS AND AUTHORS ON 1857

AUTHORS BOOKS DR. S.N.SEN Eighteen fifty-seven. JOHN KAYE History of the sepoy war in India (later Completed by colonel G.B.Malleson. S.B.CHAUDHARY Civil rebellion in the Indian Mutinies 1857-59. B.C.MAJUMDAR The sepoy mutiny and the Revolt of 1857. A.T.EMBREE 1857 in India. ETIC STROKES The peasant and the Raj. H.P.CHOTTOPADHYA The sepoy mutiny 1857 P.C.JOSHI Rebellion 1857 MAULANA ABUL KALAM Eighteen fifty seven AZAD V.D.SAVARKAR The Indian war of independence 1857 ASHOK MEHTA 1857 a great revolt.

DIFFERENT LEADERS ASSOCIATED WITHY THE REVOLT OF 1857

Barrackpore Mangal Pandey Delhi Bahadur Shah II, General Delhi Hakim Ahsanullah (Chief advisor to Bahadur Shah II Lucknow , Birjis Qadir, Ahmadullah (advisor of the ex-) Kanpur Nana Sahib, Rao Sahib (nephew of Nana), Tantia Tope, Azimullah Khan (advisor of Nana Sahib) Jhansi Rani Laxmibai Bihar (Jagdishpur) Kunwar Singh, Amar Singh Allahabad and Benares Maulvi Liyakat Ali Faizabad Maulvi Ahmadullah (He declared the Revolt as Jihad against English) Farrukhabad Tufzal Hasan Khan Bijnaur Mohammad khan

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Muradabad Abdul Ali Khan Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan Mandsor Firoz Shah Gwalior/Kanpur Tantia Tope Assam Kandapareshwar Singh, Manirama Datta Orissa Surendra Shahi, Ujjwal Shahi Kullu Raja Pratap Singh Rajasthan Jai dayal Singh and Singh Gorakhpur Gajadhar Singh Mathura Sevi Singh, Kadam Singh

BRITISH OFFICIALS ASSOCIATED WITH REVOLT

General John Nicholson Captured Delhi on 20th September 1857 (Nicholson died soon due to a mortal wound received during the fighting) Major Hudson Killed Bahadur Shah’s sons and grandsons in Delhi Sir Hugh Wheeler Defence against Nana Sahib’s forces till 26th June 1857. British forces surrendered on 27th on the promised of safe conduct to Allahabad General Neil Recaptured Benares and Allahabad in June 1857. At Kanpur he killed Indians as revenge against the killing of English by Nana Sahib’s forces. Died at Lucknow while fighting against the rebels Sir Colin Campbell Final recovery of Kanpur on 6th December 1857. Final reoccupation of Lucknow on 21st March 1858. Recapture of Bareilly on 5th May 1858 Henry Lawrence Chief Commissioner Of Awadh. Who Died During The Seizure Of British residency by rebels at Lucknow on 2nd July 1857 Major General Havelock Defeated the rebels (Nana Sahib’s force) on 17th July 1857. Died at Lucknow in December 1857. William Taylor and Eye Suppressed the revolt at Arrah in August 1857 Hugh Rose Suppressed the revolt at Jhansi and recaptured Gwalior on 20th June 1858. The whole of Central India and Bundelkhand was brought under British control by him Colonel Oncell Captured Benares

CONSEQUENCES OF THE REVOLT

The revolt of 1857 resulted in significant changes in administrative structure, policies of the Government and the British attitudes. Lord canning at a durbar at Allahabad in the Queen’s proclamation issued on November 1, 1858, declared that:  Those who laid down arms by 2 January 1859 would be pardoned except those directly involved in the murder of British subjects.  Official services would be open to all without any discrimination of race or creed. To give expression to this pledge the India Civil Services Act of 1861 was passed, which provided for an annual competitive examination to be held in London for recruitment to the covenanted civil service.  Due regard would be given to ancient usages and customs of India

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 The Queen’s proclamation declared to stop any further extension of territorial possessions and promised to respect the rights, dignity and honours of native princes. The Government of India Act of 1858 was enacted in the wake of the revolt of 1857. The act also known as the Act of the Good Government of India, abolished the East India Company, and transferred the powers of government, territories and revenues to the British Crown. The important features of the Act were:  It provided that India henceforth was to be governed by, and in the name of, Her Majesty.  It changed the designation of the Governor-General of India to that of Viceroy of India. He (Viceroy) was the direct representative of the British Crown in India. Lord Canning thus became the first viceroy of India.  It ended the system of double government by abolishing the Board of Control and Court of Directors.  It created a new office, Secretary of state for India, vested with complete authority and control over Indian administration. The secretary of state was a member of the British cabinet and was responsible ultimately to the British Parliament. Charles Wood was the first Secretary of States.  It established 15-member Council of India to assist the secretary of state for India. The council was an advisory body. The secretary of state was made the chairman of the council. “The Act of 1858 was, however, largely confined to the improvement of the administrative machinery by which the Indian Government was to be supervised and controlled in England. It did not alter in any substantial way the system of government that prevailed in India.”

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La Excellence IAS FOUNDATION OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

A.O.Hume was a retired British Member of Indian Civil Services. He played an important Role in the foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Earlier, he founded the Indian National Union in 1884, which is considered to be the forerunner of the Indian National Congress. He served as the general secretary of INC from 1885 to 1906.

Lord Dufferin was the viceroy of India during the formation of Congress and Lord Cross the Secretary of state for India. Dufferin described the Congress as the “mouthpiece of Microscopic Minority”. In 1888 Viceroy warned the Princely States, not to support the Congress.

The first session of the Indian National Congress was held on December 28, 1885 at Tejpal Sanskrit Pathshala, Bombay under the Presidentship of W.C.Banerji. The word congress was borrowed from North American history. The first session of the Congress was attended by was attended by 72 delegates. Moderate leaders dominated the congress in its early phase.

As regard the representation among the classes; the educated middle class had the largest share. The legal profession was most heavily represented among the professions. The Brahmins among the castes were comparatively larger in number. Among the province Bombay Calcutta and Madras took the leading part. The masses were conspicuous by their absence.

Early congressmen had an implicit faith in the efficacy of peaceful and constitutional agitation. The press and the platform at the annual sessions were their agencies. The Moderate belief in the essential sense of justice and goodness of the British nation was strong. To inform British public about the problems faced by Indians they sent deputation of leading Indians to Britain. In 1889, a British Committee of Indian National Congress was founded under the chairmanship of W.Wedderburn (Biographer of A.O.Hume)

Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja Sheo Prasad of Banaras founded United Indian Patriotic Association to oppose the congress. It had the blessing of the British Government. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was loyal to the British for the cause of Muslim upliftment. He even rejected the Drain Theory of Dada Bhai Naoroji.

THE SESSION’S OF CONGRESS

Dec, 1885 Bombay W.C.Banerjee Held at Gokaldas Tejpal Sanskrit Pathshala, Bombay. Earlier the session was to be held at Poona, but the venue was shifted due to the outbreak of Cholera at Poona. Attended by 72 delegates. Dec, 1886 Calcutta Dada Bhai Naoroji Dec, 1887 Madras Badruddin Tayyabji First session to be presided over by a Muslim President.

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Dec, 1888 Allahabad George Yule First session to be presided over by an Englishmen Dec, 1889 Bombay A committee on Indian national congress was endorsed. Dec, 1890 Calcutta Kadambini Ganguly the first women graduate of Calcutta University addressed the session Dec, 1891 Nagpur P.Ananda Charlu Dec, 1892 Allahabad W.C.Banerjee Dec, 1893 Lahore Dada Bhai Naoroji Dec, 1894 Madras Alfred Webb Mr. Webb was an Irish Member of the British Parliament Dec, 1895 Poona Dec, 1896 Calcutta M.R.Sayani Dec, 1897 Amraoti C.Sankaran Nair Dec, 1898 Madras A.M.Bose Dec, 1899 Lucknow R C Dutt Dec, 1900 Lahore N.G.Chandavarkar Dec, 1901 Calcutta Dinshaw E Wacha

Dec, 1902 Ahmedabad Surendranath Banerjee Dec, 1903 Madras Lal Mohan Ghosh Dec, 1904 Bombay Sir Henry Cotton Dec, 1905 Varanasi Dec, 1906 Calcutta Dada Bhai Naoroji Expounded Swaraj. Boycott resolution passed. Swadeshi resolution passed. National Education Policy endorsed. Dec, 1907 Surat Ras Behari Ghosh The session witnessed the split between the Moderates and the Extremists. The candidate of extremist at this session who lost the presidential election was Lala Lajpat Rai Dec, 1908 Ras Behari Madras In Madras session constitution for Ghosh the Congress Ratified Dec, 1909 Lahore Dec, 1910 Allahabad Sir William Wedderburn Dec, 1911 Calcutta Bishan Narayan Dhar Dec, 1912 Bankipur R.N.Mudhalkar Dec, 1913 Karachi Nawab Syed Mohammad

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Dec, 1914 Madras Bhupendranath Bose Dec, 1915 Bombay S.P.Sinha Dec, 1916 Lucknow Ambika Charan Reunion of Moderates and Mazumdar Extremists. Lucknow pact signed between Congress and Muslim League Dec, 1917 Calcutta Annie Besant First Women President. She gave first flag to Congress, Green and Red. Dec, 1918 Delhi Madan Mohan Resignation of moderates like Malaviya S.N.Banerji Dec, 1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru Sep. 1920 Calcutta Lala Lajpat Rai Non Cooperation resolution passed (special by Congress. session) Dec, 1920 Nagpur C.Vijaya Change in the constitution of Raghavachariyar congress. Non Cooperation resolution ratified.

The congress became a real mass- based political party Dec, 1921 Ahmedabad C.R.Das was the acting President as C.R.Das was in prison

Dec, 1922 Gaya C.R.Das Formation of Swaraj Party 1923 Delhi Youngest President (special session) Dec, 1923 Kakinada Maulana Muhammad Ali Dec, 1924 Belgaum Mahatma Gandhi The only session where Ghandi was the President Dec, 1925 Cawnpore First Indian Women President Dec, 1926 Gauhati S.Srinivas Iyengar Dec, 1927 Madras M.A.Ansari Independence resolution passed for the first time on the insistence of J.L.Nehru. This was a Snap resolution. A resolution for the boycott of Simon Commission was passed. Dec, 1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru First All India Youth Congress came into existence Return of Gandhi to active politics after 6 years Dec, 1929 Lahore Jawaharlal Nehru Poona Swaraj Resolution; Congress working committee authorized to launch CDM. Nehru Report got a decent burial

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Dec, 1930 On account of the Civil Disobedience Movement no congress session could be held in 1930, but J.L.Nehru continued as President March Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel Resolution on Fundamental Rights 1931 and National Economic Policy. Pt. Jawaharlal Lal Nehru drafted the Resolution on F.R. April, 1932 Delhi R.D. Amritlal April, 1933 Calcutta Mrs. Oct, 1934 Bombay Dr. Rajendra Formation of congress Socialist Prasad party 1935 No session, but R Prasad continued as President April, 1936 Lucknow Jawaharlal Nehru 1937 Faizpur Jawaharlal Nehru First session to be held in village Demanded the formation of a constituent assembly Adoption of an agrarian Programme Feb, 1938 Haripura Subhas Chandra National Planning Committee was Bose set up under the chairmanship of J.L.Nehru. Mar, 1939 Tripuri Subhas Chandra Resignation of S.C.Bose (Rajendra Bose, After Prasad took over) and formation of defeating Dr. forward block Pattabhi Sitaramayya Mar, 1940 Ramgarh Maulana Abul Acted as the president of congress Kalam Azad for six consecutive years The annual session of the Congress could not be held for 5 years on account of the launching of the . When the congress was declared illegal organization and all congress leaders put behind the bars. Azad continued to be president Nov, 1946 Meerut Acharya He was the president of congress J.B.Kripalani when India achieved independence 1947 Delhi Rajendra Prasad

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La Excellence IAS MODERATE PHASE (1885 – 1905)

During this period (1885-1905) the congress was dominated by such Leaders who by their method of functioning they were termed moderates or liberal or Sudharaks. They appealed through petitions, speeches and articles loudly professing loyalty to the Raj. The methods of the moderates can best be described as ‘Constitutional agitation’. The moderates confined their political activity to the educated classes only.

According to W.C.Banerji the congress was mainly a forum to represent their views to the British authorities, in whose sense of justice they had tremendous faith and the educated Indians in general and the congress in particular were thoroughly loyal well wishers of the government. Every year the congress passed resolutions expressing loyalty to the British crown

However, the greatest limitation of the moderate leaders was that, they failed to realise the importance of mass struggle and the true nature of the British rule. They even failed to achieve, anything substantial by their method. . DEMANDS OF MODERATES  The political demand of congress were moderate while its economic demands were radical and anti imperialist  Expansion and reform of legislative councils, leading to popular control of administration.  Greater opportunities for Indians in the public services by holding ICS examination simultaneously in England and India, this was achieved finally in 1923  Removal of restriction on freedom of the press and the speech  Abolition of discriminatory laws, which restricted the freedom of the people (e.g. Arms Act)  Separation of the Judiciary from the executive  A strong point made by the nationalists during this phase was about the economic drain of India. In this context they demanded the end of India’s economic drain  The reduction of land revenue in order to lighten the burden of taxation on the peasants.  Improvement in the condition of work of the plantation labourers.  Abolition of the salt tax  The reduction in the high military expenditure of the Government of India  Reimposition of import duties on cotton goods.  Other Demands Were: Raising of an Indian volunteer force; Higher jobs for Indians in the army; Protection for Indians settled abroad; Reduction of land revenue along with extension of irrigation and development of agricultural banks in order to make the agriculturist less dependent on moneylenders; Modification of forest laws; More funds for technical education which would promote Indian industries.  By the beginning of the 20th century, the moderate nationalists put forward the claim of self-government within the British Empire as in the colonies of Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Gokhale first made this demand from the Congress platform in1905. Dadabhai Naoroji made this demand in 1906, in his presidential address at Calcutta session of congress.

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La Excellence IAS ACHIEVEMENTS OF MODERATES  Creation of a wide national awakening  Popularization of the ideas of Democracy and Nationalism  Exposed the exploitative character of British imperialism. In this context the Theory of Drain of Wealth popularised by the Moderates played the most important role.  Their major concrete achievements were: The appointment of a public service commission in 1886; The enactment of the Indian council Act of 1892 which provided, some powers to elected local bodies  Their efforts resulted in a resolution of the “House of commons” (1893) for simultaneous examination of the I.C.S in London and India and appointment of the Welby commission on Indian Expenditure (1895).  The greatest limitation of the Moderate Leadership was that it failed to realise the true nature of British rule and the importance of Mass struggle. They confined their movement to the educated middle classes.

IMPORTANT MODERATE LEADERS

1. Dadabhai Naoroji, “Grand old man of India” 2. Gopal Krishna Gokhale (Tilak called him “The diamond of India) 3. Pherozshah Mehta 4. M.G.Ranade 5. Surendranath Banerjee 6. 7. W.C.Banerji 8. Dinsha Wacha 9. Anand Mohan Bose 10. R. C. Dutt 11. 12. Dwarkanath Ganguli 13. G.V.Joshi 14. Viraraghavachari 15. Anand Charlu 16. Lala Lajpat Rai, (during his initial years of political activities).

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La Excellence IAS THE EXTREMISTS (1905-1918)

The moderate policies of the early Congress disillusioned many of its younger leaders known as Neo-nationalists or Extremists. The extremists advocated Boycott of foreign goods, use of Swadeshi goods, National Education, Passive Resistance and Swaraj. For some Extremists Swaraj referred to complete autonomy or independence and not just self Government as was declared by Moderates. The Boycott of British made goods and use of Swadeshi or home made products was designed to encourage Indian industries. The idea of a National scheme of education was to encourage the boycott of Government-controlled universities and colleges.

Bengal National College was established at Calcutta and a large number of national schools sprang up in east Bengal. Guroodas Banerjee headed the Bengal Council of National Education. In Madras the Pachiappa National College was set up In the Punjab the D.A.V movement made considerable headway

The extremists well understood and highlighted the negative role of Britain in India. They talked of democracy, constitutionalism and progress and talked of broadening the social base of the national movement. They also realized that these objectives could not be realized without pressure tactics and some sort of direct action. The policy of the extremists yielded good dividends. The partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911, which gave a new self-confidence and self-assurance to Indian nationalists.

CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF EXTREMISM

RECOGNITION OF THE TRUE NATURE OF BRITISH RULE: There was a growing consciousness among the Indians of the exploitative character of the British colonial rule in India. The writings of early nationalist leaders had exposed the true nature of British Rule in India for e.g. Ranade’s “Essay on Indian Economy” (1898), Dadabhai Naoroji’s “Poverty and un-British Rule in India” (1901), R.C.Dutt, “Economic History of India” (1901) etc. Some of the repressive policies of the British government which led to the discontent among the people and resulted in the growth of extremism were:  The withdrawal of cotton excise duties in 1896  The imprisonment of Tilak and some other leader/editors for preaching nationalism 1897  The deportation of Natu brothers without trail 1897  The enactment of law making it an offence to preach nationalism (1898)  The university Act of 1904  The enactment of the Indian Official secrets Act to restrict the freedom of the press (1904)  The controversial partition of Bengal in 1905

FAILURE OF MODERATE METHOD OF AGITATION: The moderate policies of the early congress disillusioned many of its younger leaders. They had lost all faith in the British sense of justice and fairplay. The failure of moderate’s methods of agitation to get anything substantial from the British government led to the demand for more vigorous political action and radical methods

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La Excellence IAS GROWTH OF SELF-RESPECT & POLITICAL AWAKENING: This new pride was also in one sense the result of re-discovery of India’s past and research of many Western scholars. The great pioneer was Sir William Jones, who founded the Asiatic society in Calcutta. Some German Scholars involved themselves in Sanskrit Studies; Max Muller was Pioneer in this field. Similar efforts by the Indian and European scholars led to the growth of sense of pride in India’s past achievements.

ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS: Some of the great thinkers like Vivekanand, Tilak, and Aurobindo Ghose etc of the period stirred the people towards the path of extremism. Tilak declared that Swaraj was the birth right of every Indian and not the gift which would be granted to the Indians by the British after the former had passed all the tests prescribed by the latter. Swami Dayanand forged a link between Hinduism and political liberation. According to him from the days of Manu to those of the , the Aryans were the paramount power throughout the world. This fostered the national pride of Indians. Vivekanand raised patriotism to a high spiritual level. He forged a link between Religion, Social service and Politics. Vivekanand said “weakness is sin, weakness is death, when o lord will our nation be free”. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in his novel Anandmath published in 1882, containing the song Bande Mataram, inspired the vision of Mother India. The Three pillars of Extremism were Lal, Bal and Pal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and ). All of them trough their Newspapers Tilak’s Kesari, Pal’s New India and Lala’s Punjabi launched vehement attacks on the British Government.

INFLUENCE OF INTERNATIONAL EVENTS: Nationalist movement in Egypt, Persia, , and Russia gave Indians new hopes and new aspirations. These external events destroyed the myth of racial superiority of the whites and helped in the growth of extremism. The emergence of Japan as a modern powerful country after 1868, its victory over Russia in 1905 and similarly the defeat of Italy at the hands of Ethiopia in 1896 proved conclusively that all claims of racial superiority were false.

CURZON’S RULE: The immediate cause for the rise of extremism was the reactionary rule of Lord Curzon (1889-1905). Curzon considered the congress as an “unclean thing” and “seditious organization”. The Calcutta Corporation Act (1899), the Official Secrets Act and the Indian universities Act created great resentment in India. The Delhi Durbar held in 1903 to mark the accession of King Edward VII, coming at a time, when India had not fully recovered from the devastating effects of the famine of 1899-1900 was interpreted as a ‘Pompous pageant to a starving population. Curzon wrote to the Secretary Of State in 1900 “The Congress is tottering to its fall, and one of my greatest ambitions, while in India, is to assist it to a peaceful demise”. The worst and most hated aspect of Curzon’s administration was the partition of Bengal in 1905. Curzon partitioned Bengal, ostensibly for administrative convenience, but in reality for curbing the growing nationalism. It is said that partition aided rather than deterred the forces undermining the British position in India.

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La Excellence IAS SOME PROMINENT EXTREMISTS

BAL GANGADHAR TILAK (1856-1920): Known as Lokmanya to the Indians and as the ‘Father of Indian Unrest’ to the British, he was aregarded as ‘One of the most dangerous pioneer of disaffection’. He began his political career as a moderate but by the beginning of the 20th century became an extremist“. Tilak said “Indians could not achieve any success if we croak once year like a frog.” Tilak the greatest pillar of extremism identified nationalism with the feeling of Hindutva. He wrote, “The Hindus of the Punjab, Maharashtra, Telengana and Dravida are one and the reason for this is the only Hindu Dharma.” He used religious orthodoxy as a method of mass contact through his organization of the Ganapati festival (1893) and Shivaji festival from 1896 onwards. He was the first to give the slogan of “Swarajya, Swadeshi and Boycott” and wrote in his paper Kesari, “Our nation is like a tree, of which the original trunk was Swarajya and branches were Swadeshi and Boycott. He initiated a kind of no revenue campaign among the famine stricken peasants of Maharashtra in 1896-97 Though a radical in politics, he was a conservative in social reforms. Tilak opposed the British Government initiative in the matter of social reforms. He did not consider social and Political Reforms to be interlinked and was of the opinion that Political Freedom should precede Social Reforms. He quarreled with the reformers over the Age of Consent Bill in 1891 (The efforts of a Parsi reformer B.M.Malabari led to the enactment of Age of Consent Act, 1891, which forbade the marriage of girls below the age of 12. Tilak threw a challenge to the National Social Conference in 1895 by not allowing it to hold its session in the congress pavilion in Poona. The National Social Conference was under the influence of Moderate wing. Same year in July, Tilak and his group ousted Ranade and Gokhale from the control of Poona Sarvajanik Sabha

He was a distinguished member of the Deccan Education Society and he was instrumental in founding the New English School, which later became the Ferguson College. He also edited two newspapers (Maharatta in English and the Kesari in Marathi). In 1916 Tilak organized his own Home Rule League at Poona and declared ‘Swaraj is my Birthright, and I will have it. He was imprisoned several times by the British for his nationalist activities. As early as 1882, for criticizing in strong language the treatment meted out to the Maharaja of Kolhapur, the government tried and sentenced Tilak to four months imprisonment. Again in 1897 Tilak was charged with spreading feelings of disaffection against the British Government and sent to jail for 18, month’s rigorous imprisonment and again in 1908 for 6 years (In the Mandalay jail in Burma). At the Lucknow Session of the congress (Dec 1899), Tilak attempt to move a resolution condemning Governor Sandhurst’s administration of Bombay was also blocked by the Moderates. He played a prominent role in anti-partition movement of 1905-08 and was responsible in making it an All India Movement. During he declared, “Swaraj is essential for the exercise of Swadharma, without Swaraj there could be no social reform, no industrial progress, no useful education and no fulfillment of national life.

LALA LAJPAT RAI (1865-1928) Popularly known, as the “Punjab Kesari”, he was the leader of the ‘College faction’ of the Arya Samaj. The Gurukul faction was led by Lala Munshi Ram. Lajpat Rai became an extremist leader in the beginning of the 20th century and played an important role in anti- partition movement. He was the editor of the ‘Punjabee’ and the author of a book

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La Excellence IAS ‘Unhappy India. He had declared that political rights could not be won by an organization which could not “distinguish between begging rights and claiming them. Lala Lajpat Rai was also wedded to the idea of Hindu Nationality; however in this context he was not as rigid as Tilak. In Punjab the cult of Swadeshi was propagated by Lala Lajpat Rai. While leading an anti Simon procession he was wounded and later died of injuries

BIPIN CHANDRA PAL (1858-1932) Known as the “Father of revolutionary thought in India”, B.C. Pal began his career as a journalist and started the Paridarsak (a weekly), and later became the assistant editor of Bengal Public Opinion and the Tribune. He started New India in 1901 to propagate his brand of nationalism revolving around the ideals of Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott and National education. He began his political career as a moderate, but later drifted towards the extremism. In 1902, he wrote, “The congress here and its British committee in London are both begging institutions”. Bipin Chandra Pal, in association with Aurobindo Ghosh edited the Bande Mataram in 1906.In the same year Bipin Chandra was sentenced to six months imprisonment on account of his refusal to tender evidence against Aurobindo Ghosh during the latter’s trail in the Bande Mataram’ sedition case. After his imprisonment (March-August) 1908 his political thinking took on a different shape and form precipitating during his self-imposes exile (1908-11) in England.

AUROBINDO GHOSH (1872-1950) Aurobindo Ghosh published “New Lamps for old” in 1893-94 (While serving as a lecturer in Baroda) in which he criticized the Moderate politics of the Congress. He described the Congress leader’s pleas to the government on issues like legislative Councils and simultaneous Civil Services examination in London and India as “playing with bubbles”. He advocated the doctrine of “Passive Resistance” in a series of articles in 1907 in Bande Mataram. Aurobindo played an important role in anti-partition movement and propounded the theory of “organized and relentless boycott” of British goods, British system of education, Judiciary and Executive . He became the principal of the Bengal National College started in Calcutta in 1906. He declared “Swaraj is the fulfillment of the Ancient life of India under Modern conditions, the return of Satyuga and of National greatness. He was arrested by the British in 1908 due to his involvement in the Kennedy murders. After his release from the Jail, in 1910, he went to Pondicherry and thereafter concentrated on Philosophical, Spiritual and Literary activities. Some of his books were Savitri (The longest epic poem in English), the Life Divine etc. Aurobindo Ghosh raised patriotism to the pedestal of mother worship and said; ‘I know my country as my mother. I adore her. I worship her”. In his work Bhavani Mandir wrote “Our mother country is not a piece of earth, neither a figure of speech nor a fiction of mind. It is mighty Shakti composed of the Shaktis of all the millions of units that make up the nation”.

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La Excellence IAS PARTITION OF BENGAL

Among the Lord Curzon’s administrative measures, the one that elicited the strongest opposition was the partition of Bengal in 1905.

The province of Bengal, which was the most populous province of British India, comprised of Bengal proper (both west and east Bengal), Assam, Bihar and Orissa with its capital at Calcutta. In 1874 the British separated Assam from Bengal by making it a Chief Commissioners province and adding to it, the predominantly Bengali-speaking area of Sylhet. Assam was further extended in 1897 by the transfer for the time being of south Lushai hill tract from Bengal Real attack on Bengal came as early as 1899 when Curzon reduced the number of elected members in the Calcutta corporation primarily to satisfy the European business interests in the city, who often complained of delay in the grant of licenses and similar other facilities. After this Curzon launched an assault on the autonomous character of Calcutta University. Armed with the recommendations of Indian Universities Commission, whose sole Indian member (Gurudas Banerjee) disagreed wholly with others, Curzon passed the Universities Act (1904). The objective used as a pretext was “to raise the standard of education all round”. The Universities Act cut down the number of elected senate members (mostly Indians) and transferred the ultimate power of affiliating colleges and schools, as well as giving them grants-in-aid, to the Government Officials. The idea of partition was first given by William Ward in 1896 (Chief Commissioner of Assam). Later, to meet the growing nationalist challenge in eastern India, Curzon and his advisors, Sir A.Fraser, (the lieutenant Governor of Bengal), and H.H.Risley, (Secretary, Home Department, Government of India) searched for an effective answers and eventually found it in the division of the Bengali-speaking people. The official statement made by Risley was, “Bengal united is a power, and Bengal Divided will pull in several different ways”. Similarly Curzon also said, “The Indians only business was to be governed and it was sacrilege on its part to have any other aspiration”. Another objective behind the partition was to split up the Hindus and Muslims. Explaining the Political purpose behind partition to his superiors in London Curzon said “he wanted to split up and thereby weaken a solid body of opponents to British Rule” The Curzon scheme to partition Bengal came to be publicly known from the time the viceroy wrote his minute on Territorial Redistribution on 1 June, 1903. On 4 July, 1905 the government of India officially announced its decision to form the new province of “East Bengal and Assam” with its capital at Dacca comprising the Chittagong, Dacca and Rajshahi divisions, Hill Tippera (Tripura), Malda and Assam (The Muslim majority province). The province came into existence on 16 October 1905, by breaking up Bengal and its 41.5 million Bengali speaking people. After the partition of Bengal the two new provinces that came into existence were East Bengal and Bengal. The truncated new province of Bengal with its capital at Calcutta was to comprise 11 district of West Bengal, the district of Darjeeling, as also the whole of Bihar and Orissa. (Majority of the population being Hindu). Sir Bamfylde Fuller, who described the Muslims as his “favourite wife”, was the first Lieutenant Governor of East Bengal and Assam succeeded by Sir Laucelot Hase. The congress called the plan of partition of Bengal (1905) “Preposterous” (Completely unreasonable, absurd or shocking)

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La Excellence IAS THE ANTI PARTITION MOVEMENT

The initial objective of the movement was the annulment of partition of Bengal. However it was soon superseded by the greater objective of attainment of Swaraj There were sharp press campaigns against the partition scheme, numerous public meetings were held in opposition to it and the petitions were drafted and sent to the government for its annulment. Big conferences were held at the Town Hall Calcutta. However, all these methods failed, leading to a search for new techniques from the middle of 1905 and resulted in the discovery of the boycott of British goods as an effective weapon.

The Boycott suggestion, during the Swadeshi Movement, first came from Krishna Kumar Mitra’s Journal “Sanjivani” on 3 July 1905. The suggestion was accepted by prominent publicmen at the Calcutta Town Hall/Federal Hall meeting of 7 August 1905. It was here that the resolution to launch Swadeshi Movement was passed and the slogan of “Bande Mataram” was adopted. The partition officially came into effect on 16 October 1905. The leaders of the protest movement declared it to be a day of National mourning throughout Bengal. No cooking was done and the shops and market places were kept closed. S.N.Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose addressed huge gatherings of people (The largest till then under the nationalist banner). Rabindranath Tagore called for the observance of -Bandhan (The tying of thread on each other’s hand as a symbol of brotherhood) and Ramendra Sunder Trivedi, called for Arandhan (The keeping of the hearth unlit at all the homes as a sign of mourning) on the day the partition was put into effect. The National song Vande Mataram composed in Sanskrit by Bankim Chandra overnight became the national song for whole country. (It was sung for the first time in1896 session of INC) Rabindranath Tagore composed ‘Amar Sonar Bangla’ for the occasion which was sung by huge crowds parading the streets (This song was adopted as its national anthem by in 1971 after liberation). Bipin Chandra Pal emphasized on the idea of “Passive Resistance” or refusal “to render any voluntary or honorary services to the Government. Aurobindo Ghosh came out with the theory of “organized and relentless boycott” of British goods, British system of education, judiciary and executive and the social boycott of the loyalists and civil disobedience of unjust laws. The boycott of British products was followed by the advocacy of Swadeshi and holding of Swadeshi melas. Charka came to signify the popular concern for the country’s economic self-sufficiency An important aspect of the Swadeshi movement was the emphasis placed on Self-reliance or ‘Atmasakti’ (Advocated by Rabindranath Tagore). Several exclusive Indian industrial ventures such as the Calcutta Potteries, Bengal Chemical Swadeshi Stores (Opened by Acharya P.C.Ray), Lakshmi cotton Mills, Mohini Mills and National Tannery were started. Even Rabindranath Tagore helped to open a Swadeshi store. The Swadeshi movement also led to boycott of the officially controlled educational institutions. In this context the concept of National Education was propounded and the leaders of Swadeshi movement decided to run a parallel system of education The University of Calcutta, which supervised education in school and colleges, was denounced as a “Gulam Khana” (House for slaves) and “Bengal Council of National Education” headed by Guroodas Banerjee was established with a view to organizing a system of education on national lines and under national management. The Government made attempt to suppress the students by threatening to withdraw grants, scholarships and affiliations of the institutions to which they belonged, through the infamous circular of 22 October, 1905 issued by Carlyle, the chief secretary of the government of Bengal (the circular is also known otherwise as the “Carlyle Circular”). This led to the establishment of

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La Excellence IAS Bengal Technical Institute (Started on 25 July, 1906 and which later turned into the college of Engineering and Technology, Jadavpur). The Bengal National College and School was set up on 15th August 1906 with Aurobindo Ghosh as its Principal. Panchaiapa National College was founded at Madras. The Congress supported the Boycott movement only for Bengal at its Benaras session in 1905. Extremists wanted to extend the movement to the other parts of the country, but the Moderates refused to accept this. In 1906 session of Congress at Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji declared the aim of Congress to be “Swaraj like that of U.K. and other Colonies”. The Four compromise resolutions passed at this session were- Swadeshi, Boycott, National Education and Self Government. Here the demand for Swaraj was raised for the first time from the Congress platform. Indian society of Oriental Art was set up in 1907. Nanda Lal Bose became the first recipient of scholarship offered by the society. A large number of national volunteer bodies or Samitis sprang up in. Some of the distinguished among them were.

- Dawn Society (Named after the journal –Dawn) by Sachindra Mukherjee - The Anti-Circular society - The Swadeshbhandhav - The Anushilan by promotha mitter - The Dacca by Pulin Das.

There Samitis preached the essential of Swadeshi and Boycott, took up social work during famines and epidemics, imparted physical and moral training, organized crafts and national schools and set up arbitration committees and village societies. Many prominent Muslims joined the Swadeshi Movement including Abdul Rasul (the famous barrister), Liaquat Hussain (the popular agitator) and Guznavi (the businessmen). Maulana Abul Kalam Azad joined one of the revolutionary terrorist groups. With the split of Congress at Surat the Swadeshi movement lost its major strength and force and was finally suppressed by the British through repressive measures like imprisonment and deportation of many of its leaders in 1908. However the Swadeshi movement was the beginning of the organised movement in India. The significance of the movement can be assessed from the fact that Mahatma Gandhi wrote “the real awakening in India took place after the partition of Bengal”

ANNULMENT OF PARTITION OF BENGAL (DECEMBER 1911)

In December 1911 King George V and the Queen Empress visited India. (He was the only British King to visit India). On December 12, 1911 a magnificent coronation Durbar was held in Delhi, which was chosen as the seat of the imperial function. The official proclamation regarding the annulment of the partition of Bengal and the transfer of British capital from Calcutta to Delhi was made at Delhi Durbar. After the annulment of partition the West and East Bengal were integrated and three separate states created – (i) Bengal (Comprising East and West Bengal) (ii) Assam (of same status it had in 1874) and (iii) Bihar and Orissa (finally separated in 1935) December 23, 1912 was fixed as the date for the Viceroy’s state entry into the new capital, Delhi. On that day, when the Viceroy and Vicereine, the ruling princes and senior officials were being taken in long procession through in Delhi, a bomb was thrown at the elephant carrying the Viceroy. Harding was badly wounded. Ras Behari Bose threw the bomb. Bhai Bal Mukund was sentenced to death in the Hardinge Bomb case.

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THE SURAT SPLIT

The differences between the Moderates and the Extremist widened during the Swadeshi movement. The issues being spread of Boycott outside Bengal, choice of the method for struggle, conflict of ideologies and clash of personalities. The Extremist wanted to extend the idea of boycott and Swadeshi to the regions outside Bengal and also to include the government services, law courts, legislative council and all other forms of associations with the British in their programme. The Moderates on other hand were not in favour of this.

There was controversy over the issue of Presidentship in Calcutta Congress Session (1906). Pal and Aurobindo wanted Tilak to be the president, but the Moderates were in no mood to accept him. Finally both the groups accepted Dada Bhai Naoroji as the president. Having failed in their attempt to get Tilak installed at President the extremists-Tilak, Aurobindo, Pal, Ashwini Kumar Dutt, G.S.Khaparde etc formed themselves into a pressure group to press their points. At Calcutta it had been decided to hold the next session of the congress at Nagpur but later Pherozshah Mehta changed the venue to Surat, so as to exclude Tilak from standing as a candidate for presidentship. (Surat was in Tilak’s home province of Bombay).

The growing differences between the moderates and the extremists came to the fore at the Surat session of the Congress in 1907, when against the wishes of the Extremists who preferred Lala Lajpat Rai; Ras Behari Ghosh was chosen as president. Finally, the Moderates who were in majority gained complete control over the congress organization and the extremists were suspended from the INC.

The Moderates met after the split on Dec 28, 1907 and formed a Convention Committee for drawing up the new constitution of the INC. This committee met at Allahabad in April 1908 and drew up a constitution and the INC finally ratified it at its Madras session in 1908. The provision of the new constitution closed the door of the INC to the extremists. It was only after 1916, with the entry of the extremists in the congress, that the congress could be reactivated.

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La Excellence IAS THE HOME RULE MOVEMENT

The Home Rule Movement was the Indian response to the First World War and represented the emergence of a new trend of aggressive politics. Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak proved to be the pioneers of this new trend. However the idea of starting a Home Rule league in India originated with Annie Besant.

On 16th June 1914, Bal Gangadhar Tilak was released after serving a long term in prison and he concentrated all his attention on securing the readmission of himself and other extremists into the Indian National Congress. Mrs. Annie Besant who had just joined the Indian National Congress pressurized the congress to admit the extremists. Consistent efforts secured them their re-entry in December 1915. However, she failed to get the Congress approve her scheme of Home Rule League.

The definite campaign for Home Rule began with the publication of Weekly “The Commonweal” on January 2nd 1914. Tilak started the Indian Home Rule League in April 1916 and 5 Months later in September 1916 Mrs. Annie Besant started the Home Rule League. Tilak’s league was to work in Maharashtra (Excluding Bombay City), Karnataka, the Central province and Berar and Annie Besant league was given charge of rest of India

The Home rule movement had borrowed the term ‘Home Rule’ from a similar movement in Ireland. The main objective of Home Rule League was to attain home-rule for India within the British Empire, on the lines of the autonomous colonies of Australia, New Zealand etc.

TILAK’S HOME RULE LEAGUE Tilak’s Home Rule League, launched at the Bombay provincial Conference held at Belgaum in April 1916, was organized into 6 branches; Tilak launched propaganda in favour of home rule through Maharatta and Kesari. It published pamphlets in Kannada, Gujarati, Marathi and English. The demands included Swaraj, formation of Linguistic states and education in vernaculars. According to Tilak “India was like a son who had grown up and attained maturity and it was right now that the trustee or the father should give him what was his due”. It was during the Home Rule Movement that Bal Gangadhar Tilak was given the title of Lokmanya. On 23rd July 1916 (Tilak’s sixtieth birthday), British served him notice asking him to show cause why he should not be bound over for good behavior and demanded securities of Rs 60,000. Tilak was defended by a team of lawyers led by . Tilak lost the case in the lower court but the High court exonerated him in November 1916. This gave fillip to the movement and Tilak pushed home the advantage by declaring that Home Rule now had legal sanction

ANNIE BESANT’S HOME RULE LEAGUE Annie Besant had come to India from England in 1893 to work for the Theosophical Society. She had set up her headquarter at Adyar near Madras. Annie Besant’s Home Rule League was formally inaugurated in September 1916, in Madras, with George Arundale, as the organizing secretary. Most of leagues work was carried on by Annie Besant and her lieutenants – Arundale, C.P.Ramaswamy Aiyer, and B.P.Wadia, Annie Besant also brought out the papers New India and Commonweal. The commonweal adopted as its cardinal programme, “Religious Liberty, National Education, Social Reform and Political Reform” aiming at self-government for India within the British Commonwealth.

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The definite campaign for home rule began with the publication of a weekly journal “The communal weal” on January 2 1914, the main aim was to popularise the idea of and achieving self government for India within the British common wealthJawaharlal Nehru in Allahabad and B.Chakravarti and J.Banerjee in Calcutta joined the league. Jamnadas Dwarkadas, Shankerlal Banker and Indulal Yagnik launched an all India propaganda fund to publish pamphlets in regional languages and in English. Motilal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, and Tej Bahadur Sapru also joined the Home Rule agitation. Many of the Moderate Congressmen who were disillusioned with Congress inactivity and some members of Gokhale’s Servant of India Society also joined the agitation. The Government of Madras in June 1917 came with the decision to place Mrs. Besant and her associates B.P.Wadia and George Arundale under arrest. This led to nation wide protest. Sir S. Subramaniya Aiyer renounced his knighthood in protest. The repression of the Government only served to harden the attitude of the agitators and strengthen their resolve to resist the Government. Montague, the Secretary of State, commented that Shiva cut his wife into fifty-two pieces only to discover that he had fifty-two wives. That is what happened to the Government of India when it interned Mrs. Besant”. Some leaders who stayed away from the league like Madan Mohan Malviya, Surendranath Banerjee and M.A.Jinnah now enlisted as members of the Home Rule League. Tilak advocated passive resistance to the AICC meeting in July 1917, and Gandhiji suggested the collection of signatures of one thousand men willing to defy the internment orders and march to Besant place of detention.

Faced with this growing agitation, the government in Britain decided to adopt a soft line. Annie Besant was released in September 1917. She at Tilak’s instance, was elected President of the annual session of the congress in December 1917 where she declared “India is no longer on her knees for boons; she is on her feet for right”.

After Montague’s Declaration (August 1917) also known as August Declaration Mrs. Besant finally dropped her league but Tilak continued his movement. During 1918, however, the Home Rule agitation gradually fizzled out due to: -Withdrawal of support of Moderates who were pacified by the talks of reforms from the side of British. -The publication of the Montford reforms scheme in July 1918 (Which divided the nationalist as some wanted to reject while others wanted to give it a trail) -Besant continuous vacillation and -Tilak decision to go to England at the end of 1918 to pursue a defamation case he had filed against Valentine Chirol, the author of Indian Unrest

SECOND SPLIT IN INC The division of opinion within the congress on the Montague declaration ultimately resulted in the second split in the party, this time the Moderates walking out. The INC in a special session (August 1918) criticized the August Declaration as “Disappointing and unsatisfactory” and suggested important modification. The moderates led by Surendranath Banerjee, supported the Declaration in a separate conference (November 1918). This brought about the second split in the congress. The ultra moderates started a new party called the National Liberal League in 1918, later on known as All-India Liberal Federation

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KHILAFAT MOVEMENT

 The Sultan of Turkey, ruler of the vast , was the caliph of the Islamic world and the Indian Muslims regarded the him as their spiritual leader “Khalifa”  In the First World War Turkey (Ally of Germany) was defeated. The Ottoman Empire was dismembered and the Sultan was deprived of all real authority and was placed completely under the control of a High Commission appointed by the Allied powers. The Indian Muslims were extremely agitated over this  Secondly, the harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres (1920) with Turkey further added the fuel  Thirdly revolts in Arab land engineered, at British instigation, against the Sultans made the Muslim sentiments India to flare up, hence the Muslims started the .  The main demand of the khilafatists was that, the Ottoman Caliph should retain his empire with sufficient temporal power to defend Islam, the Arab lands should remain under Muslim rule and the Sultan of Turkey should be the warden of the places sacred to the Muslims  The Muslims regarded the treatment of Turkey as a great betrayal on the part of Britain and in early 1920 the Indian Muslims started a vigorous agitation to bring pressure on Britain to change its policy forwards Turkey  M.A.Ansari demanded the restoration of the Arab lands to the caliph, at the Muslim League’s 1918 Annual Session in Delhi which was supported by the Congress  In April – May 1919 the All – India Khilafat conference was formed in Bombay  At a conference in Lucknow in September 1919, an All-India Khilafat Committee was set up with Seth Chhotani of Bombay as President and Maulana Shaukat Ali as Secretary. Other leaders associated with the committee were Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Md. Ali and Hasrat Mohani.  “Khilafat Day” was observed on October 17,1919 on an all India scale  At the all India Khilafat Conference held at Delhi (22-23 November 1919) Non- Cooperation with the British government was advocated for the first time. It was at this conference that Hasrat Mohani made a call for the Boycott of British goods  Gandhi was being slowly drawn into the Khilafat Movement. Lucknow Pact according to him was far from being a real basis of Hindu-Muslim unity and therefore he considered Khilafat to be a golden opportunity to forge this unity. Moreover Khilafat appeared to him, a justified cause to fight for, and therefore he assured to help the Muslims in the times of trouble.  Gandhiji was elected President of the All India Khilafat conference (November 1919). He wrote that the congress plea for Hindu Muslim unity “Would be an empty phrase if the Hindus hold aloof from the Muslims when their vital interests are at state”  The Amritsar Session of the INC (December 1919) gave a great fillip to the Khilafat agitation  In the Khilafat conference held in Calcutta (February 1920) under the Presidentship of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Gandhiji suggested to the Khilafat Committee that it adopt a programme Non-Violent non-cooperation to protest the government behavior  In April 1920, Saukat Ali warned the British that in case the government failed to pacify Indian Muslim, we would start a joint Hindu-Muslim movement of non-cooperation under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi

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 The AICC met in May 1920 and decided to convene a special session in September to enable the congress to decide on its course of action  The publication of the terms of the Treaty of severs on 15 May, 1920 and the publication of the Hunter Committee Report on Punjab disturbance infuriated the Indians  The central Khilafat Committee met at Allahabad from 1st to 3rd June 1920 and a programme of non-cooperation was declared  The movement was launched formally on 1st August 1920, after the expiry of the notice that Gandhiji had given to the Viceroy in his letter of 22nd June, in which he had asserted the right recognized ‘from time immemorial of the subject to refuse to assist a ruler who misrules’.  Lokmanya Tilak passed away in the early hours of 1st August and people all over the country observed hartal and took out processions, kept fast and offered prayers.  Gandhi finally succeeded in persuading the Congress leaders to support the movement. Finally at the special Calcutta session (Sept. 1920), Congress endorsed the programme of Non Cooperation. The Nagpur session of the Congress (December, 1920) ratified the resolution passed at Calcutta Congress Session.  The Khilafat committee as well as the congress outlined four stages of non- cooperation i.e.

-Resignation of titles and honorary posts, -Resignation from civil services under the government, -Resignation from police and Army services, and finally Non-payment of taxes for redressal of the Punjab grievances, rectification of the Khilafat wrongs and the establishment of Swaraj

 The All India Khilafat conference held at Karachi on July 8, 1921 called upon Muslim soldiers in the Indian army to quit their jobs.

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La Excellence IAS NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT

 The Non-cooperation movement was initiated by Mahatma Gandhi on August1, 1920, on his own authority, from the Khilafat platform

 In the special session of the AICC held at Calcutta in September 1920 with Lala Lajpat Rai as President, Gandhiji managed to get his proposals of Non Cooperation accepted by the majority of 1000 vote. The Congress accepted to launch N.C.M for 2 wrongs (a) Khilafat issue and (b) Punjab wrong. The 3rd main aim of N.C.M i.e. Swaraj was added at Nagpur session of I.N.C December 1920.

 Some Leaders opposed the programme of N.C.M. Lala Lajpat Rai opposed the programme of Educational Boycott, C.R.Das opposed the programme of Boycott of Legislature and M.M.Malviya and Jinnah opposed the Goal of Swaraj.

 In November 1920, following the reformed franchise the council elections were held. All the congress candidate boycotted the election

 The congress session at Nagpur started from 26 December 1920, ratified the non- cooperation resolution, earlier passed at Calcutta (Sept, 1920)

 The Nagpur session was historic due to two important amendment to the constitution of the congress

-Firstly the goal of the congress was changed from the attainment of Self-Government by “constitutional means” to the attainment of Swaraj by “peaceful and legitimate means”.

-Secondly, revolutionary changes were brought about in the congress organization. The changes were: - Formation of working committee of 15 members. - Formation of an All-India Congress Committee of 300 members - Formation of Congress committee from town to village level i.e. Creating a hierarchy of district, Taluka and village congress committee - Reorganization of provincial congress committee on a linguistic basis and - Opening of congress membership to all adults i.e. men and women of the age of 21 or more on payment of 4 annas as annual subscription

 The non-cooperation was launched to press Three main demands: - The Khilafat issue - The redressal of the Punjab wrongs and - The attainment of Swaraj

 Gandhiji announced the attainment of Swaraj within one year.

 The movement was particularly intensified in Punjab, Bengal, Bombay, U.P., Bihar, Orissa and Assam

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 The programme of the non-cooperation movement had two main aspect (I) Constructive and (II) destructive

PROGRAMME Constructive Destructive Setting up of arbitration boards known as Boycott of government controlled school and Panchayats. colleges Nationalization of education i.e. Boycott of law courts by lawyers and establishment of National Schools and Litigants. Resignation from Government Colleges. services. The promotion of indigenous goods Boycott of the legislature and resignation (Swadeshi) from nominated seats in local bodies The popularization of Charkha and Khadi Boycott of Foreign Goods. Refusal to attend and Government functions. The enrolment of a volunteer corps. The Surrender of honorary offices And titles Emancipation and upliftment of women. given by The British Removal of untouchability among the Boycott election to be held for the council Hindus and other measures for Harijan (Acc to Act of 1919) welfare. Promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity and Refusal by the people of India to offer use of Hindi as far as possible themselves as recruits in Mesopotamia

 The AICC meeting at Vijayawada on March 31, 1921 outlined two more programme: (i) To collect one crore rupees for the Tilak Memorial Swarajya fund and (ii) To introduce 20 Lakhs charkhas into Indian household

 The non-cooperation movement was the First real mass movement launched under Mahatma Gandhi

THE GROWTH AND SPREAD OF THE MOVEMENT

 Thousand of students left schools and colleges and joined more than 800 national school and colleges. The newly started national institutions like the Kashi Vidyapith, the Gujarat Vidyapith and the Jamia Millia Islamia and others accommodated many students

 Many leading lawyers of the country like C.R.Das, Motilal Nehru, M.R. Jayakar, Saifuddin Kitchlew, Vallabhai Patel, C.Rajagopalachari, T.Prakasam and Asaf Ali gave up their practices

 In July 1921, Mohammed Ali, at the all India Khilafat conference held at Karachi on 8th July, declared that it was ‘religiously unlawful for the Muslims to continue in the British army. Mohammed Ali was arrested

 On 4th October forty seven leading congressman including Gandhiji issued a manifesto repeating whatever Mohammed Ali had said. The next day, the congress working committee passed a similar resolution

 The next great event was the visit of Prince of Wales on 17 November, 1921.The day the prince landed in Bombay was observed as a day of hartal

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 In Bombay Gandhiji himself addressed a meeting in the compound of the Elphinstone mill owned by the nationalist Umar Shobhani, and lighted a huge bonfire of foreign cloth

 North Bihar, especially Champaran, Saran, Muzaffarpur and Purnia district, Became the storm centers of the movement by November 1921

 Between January and March 1921 the districts of Rae Bareli, Pratapgarh, Faizabad and Sultanpur witnessed widespread agrarian riots under the leadership of Baba Ram Chandra. In late 1921 there was another strong peasant outburst which is popularly known as the ‘Eka’ movement under the leader Madari ‘Pasi’.

 In Punjab the powerful Akali movement for reform and control of the Gurudwaras got closely identified with non cooperation

 At Malagaon in Nasik district a few policemen were burnt to death following the arrest of some local leaders

 The Movement in Mewar and the Bhil Movement under Motilal Tejavat acquired impetus from Non-cooperation Movement.

 In Andhra a large of people met Gandhi in Cudappa in September 1921 to get their taxes reduced and forest restriction removed. In the same period Alluri Sitaram Raju organized the Tribals in Andhra and combined their demands with these of Non- cooperation movement.

 Karnataka areas remained comparatively less affected. The Labours in the Buckingham and Carnatic textile mills went on strike from July to October 1921. In Orissa the tenants of refused to pay Abwabs.

 In Kerala muslim Moplah peasants turned violent and killed several Hindu landlords and Money lenders

 In May 1921 the government tried, through the Gandhi-Reading talks to persuade Gandhiji to ask the Ali brothers to withdraw from their speeches those passage that contained suggestion of violence

 From December the government adopted repressive policy by declaring the volunteer corps illegal and arresting all those who claimed to be its members.

 On 1st February 1922 Gandhiji sent an ultimatum to the viceroy that he could start mass civil disobedience if the political prisoners were not released and repressive measure not abandoned within seven days. The programme to start the Civil Disobedience was approved by the congress session at Ahmedabad.

 Bardoli Taluq was selected as a place from where Gandhiji would launch Civil Disobedience campaign.

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 On 5th February congress volunteers were fired at by the police at Chauri Chaura at Gorakhpur district in UP. In retaliation the infuriated mob killed 22 policeman

 The congress working committee, which met a Bardoli on February12, 1922, called off the movement (the resolution popularly known as Bardoli resolution).

 The country was shocked at Mahatma’ decision to call off the movement. Subhas Chandra Bose called it a “National calamity”.

 The British took advantage of the division among the nationalist forces and Gandhiji was arrested on 10 March 1922 and was sentenced to six years imprisonment.

 The Khilafat issue also lost relevance when Kamal Pasha came to power after abolition of Khalifa in Turkey

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La Excellence IAS SIMON COMMISSION

 According to a provision of the Government of India Act 1919, a Royal commission was to be appointed ten years after the passage of the Act (i.e. in 1929) to enquire into the working of the Act and to propose further reforms, if needed.  The conservative government in London appointed the commission two years earlier for the fear that a Labour Government, which was seen to be likely to come to power in the forthcoming General Election, might appoint a statutory commission composed of members with liberal and pro-India Views.  Lord Birkenhead secretary of state for India announced the appointment of a statutory commission under the chairmanship of Sir John Simon on 8th November 1927. Simon Commission was officially known as Indian Statutory Commission  All the Seven members of the commission were Englishmen, who were members of British parliament. Party wise there were four conservative, two Labourites and one liberal.  This all White commission with no Indian representative was greeted with strong protest. The congress, at its session held in Madras in December 1927, resolved to boycott the commission, everywhere and in every form.  However the league led by Muhammad Safi as also in Madras, Unionist party in Punjab, Central Sikh Sangh and All India Achut Federation did not oppose the commission [a section of league led by Jinnah boycotted the commission]  The Simon Commission reached Bombay on February 3, 1928 and was greeted with the slogan of ‘Go back, Simon’. A complete hartal was also observed in Bombay and other cities. Wherever the commission visited, complete hartal was observed and processions were taken out.  At many places the police used brute force to crush the agitation. A procession led by Lala Lajpat Rai in Lahore was lathi charged and Lalaji succumbed to his injuries. J.L.Nehru and G.B.Pant were lathi charged in Lucknow.  A revolutionary group led by Bhagat Singh, took the revenge of Lalaji’s death by killing the assistant Police Superintendent Saunders.  The commission paid two visits to India (February – March 1928 and October 1928- April 1929), each time it faced boycott. It made extensive tours and prepared a report, which was published in May 1930. The report was later discussed at the Round Table Conference held at London.  The report of Simon omitted any mention of Dominion Status even as a distant goal and rejected all ideas of transfer of power at the center  The proposals of Simon Commission were completely rejected by the major political parties in the country, including the Muslim League.  Even Lord Irwin found its finding as ‘Lacking in imagination and sought to divert attention by stressing the independent role of the forthcoming Round Table Conference  Beside, the Commission’s findings were outpaced by events like the Nehru Report as well as the viceroy’s declaration of October 31, 1929 promising Dominion status for India in the future. This is also known as Deepavali Declaration

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La Excellence IAS NEHRU REPORT

 In response to the appointment of Simon Commission and challenge given by Lord Birkenhead secretary of state for India, an All Parties Conference was called at Delhi on February 12, 1928, which was attended by representative of 29 organizations. It was presided by M.A.Ansari.

 On May 19,1928 at its meeting at Bombay, the All Parties Conference appointed a committee with Motilal Nehru as its Chairman. The purpose was to consider and determine the principles of the constitution for India.

 The committee consisted of Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, Sir Ali Imam, M.S.Aney, Mangal Singh, Shuab Oureshi, G.R.Pradhan, N.M.Joshi, M.R.Jayakar and Subhas Chandra Bose

 The committee presented its report in the Fourth session of the All Parties Conference at Lucknow in 10th August 1928.

 Some important recommendations of the report were as follows:

-The future should be based on “Full responsible Government on the model of the constitution of the self-governing Dominions”, and the conceding of the Dominion Status should be “the next immediate step” and not “a remote stage of our evolution”.

-The North-West Frontier Province (With its Muslim majority of over 90 percent) should acquire the same status as other Provinces and Sind (With its Muslim majority of over 7 percent) should be detached from Bombay and became a separate Province

-The Committee made no concession to the Muslim standpoint on the question of separate electorates. All elections made by joint or mixed electorates.

-Reservation of seats for Muslims or Hindus wherever they were in minority. No reservation of seats for Muslims in Punjab and Bengal.

-The constitution of Indian should be federal in character and the Indian States should be welcome to joint it.

-There should be inserted in the constitution a “Declaration of Rights” assuring inter alia, the fullest liberty of conscience profession and practice of one’s religion. Provision for adult universal

-The new Indian Legislature should be empowered to legislate and budget for the Indian army, and that its control should be transferred to a responsible Indian Minister of Defence.

-The legislative power of the Commonwealth should be vested in a bicameral legislature and the executive power in the King “exercisable by the Governor-General as the king’s representative, acting on the advice of the Executive Council”.

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La Excellence IAS On December 2, 1928, the All-Parties Conference met at Calcutta to consider the Nehru Report. There was violent clash between Jinnah (representing the Muslim League) and M.R.Jayakar (who put forward the view point of Hindu Mahasabha).

 Jinnah moved a number of amendments and demanded one-third representation of the Muslims in the Central Legislature. Whereas M.R.Jayakar questioned Jinnah’s locus standi as a representative of the Muslims and warned against going back on the report.

 Finally Jinnah left the All Parties Conference and joined the break away group of League led by Agha Khan and Muhammad Shafi after his demands were rejected

 The annual session of the INC held in Calcutta in December 1928, approved the Nehru Report and also served an ultimatum on the British government to accept the Nehru Report on or Before December 31, 1929, failing which the party would launch another mass movement, with a new goal of Poorna Swarajya

 The open session of the Muslim League meeting at Delhi on March 28, 1929, rejected the Nehru Report and accepted Mr. Jinnah’s ‘Fourteen points’.

 The British government neither accepted nor rejected the Nehru report. As a result the Congress declared on 31 December that the Nehru Report had ceased to be valid and passed the Poorna Swarajya Resolution at its Lahore Session (1929)

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La Excellence IAS JINNAH “FOURTEEN POINTS”

 The ‘Fourteen Points’ were announced by Jinnah in Delhi on March, 28, 1929 at a meeting of the Muslim League  It did not accept the Nehru Report on the ground that it discarded separate electorates and other demands of minorities  Jinnah in view of more safeguards for Muslims drew up a list of demand (The so called ‘fourteen Points’), which represented the minimum demand of the Muslims. The were as follows:

-The form of the future constitution of India should be federal with residuary powers vested in the provinces -A Uniform measure of autonomy should be granted to all Provinces. -All Legislatures and other elected bodies should be constituted on the definite principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities in every Province without reducing the majority in any Province to a minority or even equality -In the Central Legislature, Muslim representation should not be less than one-third. -Representation of communal groups should continue to be by separate electorates as at present, provided that it should be open to any community at any time to abandon its separate electorate in favour of joint electorate. -Any territorial redistribution should not, in any way, affect the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and the NWFP -Full liberty of belief, worship and observance, propaganda, association and education should be guaranteed to all communities -No bill or resolution or any party should be passed in any Legislature or any other elected body if three-fourths of the members of any community in that body opposed it as being injurious to the interests of that community -Sind should be separated from the -Reforms should be introduced in the NWFP and Baluchistan on the same footing as in other Provinces -Adequate share for Muslims should be provided in the constitution in all services of the State subject to the requirements of efficiency. -Adequate safeguards for the protection and promotion of Muslim culture, education, language, religion, personal laws and charitable institutions and for their due share in the grants-in-aid given by the State should be provided in the constitution -No Cabinet, either Central of Provincial, should be formed without at least one-third of the ministers being Muslims -No change should be made in the constitution by the Central Legislature except with the concurrence of the State constituting the Indian Federation

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La Excellence IAS CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

 Gandhi placed as an ultimatum on January 31, 1930 “Eleven Points” of administrative reform and stated that if Lord Irwin accepted them there would be no need for agitation. The important demands were:

1. The Rupee – sterling ratio should be reduced. 2. 50% reduction in land revenue 3. Abolition of the salt tax and government salt monopoly 4. 50% cut in military expenditure 5. Salaries of highest grade service should be reduced by half 6. Change Arms act allowing citizens to bear arms for self-protection. 7. Protection for Indian textile industry. 8. Reservation of coastal shipping for Indians 9. Release of all political prisoners 10. Total prohibition of intoxicants 11. Carry out reforms in criminal investigation department

 The congress working committee had authorized Mahatma Gandhi to determine the time, place and issue on which the civil disobedience movement was to be launched

 Gandhiji waited for 41 days for the government to respond to his 11-point ultimatum and then decided to inaugurate the movement by violating the Salt Law. Salt was made an issue, because the Government controlled the sale of this indispensable commodity, and imposed a tax on it which was felt most keenly by the poor

 On 12th March 1930 Gandhi started the historic March from his Sabarmati Ashram with 78 followers

 After a 24 day long March he symbolically broke the salt at Dandi on April 5, 1930. The breaking of the salt law formally inaugurated the civil disobedience

 Soon the defiance of salt laws started all over the country. In Tamil Nadu C. Rajagopalachari led a salt March from Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam on the Tanjore coast. He was arrested 30th April. In Malabar K. Kelappan, the hero of the Vaikom Satyagraha walked from Calicut to Payannur to break the salt law.

 Some of the programme outlined for the Civil Disobedience were the following:

1. The violation of the Salt law and other laws 2. Non-payment of land revenue, rent or other taxes 3. Boycott of Law Courts, Legislatures, Elections, Government Functions, Government Schools and Colleges 4. Boycott of foreign goods and cloths and burning of foreign cloth 5. Peaceful picketing of shops selling liquor and other intoxicants 6. Organizing mass strikes and demonstrations; 7. Resigning Government jobs and not going the Civil, military or police services

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La Excellence IAS

 N.C.Kelkar, Satyamurti and M.A.Ansari were among those who refused to resign from Legislature after the call of the Congress to do so. They came to be known as “New Swarajists”.

 Satyamurti voiced the Council entry programme in October 1933 followed by Bhulabhai Desai, B.C.Roy and M.A.Ansari in April 1934.

 In United Province and Gujarat, a no tax campaign was launched

 On 18th April the Bengal revolutionaries led a seize to the Chittagong Armoury and fought a pitched battle on Jalabad hill on 22 April

 Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (Popularly known as ‘Frontier Gandhi’) was active in for several years in NWFP. His mass work lay behind the formation of the band of non-violent revolutionaries, the Khudai Khidmatgars (Servants of Gods) popularly known as the Red shirts (After the colour of their uniform) that played an extremely active role in the civil Disobedience Movement.

 In the Northeast, the Manipuris joined the movement and the young Rani Gaidinliu with her Naga followers actively supported the movement. In Assam there was a strong student agitation against Cunningham Circular.

 On May 21st, with Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib (Gandhi’s comrade of south African struggle) and Gandhi’s son, Manilal in front ranks, a band of 2000 marched towards the police cordon that had sealed off the Dharasana salt works. Here the British repression was most severe upon the Satyagrahi’s.

 The working Committee in May 1930 sanctioned; Non-Payment of land revenue in Ryotwari areas, Non payment of Chaukidari (Village Police) tax in Zamindari region and Forest Satyagraha i.e. Peaceful violation of forest laws that restricted the age old tribal and poor peasant rights to free fodder, timber and other forest produce

 Amid all this the viceroy took the initiative of releasing the congress leaders and invited Mahatma Gandhi for talks which led to the Gandhi-Irwin pact and the suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement

GANDHI – IRWIN PACT – MARCH 5, 1931

 During the course of C.D.M the Simon Commission report was published and to consider its recommendation the First R.T.C was called in London in November 1930

 The congress boycotted the conference, however other political parties participated. The British Authorities wanted congress to join. Some of the liberal leaders like Tej Bahadur Sapru, V.S.Shastri and M.R.Jayakar on their return from the first RTC tried to persuade Gandhi on the same lines

 To create an appropriate atmosphere viceroy released congress leaders and invited Gandhi for Talks, the congress also authorized Gandhi to Negotiate a settlement with the viceroy

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 Gandhiji initiated a talk with Irwin on 14 February 1931, which culminated in the Delhi Pact of 5 March 1931. The pact is popularly called Gandhi-Irwin pact. This pact was also largely due to the efforts of Tej Bahadur Sapru, V.S.Shastri and M.R.Jayakar. According to the pact:

-The congress agreed to join the second Round Table Conference for drafting the constitutional Reforms on the basis of (a) Federation (b) Responsibility and (c) Safeguards or reservation in the interest of India for such matters as defense external affairs, minorities and the financial credit of Indian

-Gandhiji agreed not to press for investigation into police excesses

-On behalf of the congress Gandhiji agreed to discontinue the Civil Disobedience movement

-The viceroy agreed to withdraw ordinances promulgated in connection with the Civil Disobedience movement

-The government agreed to release all political prisoners, except those guilty of violence and restore the confiscated property of the Satyagrahi’s

-The government agreed to permit the people living within a certain distance of the seashore to collect or manufacture sea salt free of duty

-The government agreed to permit peaceful picketing of liquor and opium shops

-Gandhiji request for remitting the death sentence on Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru was turned down by the Viceroy.

 The annual session of the congress, held in Karachi from March 26 to 29, 1931 endorsed the pact, and also authorized Gandhi to represent it at the second Round Table Conference. Two separate resolutions one of Fundamental rights and other on National Economic Policy was passed

SECOND PHASE OF THE CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

 The 2nd R.T.C (September 1931) failed to satisfy congress or provide anything substantial to the country. The Gandhi returned to India disheartened and disillusioned

 Meanwhile Lord Wellingdon had succeeded Irwin as the Viceroy and had flouted many provisions of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact

 Gandhiji landed in Bombay on 28th December and witnessed government repression in full swing. Most of the important congress leaders were also arrested

 The congress Working Committee met the next day to decide on the question of resuming civil disobedience if the government did not make some positive gestures

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 On the 31st, Gandhiji asked the Viceroy for a meeting, offering to suspend the decision on Civil Disobedience However the Viceroy refused to see Gandhiji

 The congress working committee which met on January1, 1932 decided to resume the civil Disobedience Movement

 On January 4th, 1932, a fresh batch of congress leaders including Gandhiji and Sardar Patel were arrested {Gandhi was kept in Yervada prison (Pune) during C.D.M and at Aga Khan place (Pune) during Q.I.M}

 The same day (4th January) congress and its allied organization were declared illegal and their offices and funds seized Nearly all the Gandhi Ashrams were occupied by the police

 Wellingdon described Bombay city and Bengal as the “two black spot” on April 1932.

 The government also promulgated ordinaries which gave the authorities unlimited power-thus initiating has been described as ‘Civil Martial Law’, declaring military rule

 With the announcement of Communal Award (August 16, 1932) by Ramsay Mac Donald (British P.M) the strength and the pace of C.D.M began to decline

 The Delhi congress session (April 1932) and the Calcutta congress session (March 1933) were held while the official ban was still in force

 On May 8, 1933 Mahatma Gandhi announced a self-purification fast for 21 days for purification of himself and his associates “For greater vigilance and watchfulness in connection with the Harijan cause”.

 In the background of the communal Award and Gandhi’s fast unto death, the C.D.M last its momentum. After the Poona Pact Gandhi lost interest in the movement and got fully involved in the anti-untouchability struggle, which led to the foundation of Harijan Sevak Sangh.

 Gandhiji recommended to the congress to suspend the movement for a month or six weeks. Accordingly the movement was suspended for about twelve weeks

 In its place Mahatma Gandhi launched Individual Civil Disobedience on August 1, 1933

 However the civil Disobedience Movement continued to linger till early April 1934 when Gandhiji decided to formally (Finally) withdraw in April 1934. Gandhiji now decided to make Harijan work as the main theme of his new rural constructive programme

 In October 1934 Gandhiji decided to withdraw himself from active politics to devote all his time to the cause of Harijans. He announced his resignation from the Congress to serve it better in thoughts, words and deeds.

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FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE

 Sir John Simon (chairman of Simon Commission) recommended British Government to call a conference consisting of the representatives of both the British India as well as the Indian states so as to take a final decision on the issue of constitutional Reforms for India

 Subsequently Lord Irwin, the Governor-General of India, made his famous declaration known as the ‘Deepavali-Declaration’ (October 31, 1929)

 According to the declaration the objective of British policy was to grant Dominion Status to India and a round table conference would be held in London after the Simon Commission had submitted its report reported

 The first session of the Round Table Conference began on 12 November 1930. In all 89 persons were invited to attend the conference. Of these 16 represented Princely states. The British Indian delegation comprised 58 members, Rest were British Officials. Some prominent members who participated were:

Hindu Mahasabha M.R.Jayakar, M.S.Moonje Sikh Sardar Sampurna Singh Christians K.T.Paul Liberal T.B.Sapru, C.Y.Chintamani, Srinivas Shastri Muslim League Aga Khan, Md. Shafi, Jinnah, Muhammad Ali, Fazlul Haq Depressed Classes B.R.Ambedkar Princes Akbar Hydari (Diwan of Hyderabad), Mirza Ismail (Diwan of Mysore), Maharaja of Bikaner

 The conference ended with the Indian princes agreeing for a federation with a weak responsible central government

 The absence of congress representation in the First Round Table conference made it pointless. So it was decided to have a second one

SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE

 Wellingdon succeeded Lord Irwin in Delhi in April 1931

 Sir Simuel Hoare, a leading conservative became secretary of state for India

 On 26th August 1931, Mac Donald’s Labour Cabinet resigned and a new coalition government dominated by the conservatives was formed under him

 The congress had suspended civil disobedience movement but reiterated Poorna Swaraj as its ultimate political goal. Gandhiji sailed for London on 29th August 1931

 Against this background the second session of the Round Table Conference opened on September7, 1931. There were altogether 112 Delegates. Some prominent members were:

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Congress Mahatma Gandhi Muslim Muhammad Iqbal Depressed B.R.Ambedkar Liberals T.B.Sapru Capitalist G.D.Birla Others Sarojini Naidu, M.M.Malviya, Ali Imam

 The second session made recommendation such as: - The composition of the Indian federation - Structure of the federal judiciary - The mode of accession of states to the federation and - Distribution of financial resources

 The second session ended on 1st December 1931. The communal issues bogged down the proceedings of the conference. The 2nd Round Table Conference having failed to resolve the question of Communal issue authorized the British P.M. to resolve it.

 The conference ended with Ramsay Macdonald announcing the formation of two new Muslim majority province (NWFP and Sind) and the setting up of an Indian consultative committee and three expert committee and holding out the prospect of a unilateral British communal award if the Indians failed to agree on the minorities issue

 Gandhiji returned to India towards the end of 1931, utterly disillusioned. Gandhiji landed in Bombay on 28 December

 Gandhiji was soon arrested on 4th January 1932 and the government unleashed a region of terror.

 It was agreed at the Conference that Responsible Government would be established immediately, both at the Centre and in the Provinces, including complete control over Finance, Army, Defence and External relations.

 However the discussion over communal issues disturbed the conference. Ultimately the conference broke down since no agreed solution could be formed for solving the communal problems, and Gandhi returned empty handed.

 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar demanded a Separate Electorate for the depressed classes but Mahatma Gandhi opposed this.

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THE THIRD ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE

 The third Round Table Conference was called on November 17, 1932. The congress boycotted it. Only 46 delegates attended the session

 The prominent members were T.B.Sapru and Ambedkar (the only persons to attend all three RTC). The conference lasted till 24 December 1932

 The British government, on the basis of the discussion at the three sessions, drafted its proposals for the reform of the Indian constitution which were embodied in the white paper published in March 1933

 The white paper was examined and approved by a joint committee of the British Parliament (October 1934) and a bill, based on the report of this committee, was introduced and passed in the British parliament as the Government Of India Act 1935

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La Excellence IAS THE AUGUST OFFER

 The outbreak of the Second World War and British unilateral declaration that India is party to war, without consultation with the Indian leaders in particular and its people in general, made the Congress to demand a clear cut definition of the British Government’s war and peace aims applicable to India.

 In the annual session of the congress held at Ramgarh in March 1940, after the resignation of the congress Ministries in October 1939 the congress offered to cooperate with the British Government if a Provisional National Government was set up at the centre.

 In July 1940 the congress formally asked England to affirm its adherence to the goal of independence for India.

 In response, the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow issued a statement from Simla on 8 August popularly known as the “August offer”. The main purpose of this proposal was to secure congress cooperation during the World War II

 The offer turned down the congress demand for setting up the Provincial National Government but promised:

-Immediate expansion of the Viceroy’s executive Council by increasing the number of Indians -A representative constitution making body to be set up after the War -A war advisory Council would be set up consisting representative of British India and the Indian states.

 In this offer the viceroy had promised the Muslim League and other minorities that the British Government would never agree to a constitution or government in India, which did not enjoy their support.

 The congress rejected the “August offer” because there was no suggestion for a national government and It encouraged anti-congress forces like the Muslim League

 Nehru said in no uncertain terms that the whole conception of Dominion status for India was “as dead as a door-nail”.

 The Muslim League took the stand that it would not be satisfied with anything short of the partition of India

 The British however, went ahead with its implementation and accordingly in July 1941 the viceroy’s executive council was enlarged from 7 to 12 members, of whom four were British and Eight Indians (as against Three Indians earlier). But no member of the Congress or the League joined the new council

 The immediate impact of the failure of August Offer was the launching of Individual Satyagraha.

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THE CRIPPS MISSION

 It was under U.S. Pressure offer the fall of Rangoon to the Japanese forces that the Br. Govt. decided to send a mission to India.

 As the World War II situation worsened (After Germany invaded Russia) president Roosevelt of the U.S.A and President Chiang Kai-Shek of China as also the Labour party leader of Britain put pressure on Churchill to seek the active cooperation of Indians in the war

 After the fall of Rangoon to the Japanese the British government decided to sent to India, in March 1942, a mission headed by Sir Stafford Cripps (Member of the British War Cabinet and a left-wing Labourites).

 Sir Stafford Cripps spent three weeks in India (March-April 1942) and after discussion with leaders of various political parties, on March 29, announced his proposals in the form of a Draft Declaration. The proposals contained in the Draft Declaration were:

-The aim of the British Government is to provide “Dominion status” to India -Holding of fresh election to all the provincial legislature after which a constitution making body would be set up, after the War, whose members would be elected by the provincial assemblies and nominated by the rulers in the case of the princely states. -The constitution so framed after the war would be accepted by the British government on the condition that any Indian province not prepared to accept this constitution could, if so desired, remain outside the Indian union and negotiate directly or separately with Britain. -During the War an executive council would be set up, composed of leaders of the principal sections of the Indian people. But the British Government would have complete control over Defence and military operations

 The congress working committee, which met on April 11, 1942, while rejecting the Cripps proposals said “it would not be satisfied with more promise for the future, but with only realization of freedom”. The congress argued that without the transfer of de facto power and responsibility the change contemplated would not be of any significance.

 The working committee had further objection to the composition of the constitution making body in which the representative from the princely states would be nominated by their rulers and not elected by the people.

 To the provision relating to the non-accession of province to the Union, Gandhiji rightly described it as “an invitation to the Muslim League to create Pakistan”. On the overall assessment Gandhiji termed the proposal “as a postdated cheque on a crashing or failing bank”.

 The Muslim League demanded a definite declaration by the British in favour of the creation of a separate state for the Muslims, and also seats for the Muslims League on a 50:50 basis with the Congress in the interim Government

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 The league also rejected the Cripps offer on 2 grounds: It did not recognize separate electorates for the constitution making body and that there was no clear cut acceptance of the demand for partition was not accepted

 The Depressed classes, the Sikhs, the Indian Christians and the Anglo-Indians demanded more safeguards for their communities

 The British Government also refused to accept the demand for the immediate transfer of effective power to the Indians and for a real share in the responsibility for the Defence of India

 An important reason for the failure of the negotiations was the incapacity of Cripps to bargain and negotiate. He had been told not to go beyond the Draft Declaration prepared beforehand.

 Moreover, Churchill, Amery (the Secretary of state), Linlithgow (the Viceroy), and Wavell (the Commander-in-chief), did not want Cripps to succeed and constantly opposed and sabotaged his efforts to accommodate Indian opinion

 Stafford Cripps returned home in the middle of April leaving behind a frustrated and embittered Indian people.

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QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT OR AUGUST REVOLUTION

 The meeting of the congress working committee was held on 27th April 1942 at Allahabad. In this meeting the congress criticized the policy of the British Government on the war front

 Meanwhile the Japanese had reached India’s eastern frontier. In May 1942, congress working committee adopted a resolution calling for complete Non-Violent Non-Cooperation with any forces invading India

 The Congress had to decide its course of action in the wake of

- The failure of Cripps Mission - The defeat of British by Japanese in South East Asia and the arrival of Japanese armies at Indian borders - The steeply rising inflation and the acute shortage of foodstuffs caused by the war and - The arrogant behaviour of most of the foreign soldiers stationed in India.

 Gandhiji came to believe that “The presence of the British in India is an invitation to Japan to invade India and their withdrawal removes the bait”.

 In May 1942 Gandhi told a gathering of congressman at Bombay that he had made up his mind to ask the British to quit India in an orderly fashion. If they did not agree, he would launch a Civil Disobedience Movement

 On July 14, 1942 the meeting of Congress Working Committee held at Wardha passed the ‘Quit India Resolution’. Gandhiji asked the British “to leave India in Gods hands”

 The Congress also renewed the demand that “British rule in India must end immediately and reiterated the view that the freedom of India was “Not only in the interest of India, but also that if Britain and of the cause of freedom to which the United Nations proclaim their adherence”.

 The congress made it clear that the quit India demand meant an immediate acknowledgement of India’s independence by the British

 On 7 August 1942 the session of the Congress started in Bombay. On 7 August Gandhiji placed the instruction he had drafted

 On 8th August 1942 the AICC ratified the “Wardha Resolution” or the “Quit India Resolution”. It sanctioned the non-violent mass struggle under the leadership of Gandhi, but provided also for the contingency of his arrest. According to Congress “Every Indian who desires freedom and strives for it must be his own guide urging him or her on a long hard road where there is no resting place and deliverance of India.

 Gandhiji made a speech just after the passage of the Quit India resolution where he exhorted all section to participate in the movement and said, “Everyone of you should from

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La Excellence IAS this moment onwards consider yourself a free man or woman and act as if you are free. I am not going to be satisfied with anything short of freedom, we shall Do or Die. We shall either free India or die in the attempt”.

 The historic August meeting took place at Gowalia Tank in Bombay and this place is now known as the August Kranti Maidan

 The AICC meeting ended at around midnight on 8 August 1942. On the morning of 9 August police arrested Mahatma Gandhi, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and other eminent congress leaders. Within a week the members of the entire congress organization was arrested.

 The news of leaders arrest shook the people and they came to the streets protesting against it. The movement thereafter became directionless and leaderless

 From 9-13 August 1942 there were widespread disturbances in Bombay, Ahmedabad, Poona, Delhi, etc and the events of these four days in August 1942 are known as “The great August uprising”.

 A parallel government was established in, Satara (Maharashtra) which continued to function for a long time

 In Bengal, Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar functioned for a long time in Midnapore district. The Jatiya Sarkar undertook cyclone relief work, gave grants to schools and organized an armed Vidyut Vahini. This National Government had various departments like Law and Order, Health, Education, Agriculture etc.

 People established Swaraj in Talcher in Orissa. In many parts of eastern U.P and Bihar (Azamgarh, Ballia, Ghazipur, Monghyr, Muzaffarpur etc) police station were over run by the people and government authority uprooted

 This movement witnessed the emergence of a large number of National Government lasting for a few days in many parts of United Province and Bihar

 After September 1942, on account of increasing British repression, the movement went underground. It now took the shape of Revolutionary Terrorist Activities directed against blowing up of communication networks and attack on police personnel

 The prominent members of underground movement were Achyut Patwardhan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Ram Manohar Lohia, Sucheta Kripalani, Chootubhai Puranik, Biju Patnaik, R.P.Goenka e.t.c.

 Later Jaiprakash Narain and Ramnandan Mishra joined the underground movement after escaping from Hazaribagh jail on 9th November 1942

 The most significant act of the underground movement was the establishment of with Usha Mehta as its announcer

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 Ram Manohar Lohia would regularly broadcast on this radio, and the radio continued till November 1942 when it was discovered and confiscated by the police

 Subhas Bose speaking over Berlin radio (31 August 1942) described this movement as “Non-Violent Guerilla Warfare”.

RESPONSES AND TREND

 The Quit India Movement got a massive response from the people of Bombay, Andhra, Bihar, Gujarat, Orissa, Assam, Bengal Karnataka etc. but the responses in Punjab, Sind, NWFP etc were weak

 Congress was declared illegal. Therefore the Congress committee were revived under different names-congress workers Assemblies or representative assembles of congressmen- rendering the ban on congress committees ineffective

 There was massive participation by the Students. The movement did not evoke much response from the merchant community. In certain cases, the Capitalist did appeal to the government (Through FICCI) to release Gandhi and other leaders.

 The Muslim League kept aloof from the Movement but some members of Muslim community its supporter gave help by providing shelter to underground workers

 The Hindu Mahasabha condemned the Movement. The Communist Party of India opposed the movement. The Princes and Landlords were supporting the British War effort and did not sympathies with the movement

 Some congressmen like Rajagopalachari and Bhulabhai Desai did not participate in the movement. Dr. Ambedkar opposed the movement.

 Peasants of all strata, well to do as well as poor, participated in the movement. Many smaller Zamindars also participated. Some big Zamindars maintained a stance of neutrality and refused to assist the British in crushing the rebellion. The most spectacular of these was the Raja of Darbhanga, who refused to let his armed retainers be used by the government and even instructed his managers to assist the tenants who had been arrested.

 Some Government Officials, especially those at the lower level of the police and the administration were generous in their assistance to the movement

 The Socialists and Bose follower charged the communists with ‘treachery’ (because of their support to the Allies, including Soviet Union)

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La Excellence IAS REPRESSION BY GOVERNMENT

 The Government had since 1940 had been ready with an elaborate revolutionary movement ordinance. Arrests, detention, police firing, burning of congress office etc were the method adopted by the government

 The government used airplanes to gun people at various places. There were countless lathicharge, floggings and imprisonments.

 Gandhiji commenced a fast on 10 February 1943 in Jail. He declared the fast would last for twenty-one days. Groups of people secretly reached Poona to offer Satyagraha outside the Aga Khan Palace where Gandhiji was being held in detention. (Some other Congress leaders were kept in the Fort of Ahmedabad)

 Some newspaper which demanded the release of Gandhiji were: - Manchester Guardian - New statesman - Nation - New Chronicle - Chicago sun, etc -  The British Communist Party too demanded his release. The demand of Gandhiji release also came from the citizens of London and Manchester, the Women’s International League, the Australian council of Trade union and the Ceylon state council

 A conference was held in Delhi on 19-20 February and was attended by prominent men, politician and public figures. They all demanded Gandhiji release

 The severest blow to the prestige of the government was the resignation of the three Indian member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council. (M.S.Aney, N.R.Sarkar and H.P.Mody) to press the demand of quick release of Gandhiji

 During imprisonment of Gandhiji his personal secretary Mahadeo Desai and wife Kasturba died

 Muslim League gave a slogan of “Divide and Quit” in 1943 Karachi session. Muslim League observed on March 23, 1943 the “Pakistan Day”.

 K.G.Mashruwala took over as editor of Harijan after Gandhiji arrest

 In 1944 Gandhiji was release and Quit India Resolution was withdrawn. The other congress leaders were also released to participate in the Simla Conference in June 1945 PARALLEL GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED DURING QIM

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Tamluk (Midnapur) Jatiya Sarkar under Satish samant Talcher (Orissa) Lakshman Nayak Satara (Maharashtra) Prati Sarkar under Nana Patil. This was the Longest Balia (East province) Chittu Pandey. First one to come into being; Chittu Pandey called himself a Gandhian

 The Native State of Aundh whose ruler was Pro Nationalist and has got the constitution of his state drafted by Gandhiji, provided invaluable support by offering shelter to the Prati Sarkar activist

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La Excellence IAS

SUBHAS CHANDRA BOSE AND INA

SUBHAS CHANDRA BOSE

 Born in 1897. Political activist since his student days. Graduated from Calcutta University, studied philosophy in Cambridge and qualified for the Indian Civil Services

 His political mentor was Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das

 Elected Mayor of Calcutta while in jail in 1932

 It was in Karachi congress (1931) and the second session of the Naujawan Bharat Sabha in the previous year that he spoke of the need for a new Indian variant of socialism

 In 1939, he defeated Gandhiji nominee Pattabhi Sitaramayya to be re-elected congress president

 Rabindranath Tagore regarded him as ‘Deshnayak’. Subhas Bose founded the Forward Bloc, in January 1941.

 On the night of January 16-17, 1941, Subhas escaped from Elign Road home in Calcutta. Helped by his nephew Sisir to escape from Calcutta to Gomoh. From Gomoh he went to Peshwar and finally reached Berlin (Germany) via Moscow

 He made Anti British propaganda from the Berlin Radio Station and raised “Free India” units with the Indian prisoners of war in Germany

INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY

 Major Fujiwara a Japanese army officer persuaded Captain Mohan Singh – a prisoner of war – to work in collaboration with the Japanese for India’s freedom. (Captain Mohan Singh was an Indian officer of the British army in Malaya who had Surrendered to the Japanese)

 Mohan Singh first conceived the idea of the INA in Malaya. In March 1942 a conference of Indians was held in Tokyo and they formed the Indian Independence League. The major role in its formation played by Ras Behari Bose (living as a fugitive from the British since 1915 in Japan)

 This was followed by a conference in Bangkok (June 1942) where Ras Behari Bose was elected president of the League and a decision was taken to raise the Indian National Army or Fauz to fight for Indians independence. Bangkok conference also invited Subhas to come to Japan

 Captain Mohan Singh was appointed the commander of the INA. The majority of the participants of I.N.A were Indian soldiers who had surrendered to the Japanese troops after the fall of Singapore. Japanese latter arrested Mohan Singh and Niranjan Singh Gill due to some differences

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La Excellence IAS

 Subhas Chandra Bose reached Singapore on 2 July 1943, by means of German and Japanese submarines

 Subhas Chandra Bose went to Tokyo (In 1943) and Prime Minister Tojo declared that Japan had no territorial design on India. Shortly afterwards Ras Bihari Bose resigned from the Chairmanship of Indian independence League in favour of S.C.Bose who was also named as Supreme Commander of I.N.A

 Bose returned to Singapore and formed the “Provincial Government of free India” (Azad Hind Sarkar) on 21 October 1943

 In November 1943 the Japanese announced their decision to hand over the administration of Andaman and Nicobar Island to the INA. Japanese Government promised full support to INA to enable India to achieve full independence. Bose remained Andaman and Nicobar to Sahid and Swaraj

 Bose set up two INA headquarters, in Rangoon and in Singapore. The INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhiji, Azad and Nehru. Soon other brigades were raised namely the, Subhas brigade and the Rani Jhansi brigade. The Rani Jhansi brigade was the women’s brigade of I.N.A.

 The overseas Indians contributed heavily in terms of money and material

 Bose in a broadcast on Azad Hind Radio had addressed Gandhiji as the “Father of Nation”. Gandhiji returned the compliment by describing, Subhas as “The prince among Patriots”.

 The slogan of INA were ‘Jai Hind’ and ‘Delhi Chalo’

 On March 1944 the INA commenced its military offensive and advanced towards Assam through Burma and crossed Indian frontier on 18th March 1944. The INA soldiers reached Kohima in Nagaland and captured it May 1944.

 However the INA failed to capture Imphal due to failure of Japanese to supply the necessary material and air cover and due to advancing Monsoon

 Meanwhile the status of war turned against Japan and the British troops recaptured Rangoon in May 1945 and the INA troops were forced to surrender and made prisoner

 Three months later, Subhas Chandra Bose died in an air crash near Taiwan in August 1945

 The Significance of the INA movement was again highlighted during INA trails

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La Excellence IAS THE INA TRAILS

 The Trail of INA prisoners began on 5 November 1945 at the historic Red Fort, Delhi. Some prominent I.N.A. officers put on trial were General Shah Nawaz, Gurdial Singh Dhillon, Prem Sehgal e.t.c.

 There was countrywide protest in support of INA prisoners. There were meetings and processions, angry outbursts and agitated speeches almost everywhere calling for the immediate release of the INA prisoners.

 Before the trail began, Nehru raised the demand for leniency at a meeting in Srinagar

 The AICC at its session held in Bombay from 21 to 23 September 1945, adopted a strong resolution declaring its support for the cause of I.N.A. Soldiers.

 The Congress organized an INA Relief and Enquiry Committee. Tej Bahadur Sapru, K.N.Katju J.L.Nehru and Asaf Ali, under the leadership of Bhulabhai Desai took up the Defence of the INA prisoners in the trial

 INA Day was observed on 12 November. INA Week was observed from 5 to 11 November 1945

 The largest meeting held for the INA cause was the one organized by the INA Relief Committee. It was addressed by Sarat Bose, Nehru and Patel

 Meanwhile the protest turned violent. The entire city and the people of Calcutta went into action by disrupting traffic, burning cars and lorries and setting up barricades on street. The major role played by Students Federation (Communist Student Wing) and the League Students Organisation.

 The British announced in December 1945 to try only those INA members who could be accused of murder and brutalities and remitting in January 1946 the sentences passed against the first batch of the accused

 Again trouble began when the League student of the city gave a strike call to protest on 11 February 1946 against the sentence of 7 years imprisonment passed on A.Rashid Ali of the I.N.A they were joined by congress and communist student organization

 A massive rally (Addressed by the League, the nationalist and communist spokesmen) and a general strike on 12 February paralyzed Calcutta and its industrial suburbs, leading eventually to clashes with the police and the army

 After two days of bloody encounter, resulting in the death of 84 and injuries to 300, the authorities were able to finally restore order.

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RIN REVOLT

 The RIN (Royal Indian Navy) revolt started on 18th February 1946 when a section of Indians known as ratings (Non-commissioned officers and sailors) of HMIS Talwar struck work at Bombay. They went on a hunger Strike in protest against hardships regarding pay and food; as racial discrimination, in particular derogatory references to their national character.

 The ratings on other Ships also declared strike. Finally they elected a Naval Central Committee headed by M.S.Khan

 On 22nd February, the revolt had spread to all the naval bases in the country, involving 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 ratings. There were heroic confrontation too, in Karachi spearheaded by the rebels in HMIS Hindustan

 The mutineers evoked unprecedented popular civilian response. There were hartal and strikes and even violent outbreaks (That had broken in Bombay and elsewhere) claiming a death tool of more than 200 persons.

 The Communist with the support of the Congress Socialists gave a call for a general strike on 22nd February

 Vallabhbhai Patel and Jinnah jointly persuaded the ratings to surrender on 23rd February because they saw the British mobilization for repression in Bombay

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La Excellence IAS THE CABINET MISSION PLAN

 The decision to send Cabinet Mission was taken on 22nd January, 1946

 On 19th February, 1946 the British P.M. C.R.Attlee Government announced in the House of Lords about the mission and the plan to quit India

 A high-powered mission of three British Cabinet members (Sir Pethick-Lawrence, secretary of state for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade; and A.V.Alexander, First Lord of Admiralty) reached Delhi on 24th March 1946. The appointment of the cabinet mission was a virtual declaration of India’s independence

 Sir Pethick Lawrence announced that the objective of the mission was to set up machinery for farming the constitution of independent India and to make necessary arrangements for Interim Government.

 The purpose of the mission was to find out ways and means for the peaceful transfer of power in India, to suggest measures for the formation of a Constitution making machinery and also to set up Interim Government.

 The Cabinet Mission started deliberations with the Congress and League leaders at Simla on 5th May but on 12th May the talks broke down. The members of the Mission found that while the congress wanted a united India the Muslim League was insistent on the division of India and creation of Pakistan

 When the Congress-League differences were found to be irreconcilable, the conference was closed. Finally on 16th May, 1946 the cabinet Mission announced its own recommendation which were as follows

A. The unity of India had to be retained B. It rejected the League’s demand for a full-fledged Pakistan (Comprising the whole of all the Muslim majority areas) on the ground that it would not solve the communal minority problem. On the other hand partition would create many serious problem related to Defence, Communication etc C. It proposed a very loose union of all the Indian territories (Comprising both British India and Princely states) under a centre that would control merely the Defence, the Foreign Affairs and the Communication. The union would have the powers necessary to raise the fiancés to manage these subjects. D. All subject other than Union subjects and residuary power would vest in the provinces of British India. E. The Princely state would retain all subjects and all residuary power other than those ceded to the union F. The Provincial Legislatures would then elect a Constituent Assembly or a constitution making body with each province being allotted a specified number of seats proportionate to its population (Roughly in the ratio of one representative to a million population) G. The proposed constituent Assembly was to consist of 292 members from British India and 93 from the Indian states H. The British India members were to be divided into 210 General, 78 Muslims and 4 Sikh seats

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La Excellence IAS I. In the preliminary meeting, the assembly was to elect not only a chairman and other office bearers but also an advisory committee J. The members so elected will divide up into three sections” –Section A for the Non- Muslim majority provinces (Bombay, the United Provinces, Bihar, the Central Provinces, Orissa and Madras) section B for the Muslim-majority provinces in the North West (Sind, N.W.F.P. and Punjab) and Section C which would consist of Bengal and Assam, here Muslims had small majority over the rest. Among the Chief Commissioners’ provinces three i.e. Delhi, Ajmer-Marwar and Coorg would join group A whereas one i.e. Baluchistan would join Group B. K. All these section would have the authority to draw up provincial constitution and if necessary group constitution, and setting up thereby provincial and sectional legislature and executives. L. After the first general election, a province could come out of a group M. After 10 years: a province could call for reconsideration of Group or Union constitution.

 The grouping of Provinces was devised to satisfy the Muslim League, so as to give it a “Substance of Pakistan” to exercise almost complete autonomy in Muslim-majority provinces This measure regarding the grouping of provinces of the Cabinet Mission was unique and also the most controversial

 The Mission proposed an immediate formation of Interim Government at the centre, enjoying the support of the major political parties and with the Indians holding all the portfolios.

 The Congress was critical of the absence of any provision for the elected members from the princely states in the proposed Constituent Assembly. The Congress agreed to contest the election but rejected the proposal regarding the formation of an Interim Government, because the Muslim League had been given disproportionate representation

 The Congress further wanted the grouping to be optional (Because of the opposition of NWFP and Assam of their being dragged into Section B and C), whereas the League wanted the grouping to be compulsory

 The Akali Sikhs attacked the proposals on the ground that the inclusion of the Sikh community in the north-western Muslim block (Group B) would leave the Sikhs at the mercy of the Muslims and imperil Sikh Religion and culture

 The All India Scheduled Caste Federation considered the proposals as “Absolutely illusory and unworthy of serious consideration, because no seats had been reserved for the scheduled caste in the Legislatures and only one seat was offered to them in the “interim government”.

 The League, which had at first accepted the cabinet Mission Plan on June 6, 1946, withdrew its acceptance on 29th July and called upon Muslims “to resort to Direct Action to achieve Pakistan. Finally the Mission left for England on 29th June 1946.

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La Excellence IAS MOUNTBATTEN PLAN, JUNE 3, 1947

 The British Prime Minister Attlee announced on 20th February 1947 in the House of Common that British would withdraw from India by 30th June 1948, this known as Attlee’s Declaration

 Attlee believed that announcement of the fixed date for the British withdrawal from India would bring pressure on the Indians to settle their differences before then

 Lord Mountbatten, the 34th and the last British Governor General and Viceroy, arrived in India on March 22, 1947

 Soon after his arrival Lord Mountbatten started consulting Indian leaders. But found that the leaders of the leagues were adamant about breaking up the country along communal lines Mahatma Gandhi was vehemently opposed to the idea and had declared “If the congress wishes to accept partition it will be over my dead body. So long as I am alive, I will never agree to the partition of India”. Another staunch opponent of the proposed partition was Abul Kalam Azad

 Mountbatten was convinced that partition was the only choice. After the reluctant consent of the congress for the partition of India, Lord Mountbatten held final discussion with the congress, the league and the Sikh leaders, to seek their agreement on his partition plan

 Shortly after this Lord Mountbatten paid a visit to London for consultation in May 1947

 On June 3, 1947 Lord Mountbatten published a statement outlining his Partition plan or the 3rd June plan. On the same day Prime Minister Attlee announced the Partition Plan or the June 3rd plan in the House of Common

 The plan dealt with “the method by which power will be transferred from British to Indian hands, in particular the method by which the Muslim majority provinces would choose whether they would remain in India or opt for the new entity i.e. Pakistan

 According to the plan India would be divided but in a manner that maximum unity was maintained, Pakistan would be created, but it would be as small as possible

 The plan declared that power would be handed over by 15th August 1947 on the basis of Dominion status to India and Pakistan

 The plan laid down the procedure by which power will be transferred. The procedure were as follows:

-The provincial legislative assembly of Bengal and Punjab would meet in two parts separately, one representing the Muslim-majority district and the other representing the remaining district, to decide by vote for the partition of the province -In the case of Sind and Baluchistan and Legislative Assembly was to take its own decision at a special meeting

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La Excellence IAS -A provision of referendum was provided for in the case of the N.W.F.P and Muslim-majority district of Sylhet -With regard to the Indian states, the British government would cease to exercise the powers of Paramountacy. It would then be open to the states to enter into political relation with the successor government

 The plan also made provision for the setting up of a Boundary Commission to demarcate boundaries in case partition was to be effected. Mountbatten delayed the announcement of Boundary commission Award even though it was ready by 12th August, 1947 which aggravated the partition tragedy

 The provincial assemblies of East Bengal, West Punjab and Sind voted for Pakistan. In Baluchistan the decision to join Pakistan was made by a meeting of the Quetta Municipality. In the North West Frontier Province and Sylhet the majority voted in favour of joining Pakistan

 The transfer of power and division of the country were hurried through in Seventy Two days from 3rd June to 15th August

 Some senior British official like the commander-in-chief and the Punjab Governor were of the opinion that a minimum period of few years was necessary to effect a peaceful division

 The congress working committee, which met on June 3, 1947, approved the partition plan. The AICC, which met in New Delhi on June14-15, ratified the proposal. Pandit Govind Vallabh Pant moved the resolution for ratification

 Pandit Govind Vallabh Pant while moving the resolution had said, “This was the only way to achieve freedom and liberty for the country. It would ensure an Indian Union with a strong centre. The choice today is between accepting the statement of June 3, or committing suicide”.

 Some Nationalist Leaders disapproved the plan. Frontier Gandhi regarded the partition as treachery on the part of the congress and felt that “the Khudai Khidmatgars were being thrown to the wolves”. They even boycotted the referendum held in NWFP. Khan Abul Gaffar Khan wanted an independent Pathan state in NWFP

 Suhrawardy and Abul Hasan were for an independent united Bengal. The Hindu Mahasabha too opposed the partition

 The non Muslim majority areas in Punjab and in Bengal, as also the entire province of Assam (Except a part of Sylhet) remained within the boundaries of India

THE INDIA INDEPENDENCE ACT

 The British government introduced in parliament on 4th July, 1947 The Indian independence bill which was enacted on July 18th

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 The Act provided for the Partition of India and the establishment of two Dominions (India and Pakistan) from August 15, 1947. The legislature of each dominion would have full power to make laws for that Dominion

 The territories of the Dominion of India would include the whole of British India excusive of the territories constituting Pakistan, i.e. West Punjab, Baluchistan, NWFP, Sind and East Bengal. The exact boundaries of the two Dominion would be determined by a Boundary Commission

 The act ceased the jurisdiction of the British parliament over India, from 15 August 1947

 The Act terminated the suzerainty and Paramountacy of the British crown over the Indian States and all treaties, agreement etc between the two were to lapse on August 15 1947

 The act also made for the division of the Armed Forces and the Civil Services between the new Dominions

 The two Dominions, as also the Province would be governed ‘as nearly as may be’ in accordance with the Act of 1935 unless and until the constituent Assembly concerned made other provision

 On August 7, 1947 Jinnah left India for Karachi. The constituent Assembly of Pakistan which met on August 11, elected him first as president; 3 days later he was elected as Governor-General of Pakistan

 The constituent Assembly of the Indian union appointed Lord Mountbatten as the first Governor-General of the Dominion.

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GOVERNOR – GENERAL AND VICEROY’S

WARREN HASTINGS (1773 –1785)

He became governor of Bengal in 1772 and became Governor General in 1773 through the Regulating Act of 1773

 Termination of Dual administration in Bengal (1772). Dismissed the deputy Diwans i.e. Muhammad Reza Khan (Bengal) and Raja Shitab Rai (Bihar)  Introduced the Quinquennial settlement of Land revenue in 1772 by the method of farming out estates to the highest bidder.  Creation of Board of Revenue (1772). Created Diwani and Faujdari Adalat at the district level and Sadr Diwani and Nizamat Adalat. Codified Hindu and Muslim law.  To remove the possible clash between the Supreme Court and Sadr Diwani Adalat, he appointed Impey, the Chief Justice of Supreme Court, as Superintendent of Sadr Diwani.  Created five custom Houses: Calcutta, Hughli, Murshidabad, Dacca and Patna. The duties payable by all merchants were lowered to 2 and half percent. Treasury transferred from Murshidabad to Calcutta  Stopped Annual allowances of Rs. 26 Lakhs to Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. Took away Allahabad and Kara from him and sold it to the Nawab of Awadh.  Regulating Act 1773 envisaged a Supreme Court in India  Regulating Act 1773, appointed him the first Governor General along with four councilors: Clavering, Francis, Monson and Barwell  Robert Barker mediated the treaty between Rohilla chief Hafiz Rehmat Khan and Nawab of Oudh.  Supreme Court was established at Calcutta in 1774. Impey was appointed as the First Chief Justice o0f Supreme Court.  The Rohilla War (1774) and annexation of Rohilkhand by the Nawab of Oudh with help of the British.  Trail of Nand Kumar and his judicial murder (1775). Chait Singh affair (1778) [Chait Singh was the Raja of Benares]. The Begum of Oudh affair (1782) (took bribe from Chait Singh – 2 Lakhs and Nawab of Oudh – 10 Lakhs).  Royal Treasury shifted from Murshidabad to Calcutta. In 1776, Manu’s law was translated into the Code of Gentoo Law  Quinquennial settlement abandoned in 1777 and Annual settlement of land revenue on the basis of open auction to the highest bidder was started.  First Anglo-Maratha war took place (1775-1782) and the Treaty of Salbai (1782)  Second Mysore War (1780-84) [First one was fought in 1766-69]  Wilkins translated Gita and Hitopadesha in English. Hastings wrote the introduction to the first English translation of Gita by Wilkins.  In 1780, J.A.Hicky starts a weekly paper called Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser.  The Act of 1781 (it made a clear demarcation between the jurisdiction of the Governor General-in-council and that of the Supreme Court at Calcutta)  In 1782, Syed Gulam Hussain writes “Siyar-ul-Mutaqherin.  Pitt’s India Act of 1784

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La Excellence IAS

 Foundation of Asiatic Society of Bengal by Hastings and Sir William Jones (1784). He was conservator of Asiatic Society  After his return to England Impeachment proceedings were initiated against him in the House of Lords. After a long trial of 7 years he was finally acquitted.

SIR JOHN MACPHERSON (Officiating) (February, 1785-September, 1786)

LORD CORNWALLIS (1786- 1793)

 Europeanisation of administrative services, introduction of civil services and reforms to purify and improve administration. Cornwallis is called the father of civil service in India  The Police system was introduced. Sovereignty of law-all the official will be responsible to the Courts  Third Mysore War (1790-92). The defeat of Tipu and the Treaty of Seringapatanam (1792)  In 1791, Sanskrit College, Benares, founded by Jonathan Duncan  Introduction of the Permanent revenue settlement or the Zamindari system in Bengal and Bihar, (1793)  Reform of the judiciary (1793)—setting up courts at different levels and separation of revenue administration from judicial administration.  The District Faujdari Adalats presided over by Indian judges abolished and in their place four circuit courts were established, presided over by the European covenanted servants. The Sadr Nizamat Adalat at Murshidabad so far presided by a Mohammedan Judge was replaced by a similar court set up at Calcutta comprising Governor-General and Members of Supreme Council  Cornwallis Code was introduced in 1793 with following features: 1. It was based on the concept of separation of powers 2. The Collector was the head of the revenue administration and divested him of all the judicial and magisterial powers 3. District Judge was appointed as the head of the judiciary at the district level 4. A gradation of civil courts was set up 5. The Distinction between revenue and civil cases abolished

SIR JOHN SHORE (1793- 1798)

 As the president of the board of revenue he played an important role in the introduction of the permanent settlement (1793)  Charter act of 1793  Battle of Kharda between the Nizam and the Marathas (1795). The battle culminated in the defeat of Nizam.

SIR A.CLARKE (Officiating) (March, 1798-May, 1798)

LORD WELLESLEY, (1798- 1805)

 Called himself as Tiger of Bengal  In 1794, the Board of Trade founded  Vigorously applied the policy of Subsidiary Alliance to achieve British Paramontacy in India. (Dupleix was first to start the subsidiary alliance). Chronology of his subsidiary alliance.

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La Excellence IAS

1798 1799 Mysore Tanjore 1801 The Nawab of Oudh 1801 The Peshwa 1803 The Bhonsle Raja of Berar 1804 The Sindhia

 He sent a British envoy Mehdi Ali Khan to the court of Shah of Persia, later he sent John Marshall  Fourth Anglo-Mysore war (1799). The war resulted in the defeat and death of Tipu and the annexation of many parts of Mysore  Wellesley passes a regulation for controlling the press. No newspaper was to be published at all until the manuscript of the whole paper were submitted to and approved by the Government  Christian missionaries establish a printing press at serampore  Foundation of Fort Williams College.  Wellesley took the administration of Tanjore (25th October 1799), Surat (March 1800) and Carnatic (31st July 1801)  Subsidiary Treaty of Bassein (1802) and the second Anglo-Maratha war (1803-05). It resulted in the defeat of the Sindhia, the Bhonsle and the Holkar.  Formation of the Madras Presidency after the annexation of the kingdoms of Tanjore and Carnatic.  In 1803, Raja writes the Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhiddin  Under his energetic leadership Lord Lake captured Delhi and Agra in 1803 and took the Emperor under the Company’s protection.

MARQUESS CORNWALLIS (Second Administration) (July 30, 1805 October, 1805)

SIR GEORGE BARLOW (Officiating) (October, 1805-July, 1807)

(1806)  Slave trade abolished in the British Empire in 1807

LORD MINTO I (1807- 1813)

 Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809)  In 1812, William Carey writes the Itihasamala in Bengali  Charter act of 1813.

LORD HASTINGS (1813- 1823)

 Anglo-Nepal War 1814-1816: The Gorkhas accepted the Treaty of Sagauli in March 1816. Due to his success in this war, he was made Marquis of Hastings (1816)  Pindari war (1817-1818) and the suppression of the Pindaris  Third Maratha war (1817-1818). Maratha power was finally crushed. Abolition of Peshwaship and annexation of all his territories, and creation of Bombay Presidency (1818)  Introduction of the Ryotwari settlement in Madras Presidency by Governor Thomas Munro (1820)  Bengal Tenancy Act 1822

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La Excellence IAS

JOHN ADAM (Officiating) (January-August 1, 1823)

LORD AMHERST (1823- 1828)

 The First Burmese War (1824-1826)  In 1824, Barrackpore Mutiny  Capture of Bharatpur (1826)

WILLIAM BUTTERWORTH BAYLEY (Officiating) (March, 1828-July 4, 1828)

LORD WILLIAM BENTICK (1828-1833)

 Suppression of Child sacrifices and Infanticide: Although it had been declared illegal by the Bengal Regulation XXI of 1795 and Regulation III of 1804  In 1829-1837, suppression of Thugi system. William Sleeman captured more than 1500 thugs.  In 1829 Sati system was abolished and Khasis revolted  In 1831, rebellion of Titu Mir and Kols  Visit of Ram Mohan Roy to England (1830) and his death there (1833)  Charter Act of 1833  Deposition of raja of Mysore and annexation of his territories (1831). Annexation of Cachar and Jaintia (1832). Annexation of Coorg (1834)  Abolished Provincial Circuits courts of appeal and circuit set up by Cornwallis. A separate Sadr Diwani Adalat was set up at Allahabad and Sadr Nizamat Adalat at Delhi was set up. In higher courts English as the court language replaced Persian.  Formation of Agra Province (1834)  Educational reforms on the basis of Macaulay’s Minute (1835) and introduction of English as the official language and the medium of instruction in India.  Treaty of perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh.

SIR CHARLES METCALFE (Officiating) (March, 1835-March 1836)

 Passed education resolution  Abolition of press restrictions  Rebellion in Gumsur

LORD AUCKLAND (1836- 1842)

 Deposition and deportation of the Raja of Satara  First Afghan war started (1836-1842). Disaster of British in the war and recall of Auckland.  In 1838, Tripartite Treaty between Shah Shuja, Ranjit Singh and the British  Death of Ranjit Singh (1839)

LORD ELLENBOROUGH (1842- 1844)

 Slavery abolished  Conquest and annexation of Sind (1843)

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La Excellence IAS

 War with Gwalior (1843)

WILLIAM WILBERFORCE BIRD (June, 1844-July, 1844)

LORD HARDINGE I (1844- 1848)

 English education declared as essential qualification public services  In 1845, the Danish possession sold to the English  1845-46: The First Anglo-Sikh war, and the Treaty of Lahore (1846)  Prohibition of female infanticide and suppression of the practice of human sacrifice among the Khonds of central India  In 1846, the rebellion of Khonds took place

LORD DALHOUSIE (1848- 1856)

 Second Sikh war (1848-49) and annexation of Punjab (1849)  Second Anglo-Burmese War and annexation of Lower Burma or Pegu (1852).  Dalhousie can be regarded as the father of the Electric Telegraph in India. O’Shanghnessy was appointed the Superintendent of the Telegraph department in 1852. First Telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra.  Charter Act of 1853  In 1853 a new treaty was forced on the Nizam of Hyderabad compelling him to cede Berar to Company  Railway minute of 1853. The first Railway line connecting Bombay and Thane was laid in 1853  In 1853, recruitment of the Covenanted Civil Service by competitive examination  Introduction of Doctrine of Lapse and annexation of Satara (1848), Jaitpur (1849), Sambhalpur (1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854)  In the educational sphere an important development was Charles Wood, (President of the Board Control), dispatch of 1854 and British assumption of the responsibility of educating the masses. Opening of Anglo-vernacular schools and Government colleges  A new Post Office act was passed in 1854, Postage stamps were issued for the first time  In 1856 Oudh was annexed on the pretext of the misgovernment  Bengal was placed under the charge of Lt. Governor  A separate Public Works Department (PWD) was established in every province. Work on the Grand Trunk road was started. Ganges canal declared open (1854)  Widow remarriage Act of 1856  In 1855-56, Santhal insurrection took place  Headquarters of Bengal Artillery was shifted from Calcutta to Meerut and gradually shifted to Shimla in 1865

LORD VISCOUNT CANNING (1856- 1858)

 In 1856, war with Persia took place  Establishment of universities in the Presidencies of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, in 1857

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La Excellence IAS

 Outbreak of 1857 Mutiny  Last Governor General, after 1858 Governor General came to be known as Viceroy

VICEROY’S OF INDIA

LORD VISCOUNT CANNING (1858- 1862)

 The last Governor General and the first Viceroy  Queen Victoria’s proclamation and the Government of India Act of 1858. It ended the rule of East India Company. Transfer of control from East India Company to crown.  Indigo disputes, took place in Bengal in 1859  White Mutiny by the European troops of the EICO took place in 1859  Enactment of Indian Penal Code  Withdrawal of Doctrine of Lapse  In 1861, Indian Council Act  In 1861, enactment of Code of criminal Procedure.  In 1861, the enactment of the Indian High Courts Act and famine took place in North-western Provinces

LORD ELGIN I (1862- 1863)

His sudden death in 1862. Administration carried on by Sir Napier and Sir Denison from 1862 to 1864

SIR JOHN LAWRENCE (1864- 1869)

 War with Bhutan in 1865  Indo-European Telegraph from Karachi, Persia and Turkey in 1865  Famine commission  Masterly Inactivity Policy was followed  In 1865, the famine took place in Orissa and telegraphic communication with Europe opened  Establishment of High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865.  In 1868, the Punjab Tenancy Act  In 1868, annual grant of six Lakhs of rupees to Sher Ali, Amir of Afghanistan and Railway opened from Ambala to Delhi

LORD MAYO (1869- 1872)

 Beginning of the system of state Railways.  Establishment of colleges for the education and political training of the Indian princes. Rajkot College in Kathiawar and the Mayo College at Ajmer.  Organization of Statistical Survey of India and establishment of department of Agriculture and commerce.  Initiated the process of Financial Decentralization in India. In 1870 he took first step in the direction of separation of central and provincial finances.

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La Excellence IAS

 In 1872, a convict in the Andamans assassinated Mayo. The only Viceroy to be murdered in office.

SIR JOHN STRACHEY (Officiating) (February 1872-February, 1872)

LORD NAPIER OF MERCHISTOUN (Officiating) (February, 1872- May, 1872)

LORD NORTHBROOK (1872- 1876)

 In 1872, Kuka Revolt took place in Punjab  Visit of Prince of Wales (later Edward VII) in 1875  Resigned on the Afghan question

LORD LYTTON (1876- 1880)

 The British Parliament passed the Royal Titles Act 1876, investing Queen Victoria with the title of Kaiser-I-hind or Queen empress of India  Imperial Durbar at Delhi in 1877, to commemorate the assumption of the title of Queen Empress of India by Queen Victoria. The country at this time was suffering from a severe Famine.  Proposed to constitute imperial Privy Council-comprising of Princes  Vernacular Act and Arms Act 1878. These were the repressive measures of Lytton against the rising wave of .  In 1878, appointment of the First Famine Commission under Sir Richard Strachey, the finance member of the viceroy council  Proposed the plan of Statutory Civil Services in 1878-79 and Lowered the maximum age limit for civil services from 21 to 19 Years.  Second Anglo-Afghan War in 1878-80 and flight of Sher Ali  The Provincial Government was given the control of the expenditure upon all ordinary provincial services including land revenue, excise, stamps, law and justice and general administration

LORD RIPON (1880- 1884)

 Repealed the Vernacular Press Act, 1882  First Factory Act 1881  First census took place in 1881. The population estimated at 254 million  Continued the process of Financial Decentralization. Division of the finances of the Center in 1882.  Introduction of Local Self-Government in 1882. Called father of Local self- government.  Appointed Hunter Commission in 1882 to review the education  Sir C.P. Ilbert was law member of the Viceroy Council, introduced a Bill on 2nd February, 1883, the Bill sought to abolish at once and completely every judicial disqualification based merely on racial discrimination  Rendition of Mysore.  In 1883, Famine Code formulated

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La Excellence IAS LORD DUFFERIN (1884- 1888)

 In 1885, two Acts passed (a) Bengal Tenancy Act and (b) Bengal Local Self- Government Act  Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885-86)  In 1886, Upper Burma was annexed and delimitation of Afghan Northern boundary took place  Hospitals with modern facilities  Formation of Indian National Congress. The Secretary of state at the time was Lord Cross  Aitchison Committee

LORD LANSDOWNE (1888- 1894)

 Prince of Wale’s second visit in 1889  In 1891, Factory Act was passed  In 1891, military expedition against Manipur was conducted  In 1892, the Indian Council’s Act passed  Division of the Civil Services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate.  Appointment of Durand Commission in 1893. It defined the boundary, known as Durand Line, between British India and Afghanistan.

LORD ELGIN II (1894- 1898)

 In 1896, famine took place all over India. Lyall commission was appointed after Famine.  In 1897, plague broke out at Bombay  Assassination of two British Official by the Chapekar brothers of Poona in 1897

LORD CURZON (1899- 1905)

 Calcutta Corporation Act 1899  The Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act, 1899.  In 1900, famine took place and North-West Frontier Province formed  Punjab Land Alienation Act 1901  In 1901 a Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of Sir Colin Scott Moncrieff to investigate into the whole question of irrigation. The work on Jhelum canal was completed.  A Famine Commission was appointed under the Chairmanship of Sir Anthony MacDonnell  Appointment of Police commission (1902) under Sir Andrew Frazer, to review the Police administration and suggest reforms.  Appointed a commission under Sir Thomas Raleigh in 1902 to suggest reforms regarding Universities. On its recommendation The Indian universities Act 1904 was passed  Coronation Darbar 1903 marked the accession of Edward Fraser  Ancient Monument Preservation Act, 1904  Implemented the co-operative credit societies Act 1904.

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La Excellence IAS

 In 1904, Colonel Younghusbands expedition against Tibet sent  Bengal partition, 1905 (it was the cardinal blunder of Curzon)  Imperial Agricultural Department was set up. Establishment of an agriculture research institute at Pusa in Delhi.  A new Department of Commerce and industry was established  Built a far great mileage of Railway lines than any other viceroy had done so far. He was responsible for setting of Railway Board.  Resigned from his office because of his controversy with Kitchner (August 1905). The controversy was popularly known as Curzon- Kitchner controversy

LORD MINTO II (1905-1910)

 On 16th October 1906 partition of Bengal came into force. It gave birth to Anti Partition and Swadeshi Movement.  In 1906, Foundation stone of Victoria Memorial Hall laid at Calcutta  In October, 1906, Arundel Committee on political reforms submitted its report  In 1906, Lord Minto received the Muslim deputation headed by Aga Khan. Foundation of Muslim League (1906)  In 1907, Indian Decentralization Committee appointed  On May, 11, 1907, the Seditious Meeting Act passed  Surat session and split in Congress (1907)  On June 8, 1908, two Acts passed (a) Explosives Substance Act passed and (b) Newspaper (Incitement of Offences) Act.  Morley Minto Reforms or The Indian Council Act of 1909  1910: Press Act was passed  In 1910, Department of Education under a separate member of the viceroy’s Executive Council established  On June 22, 1910, coronation of George V.

LORD HARDINGE II (1910-1916)

 Partition of Bengal annulled. Capital shifted to Delhi. Delhi Darbar on 12th December 1911.  On 23rd December, 1911, bomb thrown at Lord Hardinge  Coronation Durbar of King George V and Queen Mary at Delhi (December 1911)  In 1912, Islington Commission on Civil services constituted  In 1913, Indian Criminal Law Amendment was passed  In 1914, Forest Research institute and College opened at Dehradun  In 1914, Government Commercial Institute, Calcutta, and Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics, Bombay was founded  On 29th September, Kamagata Maru arrives at Budge-Budge  In 1915, Indian Independence Committee formed in Germany  Death of Gokhale, 1915  Foundation of Hindu Mahasabha in 1915, by Madan Mohan Malaviya and others  In 1916, Saddler Committee on Universities appointed  On 20th June, 1920, Women University was founded in Poona  On 28th, April, 1916, Tilak founded Indian Home Rule League

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La Excellence IAS LORD CHELMSFORD (1916-1921)

 Gandhi returned from South Africa. Foundation of Sabarmati Ashram (1916). Satyagraha at Champaran (1917), Ahmedabad (1918) and Khaira (1918)  September, 1916, Home Rule League was formally inaugurated by Besant  Lucknow session and the reunion of Congress (1916). Mrs. Besant played an important role in the reunion.  Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the League (1916). Tilak played an important role in this.  Foundation of Women’s university at Poona (1916).  July, 1917, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, was founded  July 1917 Austen Chamberlain resigns and succeeded by Montague as Secretary of State for India. August declaration by Montague (1917). Montford reforms or the Government of India Act of 1919.  November, 1917, J.C.Bose founded Bose Research institute  Sadler commission on Education in 1917.  Appointment of S.P.Sinha as the Lieutenant Governor of Bihar (he was the first Indian to be appointed as Governor and the second Indian to become the member of British Parliament, the first one was Dada Bhai Naoroji).  On 10th November, Rowlatt (Sedition) committee appointed and submitted its report in April, 1918  Resignation of some Moderate Leaders, led by S.N. Banerjee, from the Congress and their foundation of the Indian Liberal Federation (1918)  Lahore High Court founded in 1919  Rowlatt Act (March 1919) and the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre (13th April 1919)  5th May, 1919, Third Afghan War started  Formation of Khilafat committee and the launching of Khilafat movement (1919-20)  Death of Tilak 1st August 1920.  8th August, 1919, Treaty of peace signed with Afghanistan at Rawalpindi  In 1920, Aligarh Muslim University was founded  In 1920, Central Advisory Board on Education was founded  November, 1920, Shiromani Gurdwara committee was formed  Launching of Non Cooperation Movement (1920-22).  In 1921, Shore Committee appointed to prepare a scheme for the complete Indianization of the officers in the Indian army  In 1921, Construction of the Victoria Memorial Hall in Calcutta completed except for the four corner cupolas, which were put up in 1934.  On 17th November, 1921, Prince of Wales lands in Bombay

LORD READING (1921-25)

 Visvabharati University started by Rabindranath Tagore.  Moplah rebellion in Kerala (1921)  (Feb. 5 1922) and the withdrawal of N.C.M. by Gandhi.  Formation of Swaraj Party by C.R.Das and Moti Lal Nehru in December 1922.  Repeal of Press Act of 1910 and the Rowlatt Act of 1919.  Resolution passed for the holding of simultaneous examination for I.C.S. in England and India from 1923

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La Excellence IAS

 In 1924, Lee Commission on civil services submitted its report.  In 1925, Devdasi system was abolished by an Act  On June, 1925, Indian Sandhurst (also known as Skeen) Committee was appointed on the employment of Indians in the army  On 9th August 1925, train robbery at Kakori  On 22nd August, 1925, V.J.Patel elected the first Indian President of the Legislative Assembly  Foundation of Communist Party of India 1925.  Foundation of Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh by K.B.Hegdewar at Nagpur in 1925.  Murder of Swami Shraddhanand

LORD LYTTON II (Officiating) 1925

LORD IRWIN (1926-1931)

 Popularly known as Christian Viceroy  In 1926, Indian School of Mines opened at Dhanbad.  Appointment of the Simon Commission (Nov 1927)  In 1927, Sadanand starts the Free Press of India News Agency  Royal Commission on Agriculture was constituted in 1927  Appointment of the Harcourt Butler Indian States Commission in Nov. 1927, to recommend the measures for the establishment of better relations between the Indian states and the Central Government.  Convening of the All India States People Conference in Dec. 1927 by the States people.  On 3rd February, 1928, Simon Commission arrives in Bombay  Meeting of the First All India Youth Congress in December 1928.  In 1929, Imperial council of Agricultural Research set up and Hartog Committee was appointed to give its report on the growth of education in British India and potentialities if its further progress.  20th March 1929, 21 members of communist party arrested in the Meerut conspiracy case.  On 29th March 1929, Jinnah formulated 14 points  8th April, 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshvar Dutta drop bombs in the Legislative Assembly  31st October 1929, Lord Irwin announced that the goal of the British policy was the attainment of Dominion Status by India. This announcement also known as Deepavali Declaration.  12th March, 1930, Gandhi Started his Dandi March  18th April, 1930, Chittagong Armoury raid  7th June 1930, Simon Commission report published  12th November, 1930, the First Round Table Conference (RTC) inaugurated by George V and continued upto 19th January, 1931  17th February, 1931, Gandhi-Irwin talks begin and concluded on 5th March. Suspension of C.D.M. in March 1931.  12th September, 1931, Gandhi arrives in London

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La Excellence IAS LORD WILLINGTON (1931-36)

 1st December, 1931, Ramsay Macdonald (British P.M.) announces the decision to constitute NWFP into a Governor’s province and Sindh was made a separate province  Participation of Gandhi in the second Round Table Conference (Sep. 1931). 28th December 1931, Gandhi arrived in Bombay, after the failure of the Conference. Resumption of C.D.M. Final suspension of the Movement in May 1934  16th August 1932, Ramsay Macdonald announced Communal Award. Gandhi’s fast unto death in the Yeravada Prison and on 24th September 1932, the Poona pact was signed.  7th November to 24th December, 1932, the Third Round Table Conference took place  Foundation of Congress Socialist Party by Acharya Narendra Dev and Jai Prakash Narayan (1934)  Government Of India Act 1935  Separation of Burma from India (1935)  Formation of All India Kisan Sabha in 1936

LORD LINLITHGOW (1936-1943)

 June 1937, A.Abbott and S.H.Wood submit their report on technical education in India  Formation of the Congress Ministries in majority of the Provinces (1937)  October, 1937, Gandhi formulated Wardha Educational Scheme  Election of S.C.Bose as the President of the Congress in the Fifty First session in 1938, after defeating the Gandhi’s candidate Pattabhi Sitaramayya.  Resignation of S.C.Bose from the Presidentship of Congress and its Membership in 1939  Formation of forward Bloc by S.C.Bose (1939)  Resignation of the Congress Ministries after the outbreak of II World War (1939). Resignation of the Congress Ministries as the Deliverance Day.  Muslim league passed the Lahore Resolution (23rd March 1940) demanding separate State for Muslims. It was at this session that Jinnah propounded the Two Nation Theory.  August offer by Viceroy (1940), Congress rejected August offer  17th October-17th December, 1940, Individual Satyagraha launched  Escape of S.C.Bose from India in 1941.  23rd March, 1942-10th April 1942, Cripps Mission. It offered Dominion status, which was rejected by the Congress.  7th August 1942, congress session started in Bombay. Passing of the Quit India Resolution (8th August 1942), and the launching of Quit India Movement started

LORD WAVELL 1943-1947

 C.R.Formula evolved by C.Rajagopalachari in 1944 and the Gandhi Jinnah Talks based on it (1944), failed to provide any solution to communal conflicts in India  Divide and Quit slogan at the Karachi session (1944) of the League.  25th June 1945, Shimla Conference to discuss Wavell plan begins.

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La Excellence IAS

 End of the Second World War (1945)  28th January 1946, Wavell announces Government’s intention to set up an Executive Council of political leaders.  18th February 1946, Mutiny of the Indian naval ratings in Bombay. I.N.A Trials begins (1946)  15th March 1946, Attlee announces the Cabinet Mission; Cabinet Mission, under Pathick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps and A.V.Alexander, arrives in Delhi on 24th March 1946.  6th August, 1946, Wavell invites Nehru to form an interim Government  16th August 1946 Muslim League begins the ‘Direct Action Day’.  Formation of interim Government by the Congress (Sep. 1946). League joined in Oct. 1946  9th December 1946, Constituent Assembly meets at New Delhi. League abstained from it.  5th January, 1947, All-India Congress Committee accepts Provincial Grouping under the Cabinet Mission Plan  20th February, 1947, Attlee announces end of British rule in India

LORD MOUNTBATTEN 1947-48

 Sworn in as Viceroy on 24th March, 1947  2nd June, 1947, Mountbatten Plan was announced  3rd June 1947, the plan to partition India announced.  4th June, 1947, Mountbatten announces transfer of power on August 15th  4th July, 1947, India independence Bill was introduced in the House of Commons  6th July, referendum took place in NWFP, boycotted by Abdul Ghaffar Khan  11th August, 1947, Constituent Assembly of Pakistan meets and elects Jinnah as President  On 15th August, 1947, Independence

C.RAJAGOPALACHARI 1948-1950

 The last Governor General of free India. (The first being Mountbatten)  The only Indian governor General. Remained in office till January 1950

SECRETARY OF STATES

 Charles Wood was the first Secretary of States  Paterick Lawrence was the last Secretary of States.

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La Excellence IAS

NOTES

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La Excellence IAS NOTES

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La Excellence IAS NOTES

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