Reinterpreting Aceh-Johor Relations in the 16Th and 17Th Centuries in Light of the Earlier Relations Between the Sultanate of Pasai and the Sultanate of Malacca

REINTERPRETING ACEH-JOHOR RELATIONS IN THE 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES IN LIGHT OF THE EARLIER RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SULTANATE OF PASAI AND THE SULTANATE OF MALACCA

MUHAMMAD IZZUDDIN BIN SELAMAT

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences in History and Civilization

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences International Islamic University Malaysia

FEBRUARY 2018

ABSTRACT

The fall of Malacca on August 15th 1511 to the hands of the Portuguese, created a vacuum in the domination of trade and power in the Straits of Malacca during the 16th century. Three new-born powers in the region; Aceh Darussalam, Johor and the Portuguese became competitors. This research was conducted to identify the causes that brought to the conflict in Aceh-Johor relations during the 16th and 17thcenturies in light of the earlier relationship between Pasai and Malacca. The relationship between Aceh and Johor was different from that of their predecessors. They were dragged into a conflict that lasted for almost 100 years. This study analyses their policies and attitudes towards each other and sees how far they reflect continuity and changes from the previous relations between Pasai and Malacca. This study also explores the factors that led to the conflict between Aceh and Johor in the 16th and 17th centuries. Subsequent to this, the presence of the Portuguese in the region and its influence on the relationship between these two kingdoms were investigated. The continuity of Pasai-Malacca relations in the relationship between Aceh and Johor can be seen in their partnership in military alliances, cultural activities and marriage arrangements. Aceh and Johor witnessed changes in their political and economic direction in the second quarter of the 16th century. Factors that contributed to the changes were driven by political and economic rivalry, family commotion within the royal courts and the manipulation played by the Portuguese. This study on Pasai- Malacca relations contribute towards a better understanding of how the Malay- Muslims managed to unite and treat each other respectfully. The results show how a strong and united Malay-Muslim community delivered prosperity and spread the message of Islam throughout the region and how the conflict stalled the progress. Furthermore, the conflict in Aceh-Johor relations shed light on the role of the enemy of Islam in spreading hatred and creating confusion among the Malay-Muslims.

ملخص البحث ABSTRACT IN ARABIC

كان سقوط ملكا يف ١٥ أغسطس ١٥١١م، على أيدي الربتغاليني، قد أّدى إىل فراغ يف اهليمنة على التجارة والسلطة يف مضيق ملكا خلل القرن السادس عشر، وظهرت ثلث قوى حديثاً يف املنطقة وهي آتشيه دار السلم، وجوهور، والربتغال. وأجري هذا البحث لتحديد األسباب اليت أّدت إىل الصراع يف علقات بني آتشيه، وجوهور خلل القرنني السادس عشر والسابع عشر والستكشاف عوامله يف ضوء العلقة السابقة بني ابساي، وملكا. فإ ّن العلقة بني آتشيه، وجوهور كانت خمتلفة عن علقة أسلفهم، فإنّه قد مت جرهم إىل صراع استمر ملدة دامت مئة عام تقريبا. وحتلل هذه الدراسة سياساهتا ومواقفها جتاه بعضها بعضاً، وترى إىل أي مدى تعكس االستمرارية والتغيريات اليت طرأت على العلقات السابقة بني ابساي، وملكا. يف أعقاب ذلك، مت التحقيق يف وجود الربتغاليني يف املنطقة وأثرها يف العلقة بني هاتني اململكتني. وميكن رؤية استمرارية علقات ابساي، وملكا يف العلقة بني آتشيه، وجوهور من حيث شراكتهما يف التحالفات العسكرية، واألنشطة الثقافية، وترتيبات الزواج. لقد شهدت مملكتا آتشيه، وجوهور تغريات يف اجتاههما السياسي واالقتصادي يف الربع الثاين من القرن السادس عشر. وكانت العوامل اليت سامهت يف هذه التغيريات مدفوعة ابلتنافس السياسي، واالقتصادي، واالضطراابت األسرية داخل األسر احلاكمة امللكية، والتلعب الذي قام به الربتغاليون. وسامهت الدراسات املتعلقة ابلعلقات بني ابساي، وملكا يف التوصل إىل فهم أفضل لكيفية متكن املسلمني املليويني من توحيد، وعلج االختلفات بني بعضهم بعضاً. وأسفرت نتائج عن أنّه كيف ميكن للمسلمني املليويني األقوايء املتوحدين حتقيق الرخاء، ونشر رسالة اإلسلم يف مجيع أحناء املنطقة. وكيف أ ّن الصراع بينهم يعطل التقدم والنمو. وعلوة على ذلك، فإ ّن الصراع يف العلقات بني أتشيه، وجوهور سلط الضوء على دور أعداء اإلسلم يف نشر الكراهية، واحلقد، وإشعال الفتنة بني املسلمني املليويني.

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APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion; it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences in History and Civilization.

…………………………………….. Mohd Helmi bin Mohd Sobri Supervisor

…………………………………….. Arshad Islam Co-Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences in History and Civilization.

…………………………………….. Wan Suhana binti Wan Sulong Examiner

This dissertation was submitted to the Department of History and Civilization and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences in History and Civilization.

…………………………………….. Arshad Islam Head, Department of History and Civilization.

This dissertation was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences in History and Civilization.

…………………………………….. Mohammad Abdul Quayum Dean, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigation, except where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Muhammad Izzuddin Bin Selamat

Signature…………………....………. Date …….……………….

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

REINTERPRETING ACEH-JOHOR RELATIONS IN THE 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES IN LIGHT OF THE EARLIER RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SULTANATE OF PASAI AND THE SULTANATE OF MALACCA

I declare that the copyright holder of this dissertation are jointly owned by the student and IIUM.

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieved system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understand the IIUM Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.

Affirmed by Muhammad Izzuddin Bin Selamat

……..…………………….. ……………………….. Signature Date

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my beloved parents

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, it is my utmost pleasure to dedicate this work to my dearest parents, Mr. Selamat Talib, Mrs. Rokiah Aziz and Mrs. Ruslah Darus for their full confidence, support and faith in me.

My beloved wife, Mrs. Ros Aliaa, who granted me the gift of her unwavering belief in my ability to accomplish this goal: thank you for your support and patience.

My children Hasan Mujahid and Aya Wafaa’ that always brought joy and happiness in motivating me to complete this study.

I wish to express my appreciation and thanks to my Acehnese brothers, Mr. Hamdani, Mr. Wahyu and Mr. Taufik for their generous hospitality during my works in Aceh, also to the members of MAPESA and CISAH who provided their time, effort and support for this project. To the members of ISMA Kuala Lumpur, thank you for sticking with me.

Finally, a special appreciation to Dr. Mohd Helmi for his continuous support, encouragement and leadership for which I will forever be grateful. Also, a special thank you to Dr. Arshad Islam for his guidance and precious advice that I will always cherish.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ...... ii Abstract in Arabic ...... iii Approval Page ...... iv Declaration ...... v Copyright ...... vi Dedication ...... vii Acknowledgements ...... viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem...... 3 1.3 Purpose of the Study ...... 4 1.4 Research Questions ...... 6 1.5 Research Objectives...... 6 1.6 Literature Review ...... 7 1.6.1 The Relationship between the Sultanate of Pasai and the Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th Century...... 7 1.6.2 Aceh-Johor Relations in the 16th and 17th Century ...... 8 1.7 Methods of Study ...... 11

CHAPTER TWO: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PASAI AND MALACCA IN THE 15TH CENTURY...... 14 2.1 Introduction...... 14 2.2 The Sultanate of Pasai ...... 14 2.2.1 Pasai’s Achievements ...... 16 2.2.2 Contribution of Pasai to Islamic Studies and the Spread of Islam ...... 17 2.2.3 Factors that Contributed to the Emergence of Pasai ...... 19 2.3 The Sultanate of Malacca ...... 20 2.3.1 Malacca’s Achievements ...... 24 2.3.2 Factors that Contributed to the Emergence of Malacca ...... 28 2.4 Pasai and Malacca’s Foreign Relations ...... 31 2.5 Aspects of Partnership between Pasai and Malacca ...... 38

CHAPTER THREE: THE FOUNDATION OF ACEH AND JOHOR IN THE 16TH CENTURY...... 45 3.1 Introduction...... 45 3.2 The Condition of Pasai in the Early 16th Century ...... 45 3.3 The Foundation of Aceh Darussalam ...... 47 3.4 The Continuity of Pasai’s Political and Socio-Cultural Elements in Aceh Darussalam ...... 49 3.5 The Condition of Malacca until 1511 ...... 53 3.6 The Foundation of Johor ...... 54 3.7 Conclusion ...... 55

CHAPTER FOUR: ACEH AND JOHOR RELATIONS IN THE 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES ...... 58 4.1 Introduction...... 58 4.2 Continuity of Pasai and Malacca’s Military Alliance, Cultural Activities and Family Marriages in Aceh and Johor Relations ...... 58 4.3 The Changes of Political and Economic Policy in Aceh Johor Relations ...... 60 4.3.1 The Political Drive ...... 61 4.3.2 Economic Drive ...... 65 4.3.3 Family Commotion ...... 66 4.3.4 The Portuguese Manipulation ...... 66 4.4 Aceh-Johor Relations in Post-1641 ...... 70 4.5 Conclusion ...... 72

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION ...... 74

REFERENCES ...... 79

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The fall of Malacca on August 15th 1511 to the hands of the Portuguese, created a vacuum in the domination of trade and power in the Straits of Malacca which was the busiest strait in the world during the 15th century. Sultan Mahmud Syah, the last sultan of Malacca at that time, established his government at the Johor River. Although

Malacca was under the Portuguese occupation, the Sultan still ruled the remaining areas of the Malaccan Empire such as Muar, Rembau, Sungai Ujong, Klang, Selangor,

Manjong, Beruas, Perak and Pahang.1 Sultan Mahmud Syah made several attempts to recapture Malacca from the Portuguese but the Portuguese managed to hold on to these attacks due to strong fortification that they named A Famosa. His struggle was continued by his son, Sultan Alaudin Riayat Syah II who formed a new kingdom that was known as the Sultanate of Johor.

The emergence of the Sultanate of Aceh in the northern tip of Sumatra replaced the importance of Malacca after the downfall of the city. Many Muslim traders left Malacca and went to Aceh. Under the charismatic and strong leadership shown by the Acehnese Sultans during this period, Aceh emerged as the center of international trade and attracted many traders from around the world. Aceh also played the role as the centre of religious activities in the region, where Muslims from across the Southeast Asian region came to study. Therefore, Aceh and Johor became direct competitors in the region.

1 Shaharom Husain, Sejarah Johor: Kaitannya dengan Negeri Melayu (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Fajar Bakti, 1995), 8-9.

The relationship between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Sultanate of Johor during the 16th and 17th centuries was complicated. Most of the time, Aceh-Johor relations were tensed as reflected in the continuous war between the two kingdoms.

Aceh had several times destroyed the capital of Johor as responses to the alliance between Johor and Portuguese which threatened the sovereignty of the sultanate.

Even though the Sultanate of Aceh was known for its harsh approaches with

Johor, there were certain times during the 16th and 17th centuries where both kingdoms were at peace with each other. For instance, Sultan Alauddin Riayat Syah al-

Mukammil, who ruled Aceh between 1589-1604 was more tolerant and diplomatic in dealing with Aceh’s neighbouring states.2

The Portuguese on the other hand, played an active role by disrupting trade and interfering in the affairs of the Malay kingdoms in the Straits of Malacca. Despite several attacks on Johor and Aceh, the Portuguese also made alliances with the kingdoms to fight against one another.3 The conflict between Aceh and Johor that lasted for almost 100 years had affected the struggle to free Malacca from the hands of the Portuguese.

What is astounding, however, is the fact that the predecessors of these two kingdoms, the Sultanate of Malacca and the Sultanate of Pasai, enjoyed their close relationship. During the first quarter of the 16th century, the Sultanate of Pasai became part of the Sultanate of Aceh while the Sultanate of Johor succeeded the Sultanate of

Malacca. There are several questions that need to be answered. Was there any continuity between Pasai and Malacca relations and that of Aceh and Johor? If there

2 Fadhlullah Jamil, “Perhubungan antara Kerajaan Aceh dengan Semenanjung Tanah Melayu: Satu Tinjauan Sejarah di sekitar Abad ke-16 hingga Abad ke-17” (paper presented at Seminar Sejarah Masuk dan Berkembangnya Islam di Aceh dan Nusantara, Aceh Timur, Indonesia, September 25- 30,1980) 8. 3 C. Mary Turnbull, A Short History of Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei (Singapore: Graham Brash, 1981), 47.

were any changes that occurred, what were the factors that caused them and in what aspects? Thus, the goal of this study is to provide answers by reinterpreting Aceh-

Johor relations in the 16th and 17th centuries in light of the earlier relations between the

Sultanate of Pasai and the Sultanate of Malacca.

As the focus of this study is on Aceh-Johor relations, it does not therefore include a detailed discussion on their ties with other Malay Kingdoms such as Kedah,

Perak and Pahang.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

This study examines Aceh and Johor relations in the 16th and 17th centuries. It focuses on the relationship between these two kingdoms based on the earlier relations between

Pasai and Malacca. The relationship between Aceh and Johor was different from that of their predecessors. They were dragged into a conflict that lasted for almost 100 years. This study analyses their policies and attitudes towards each other and examines how far they reflect continuity and changes from the previous relations between Pasai and Malacca.

This study also attempts to explore the factors that led to the conflict between

Aceh and Johor in the 16th and 17th centuries. It examines the socio-cultural, religious, political and economic conditions of both kingdoms in order to understand the real cause of the conflict.

The arrival of the Portuguese to Southeast Asia is included in this study since

Aceh-Johor relations changed after their arrival in the region. The presence of the

Portuguese in the region threatened the Malay kingdoms. The Portuguese had occupied several cities along the Straits of Malacca starting from Malacca in 1511 and

Pasai in 1521. In the beginning, the ultimate goal of both kingdoms was to expel the

Portuguese from their territories. Unfortunately, they were dragged into a long war among themselves that affected their real cause. As a result, the occupation of

Malacca by the Portuguese lasted more than 100 years. It is worthy to discuss in this study with regard to how far the presence of the Portuguese in the region affected the relationship between these two kingdoms.

In terms of time frame, this study begins with the earliest engagement between

Malacca and Pasai during the time of Iskandar Shah who married the daughter of the

Sultan of Pasai. It ends with the fall of Malacca to the Dutch in 1641 which marked the end of the conflict between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Sultanate of Johor.

1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Throughout history since the arrival of Islam to Southeast Asia, the issue of unification among the Muslims especially the Malays that represented the majority of

Muslims in the region, has been a much-discussed issue which is always met with controversy.

The Malay-Muslims in the Southeast Asian region are known for their discord and loved to take on a hostile approach towards each other. This began with the dispute between Johor and Aceh in the 16th century that tore apart the unity of the

Muslims until this present day. Today even though the country has gained its independence from foreign powers, the Malay-Muslims today are still divided into several groups based on their political ideology. This study starts by investigating the basis of the relationship between the Sultanate of Pasai and the Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th century. According to Malay Annals, the arrival of Islam to Malacca went through the efforts of missionaries from Pasai and the marriage of the Sultan of

Pasai’s daughter to Parameswara, the founder of Malacca after he embraced Islam.

This relation continued until the end of the 15th century. This study would help us understand the reasons for the warm and friendly relationship between Malacca and

Pasai during the 15th century. It is one of the best examples of how a strong and united Muslims can deliver prosperity and spread the message of Islam throughout the region. Therefore, it is hoped that by examining the Pasai-Malacca relations, this study could contribute towards a better understanding of how the Malay-Muslims can unite and treat each other with mutual respect.

Unfortunately, the nature of this relation changed after the emergence of Aceh and Johor in the 16th century. This study seeks to find the answer regarding the factors that led to the hostile relationship between Aceh and Johor. Historians mentioned a number of different reasons why both sultanates were hostile towards each other. This study examines the conflict from various accounts written during that time from both Malay sources and also European sources to understand the real reason behind this conflict. It is important for us to know what motivated both sides to declare war on each other. Was it motivated by religious matters or by the economic and political conditions in the region at that time? Or was it because of the socio- cultural characteristics of the Malays? Despite many researches produced by Asian and European scholars on the history of Malacca, Pasai, Johor and Aceh, there is no single in-depth study that investigates whether there was any continuity and changes between the earlier and the later relations.

Furthermore, the presence of the Portuguese in the region and its influence in the relationship between these two kingdoms need further investigation. As we can see throughout history, the tendency to seek help from foreign powers has always been an option for any ruler to find an instant solution to their problems. However, there would usually be something that the foreign powers want in return for their help.

By examining the Portuguese activities and their policies during the Aceh-Johor conflict, it is hoped that this study will shed light on the role of the enemy of Islam in spreading hatred and creating confusion among the Malay-Muslims.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study seeks answers for the following questions:

1. What was the basis of relationship between the Sultanate of Pasai and the

Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th century?

2. To what extent the Aceh-Johor relationship a continuation from the earlier

relationship between Pasai and Malacca?

3. What were the factors that contributed to the conflict between the

Sultanate of Aceh and the Sultanate of Johor?

4. To what extent did the presence of the Portuguese influence Aceh-Johor

relations in the 16th and 17th centuries?

1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this research are:

1. To identify the basis of relationship between the Sultanate of Pasai and the

Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th century.

2. To examine how far the Aceh-Johor relationship was a continuation from

the earlier relationship between Pasai and Malacca.

3. To identify the factors that contributed to the conflict between the

Sultanate of Aceh and the Sultanate of Johor.

4. To study how far the presence of the Portuguese influenced Aceh-Johor

relations in the 16th and 17th centuries

1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW

1.6.1 The Relationship between the Sultanate of Pasai and the Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th Century.

A journal entitled “Hubungan Tanah Melayu dengan Kerajaan Aceh khasnya hubungan Melaka dengan Pasai” by Abu Hassan Sham is one of the significant works written on the relationship between Pasai and Malacca. This study provides basic information on the aspects of the relationship between these kingdoms which are religion, trade, politics and culture.4 Abu Hassan Sham suggested that the potential research areas on the Pasai-Malacca relations that need further studies such as the need to determine who the Sultan of Pasai was responsible to bring Islam to Malacca as well as further investigation on the identity of the ulama’ of Pasai that had been stated in the Malay Annals like Makhdum Patakan, Makhdum Muda and Tun Hassan.

Unfortunately, Abu Hassan Sham did not relate his research to the Pasai-Malacca relations with the later kingdoms Aceh and Johor that were successors in the 16th century. Perhaps that was the reason why the author later changed the title to

“Perhubungan Melaka dengan Pasai di abad ke-15 dan 16” when it was published in

Jurnal Sejarah Melaka a year later.

Another significant study written on the topic is a journal article authored by

Zainal Abidin bin Abdul Wahid entitled “Kerajaan Melaka dalam Hubungan

Antarabangsa”. This study focused on how far the Sultanate of Malacca and its foreign relations affected today’s modern-day Malaysia. He suggested that Malacca's foreign policy was based on trade, politics, religion and cultural values. The relationship between Malacca and Pasai however was mostly based on religious affairs, for example, during the time of Sultan Mansur Syah, he ordered a book

4 Abu Hassan Sham, “Hubungan Tanah Melayu dengan Kerajaan Aceh khasnya hubungan Melaka dengan Pasai.” (paper presented at Seminar Sejarah Masuk dan Berkembangnya Islam di Aceh dan Nusantara, Aceh Timur, Indonesia, September 25-30, 1980).

entitled “Durrul Mazlum” to be sent to Pasai to be translated. This article also stated that Malacca had divided their relations with other Malay states in the region into four categories that reflected their importance to the state.5 Pasai was regarded as an equivalent to Malacca where Malacca never interfered in the affairs of Pasai.

1.6.2 Aceh-Johor Relations in the 16th and 17th Century

A paperwork entitled “Portugis Punca Konflik Johor Aceh di Abad ke-16 dan 17” that was authored by Rusdi Sufi is one of the best works produced in Aceh-Johor relations.

He stated a number of factors that led to the conflict between Aceh and Johor.

However, he only focused on the role of the Portuguese that he claimed to be the mastermind who had engineered this conflict. He also suggested that the war between

Aceh and Johor in the 16th and 17th century was a response from the Sultanate of Aceh to the treason committed by the Sultanate of Johor that made an alliance with the

Portuguese of whom Aceh considered as the enemy of Islam.6

Fadhlullah Jamil, in his paperwork “Perhubungan antara Kerajaan Aceh dengan Semenanjung Tanah Melayu: Satu Tinjauan Sejarah di sekitar Abad ke-16 hingga Abad ke-17” is another significant work related to this study. He gave several chronological events of Aceh and its relations with the Malay kingdoms in the

Peninsular such as Johor, Pahang, Kedah and Perak. He divided these events that occurred in these kingdoms which had relations with Aceh into three periods based on

Aceh historical views. These periods were the period of consolidation (1537-1604), the period of Sultan Iskandar Muda (1607-1636) and last the period of Iskandar Thani and the Queens Era. He also gave interesting insights on the impacts of Aceh on the

5 Zainal Abidin Abdul Wahid, “Kerajaan Melaka dalam Hubungan Antarabangsa”. JEBAT 18 (1990): 78-80. 6 Rusdi Sufi, “Portugis Sumber Konflik Aceh-Johor Pada Abad 16 dan 17” (paper presented at Seminar Sejarah dan Budaya Johor, Johor Bahru, May 3-6, 2000).

Malay kingdoms role in administration, socio-cultural and religious matters7. But these insights need further investigation because the author did not provide detailed proofs to these claims.

Amirul Hadi, in his research, “Aceh and The Portuguese: A Study of the

Struggle of Islam in Southeast Asia 1500-1579” provides information about the response from Aceh Sultanate to the threat of the Portuguese. It was mainly expressed in three aspects; military action, political maneuvering and economic reaction. He also narrates the emergence of Aceh in the sixteenth century. In the Aceh-Johor relations, he theorised that throughout the sixteenth century, the Aceh Sultanate tried to establish a Pan-Islamic alliance with other kingdoms so that they could cooperate in attacking the Portuguese in Malacca.8 These kingdoms, led by Johor, showed an unfriendly response to Aceh’s military policy and perhaps to its economic policy as well. It was mentioned that Johor concluded a military alliance with Perak, Pahang and Siak to drive the Acehnese out of Aru. Johor’s opposition to Aceh was also demonstrated in 1547 and 1568 when it appeared with its allies in Malacca to help the

Portuguese fight Aceh. The opposition made by Johor was due to the fear of the new

Muslim power. This study however did not provide any details about the fear of Johor to Aceh.

Ajidar Matsyah in his Master dissertation, “Sejarah Kerajaan Islam di Aceh:

Kajian Faktor Perkembangan dan Kemerosotan”, sheds light on the chronological history of Aceh from the rise to the decline of the kingdom. He provided information on Aceh’s policy of unification on other Malay states to establish the great state of

7 Jamil, “Perhubungan antara Kerajaan Aceh." 8 Amirul Hadi, “Aceh and The Portuguese: A Study of the Struggle of Islam in Southeast Asia 1500- 1579." (M.A diss., McGill University, 1992).

Aceh Darussalam9. He also concluded that Johor and Aceh had different reasons for launching the war. As for Johor, he suggested that in the eyes of Johor, Aceh was the main competitor for its sole dominance for power and trade in the Straits of Malacca.

Johor willingly to made an alliance with other powers despite having different religion beliefs. In his statement, he mentioned that Aceh’s engagement in war with Johor was because Johor had made a pact with the Portuguese against their own fellow Muslims.

He claimed that Johor was responsible for the beginning of the Aceh-Johor conflict where Johor, with the help of the Portuguese, attacked Aceh in 1540.

“History of Johor” written by R.O Winstedt interpreted the relations between these two kingdoms from the Western perspective. He divided the chapters of his book based on the six principal actors along the scene of Johor history; the Malays

(Johoreans), the Portuguese, the Acehnese, the Dutch, the Bugis and the English. He generally explains the conflict between historical actors was in terms of economic motive; their lust for gold. The author narrated that the involvement of the actors in the war sometimes advanced the Cross and the Crescent to excuse bloodshed.

A thesis written by Othman bin Mohd Yatim entitled “Batu Aceh: A study of

15th-19th Century Islamic Gravestones in Peninsular Malaysia” provides information on the influence of Aceh on the religio-cultural values of the Malay kingdoms like the burial ritual of the royals and the commoners. He also explained the factors that brought to the distribution of these gravestones into the Malay Peninsular that related to the history and geography of the area. The distribution of Batu Aceh in Peninsular

Malaysia can be divided into two main periods10, (1) the Batu Aceh dating from the fall of Malacca to the advent of the Portuguese in 1511 and their conquest of Malacca,

9 Ajidar Matsyah, “Sejarah Kerajaan Islam di Aceh: Kajian Faktor Perkembangan dan Kemerosotan.” (M.A diss., University of Malaya, 2005). 10 Othman Mohd Yatim, “Batu Aceh: a study of 15th-19th century Islamic gravestones in Peninsular Malaysia,” (PhD diss, University of Durham, 1985).

(2) the Batu Aceh which can be identified from after the fall of Malacca to the end of the nineteenth century. The first period of which the Batu Aceh were found in

Malacca and its allied states, was proof that the Batu Aceh of this period were imported mainly from Pasai. Both places were important sea-ports in the Malay

Archipelago. The second period which is related to the Aceh-Johor relations study shows an increase in the number of Batu Aceh because the Aceh political influence had then been widespread in the Peninsular Malaysia states. The first Malay state in the Malay Peninsula conquered by Aceh was Johor in 1564. Three more states were conquered during the time of Sultan Iskandar Muda which were Padang in 1618,

Kedah in 1619 and Perak in 1620. The author suggested that Aceh’s supremacy in the

Malay Peninsula accounted for the widespread use of Batu Aceh in Johor and the mentioned states.

“Sejarah Johor” composed by Haji Buyong Adil provides a structured timeline of events on the history of Johor. This helped to understand the chronology of any particular event regarding the Johor-Aceh relations in regard to when it took place and the factors that contributed to it.

From the above dissertations, articles and books, it is now clear that previous historians tend to study Aceh and Johor relations separately from those of Pasai and

Malacca. All of the authors discussed the war that happened between Aceh and Johor in the 16th century but did not provide any information about the continuity and changes that happened. Therefore, this research hopes to fill the gap in the literature.

1.7 METHODS OF STUDY

This study is a historical research and textual analysis of both primary and secondary sources. Therefore, a qualitative research method is the main methodology used in

collecting primary and secondary data for the study. The procedures of this study are as follows.

For the primary sources, this study collected data from manuscripts of local historians during the period of this research such as:

1. Sejarah Melayu written by Tun Sri Lanang.

2. Hikayat Aceh in which the author is unknown but was believed to be

written during the time of Sultan Iskandar Muda.

3. Bustanul Salatin written by a Gujerati scholar named Nuruddin al-Raniri

during the time of Sultan Iskandar Thani.

Other primary sources for this study are the official records of the Portuguese, the Chinese Empire and Ryukyu kingdom (Japanese) and the personal accounts in the forms of memoirs written by the Chinese and European travellers who witnessed the affairs that happened in the Straits of Malacca during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.

These accounts are important to give this study different perspectives on the Aceh-

Johor relations. They also provide new information that was not provided by the

Malay accounts. Some of the official records and memoirs that are used in this research are:

1. “Portuguese Documents on Malacca” collected and translated by M.J

Pinto,

2. “Historical Notes of Indonesia and Malaya Compiled from Chinese

Sources” by W.P Groeneveldt,

3. “Rekidai Hŏan document”, the official record of the Ryukyu kingdom that

has long been hidden in Okinawa and was found in 1932,

4. the famous memoir, “The Suma Oriental” that was written by Tome Pires

in 1512-1515,

5. “The Memoirs and Memorials of Jacques de Coutre” written by Jacques

de Coutre who was a Flemish gem trader who spent nearly a decade in

Southeast Asia at the turn of the 17th century,

6. A diary entitled “The Voyage of Thomas Best to the East Indies 1612-

1614” by Thomas Best.

As for the secondary sources, the collection of books, journals, dissertations, theses, articles and magazines in this field written by western historians and local historians were examined. These sources shed light on the causes regarding the conflict of Johor and Aceh.

In order to find the answers for the research questions in this study, the data collected are analysed by using comparative methodology as well as using the deductive and inductive approach.

CHAPTER TWO

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PASAI AND MALACCA IN THE 15TH CENTURY.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the Pasai-Malacca relations in the 15th century. It includes a historical background of the foundations of the Sultanate of Pasai and Sultanate of

Malacca, their rulers and the coming of Islam to both kingdoms. It also examines the role of Pasai and Malacca as the centre of trade and Islamic knowledge. This chapter also includes Pasai and Malacca’s foreign relations and the partnership between Pasai and Malacca.

2.2 THE SULTANATE OF PASAI

Located at the western part of Indonesia, Pasai (modern-day Lhokseumawe) was a strategic location for trade in the region due to its location at the mouth of the Straits of Malacca. Pasai was the entrance for merchants from the West to Southeast Asia and

China. On the Sumatran Island, Pasai was located between two rivers, the Peusangan river and the Pasai river where the upstream river came from the plateau of Gayo.

Lands in Pasai was very fertile due to its location that near to the volcano of Peut

Sagoe.1

Before the establishment of the Sultanate of Pasai, Pasai was divided into several provinces where each province was ruled by a king known as Merah (King).2

The founder of Pasai was Mahmud Syah, a member of the kingdom of Perlak’s royal

1 Muhammad Gade Ismail, Pasai dalam Perjalanan Sejarah Abad ke-13 hingga Abad ke-16 (Jakarta: Proyek Inventarisasi dan Dokumentasi Sejarah Nasional Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1993), 6-7. 2 A. Hadi Arifin, Malikussaleh, Mutiara dari Pasai (Lhokseumawe: Madani Press, 2012), 86.