CEU eTD Collection EU CITIZENSHIP REGIME, LABOR MOBILITY CITIZENSHIP LABOR MOBILITY EU REGIME, AND UNFULFILLED PROMISES: PRACTICES FROM AN PRACTICES PROMISES: UNFULFILLED In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Advisor: Professor Szabolcs Pogonyi Nationalism StudiesProgram Central European University Central European ENLARGED EU Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Jana Gottschalk Master of Arts Submitted to Submitted May 2011 By CEU eTD Collection offered. be will explanation a different discussion, the to citizenship” “post-socialist and orientalism” EU citizenship regime as prototypical neoliberal and byintroducing thenotions “European the byconceptualizing However, low wageemployment. lowand skill rationale inaccepting under-supplythe jobof inappropriate posts destinationthe migrants’ countries individual or concentrate mechanismson exclusionary language insufficient through displayed knowledge, remarkable in mismatch individualhigh qualification and low skill performedwork usually for the flows. Explanations migration East-West post-2004 the on data quantitative be by EU citizenship supported provisions empirical evidencegiving from and analyzing freedom their movement, of themost important of EUcitizenshipthe This rights. finding will terms and consequently laborhaveeffects different on migrants’ whenstatuses exercising different very in citizenship (social) and work of connection the define which capitalism, argumentbuilds an around institutional analysis legaciesof and undersocialism practical and The “non-citizens”. and citizens” “secondary “model citizens”, into society European the in stratifying role acrucial play legislations associated and policies citizenship EU such, As labor. for when migrating membernew states from old and the citizens between inequalities social itEU citizenship enhanceand perpetuate iscurrent Jenson arguedthat policies (2007), by concept regime” and in “citizenship Eastern 2007. Usingthe the enlargements after 2004 marketslabor into migration EU-15 the increased This and EU citizenship deals with thesis ABSTRACT i CEU eTD Collection ilorpy...... 94 Bibliography ...... 91 VI Conclusion V Neoliberalism, Postsocialism, and Oriental Europeans...... 75 IV Practicing an EU right: Postsocialist migrations into the EU-15 ...... 54 labor markets III Labor migration patterns in light of EU citizenship: Evolution and symptoms...... 43 II Legacies of work and citizenship: post-war European ...... 17 citizenship regimes ...... 1 I Introduction Orientalized Europeans...... 87 Postsocialist ...... 85 citizenship Ideal citizens, non-citizens and secondary citizens: The EU citizenship regime...... 80 Mechanisms of choice and context?...... 75 EU citizenship, revisited. Findings ...... 71 so far Brain ...... 69 drain and remittances Competition in the receiving country...... 67 Migration destinations since 2004...... 64 Employment sectors and work ...... 62 performed Demographics of the post-enlargement migrants...... 58 Hardship orchoice?...... 55 Patterns and waves...... 52 Movement of labor, movements of citizens...... 47 “Your rights – European (EU)” ...... 44 Implications ...... 41 and conclusions Postsocialism. The return to Europe?...... 36 Neoliberalism and ideal citizens...... 34 East legacies: Citizenship regimes in socialism...... 27 Capitalist welfare states and national citizenries...... 21 A different approach to dealing with citizenship: citizenship regimes...... 18 A side note on understandings ...... 13 of the “EU” Section by section overview...... 11 Citizenship regimes ...... 9 in the European Union Labor and citizenship. Migration patterns in an ...... 6 age of neoliberalism Legacies of the West, legacies of the East...... 4 European integration. Bottom ...... 2 up or top down? A “European wedding”...... 1 TABLE OFCONTENT ii CEU eTD Collection sources Iam indebted to Sergiu Novac. (2011), and Stirilepro TV (2011). All articles accessed asof March 15, 2011. ForRealitatea.net the English translations2011b), ; of (2011a the Maramures Gazeta (2011), Adevarul.ro others see among coverage, online 1 following, In the and debated. overtly explored others literature, in academic them neglected integration project of – some EU from within current themes the itfourretrace prominent The informationfor this story was covered in many different Romanian national and local media in print and This illustration of recent “on the ground coverage” of European is hereto of realities “on placed coverage” European ground of the This illustration recent A “European wedding” Romania’s accession to the EU. tothe accession Romania’s Thus, household. up the intheBarroso in helpedherposition family,to take which turn Maria a Portuguese an early through recommended to 1990s, wasthen acquaintance world. Ms.Topan whofirstworked in migratingfrom after Spain Romania in the Topanimage of Romaniamanagedimportance and to convey of Ms. theBarroso’s content to visitof howenter itby sayingreally isthat to shethe hadrestthe theof thepower householdto change the of the Barrosos before wide-spread stereotypes. Thevice stereotypes. Marmawide-spread mayorSighetu of then and in Portugal first household, later Barrosos’ in the employment of years ten in her for also in Belgium, of Sighet, town ofthe citizenship honorary was awarded Topan Maria criminals”, and rapists “thieves, as simply Romanians shelabel highlights, footage had media provenlocal a of commenter background asthe not, does who Barroso, Margarita thatMaria Romanians stay of the media.After local inthe asshe expressed architecture”, landscape and are different of beauty the remoteness and impressed “traditional with the andwas while there from up also ofMaramurestook Ms. chancethe visiting county some of Barroso sights the peoplein than Europe any diplomatcould have achievedofficial through diplomacy. Romania” andaccording to local hasmedia, served successfullybeen as an “unofficial attendhonor for ambassador her this to “European Thus,wedding”. 53-year-oldableMs. Topan, to to do morethat forshe theand interview conducted duringalso wedding.Ms. the Barroso not did reputation tire of stressing Maria Topanproven to be trustworthy andof full haveof common sense, as theMs. Barroso states in a media incountry factbecauseconfidence” household, and within has percent diligent sheishardworking, the “200 enjoyed and family becomeBarroso the with and affiliated closely so itsbecome has “close friends”enthusiasm andwith are effervescent media Romanian The region. Maramures from the of thatthat it Maria was Brussels for alocal aprivate occasion herhousekeeper’s wedding– the of daughter, anTopan, a womanBarroso’s visit does nothave official character, however, for shefrom made her way from a poor family of northern Romania, Sighetu Marma Sighetu European Commission andformerminister of visits primePortugal, the of town In late February 2011, the wife of José Manuel Barroso, current president of the Ġ iei in the Maramures region of northern Romania. Maria Margarita Maria Romania. northern region of iei inthe Maramures I Introduction 1 1 Ġ iei iei the stressed CEU eTD Collection centrist daily “Süddeutsche Zeitung”. “Süddeutsche daily centrist 3 obsolete forthe paper. countries two ofthese case the make socialism state of history shared the having not and ofworkers, movement onthe restrictions transitional with dealing not e.g. however, Community, European the within treatment Their 2 2009).Fligsteinand polls Eurobarometer otherhand,the thatthe (2008), on (Medrano, argues ground the substantive on support islacking that underway project elite comprehensive is overall an there that concluded measurehow whereit. have Some and to up andinstitutional gonefor authors examining set legacy. share andpostsocialist asocialist EUlater, accessed the focus on relationsto contemplate the of the old isfeature of mentioned. Thus, aprominentfights old work abovethis stereotypes suchasthe with the newer of individualmember an from member andanother state, willingly, aswellpublicly, questions and states, involved and inthelivingspace emotionally gets European whereone physically integration, which in addition to having in the paper. analyzed detail throughout “second-class”of group mechanisms citizens to and union,the processes of due will be that inenlargement 2004 and findslabor migrants that from formerlythe socialistform states a builds on the argument symptomatic the short, In be outlined. will themes, the of each on research of shortcomings case study of East-West enquiry will be introduced andlabor themain argument,which incorporates mainthe findings and migration within toanthropological open policy regime asagovernance EUcitizenship andthe neoliberalism, the EU after the socialist of understandings laborcitizenship andwork, migration of EU citizens in an age of and focus on capitalist legacieswith a national integration, social European themes, four these Most recently, thisconcern was voiced by prominent philosopher JürgenHabermas (2011) in theGerman states. member new also are they although considerations, these from exempted mostly are Cyprus and Malta In this context itisIn important integration todesignate context whata truly this entails,European and EuropeanBottom integration. uportop down? One can read this story of the two so different Marias as a parable of successful state of art of European socialstate ofartintegration 3 when considering political participation in EU elections EU in participation political considering when 2 on the ground, with a special 2 CEU eTD Collection ground. on the social processes andresultof cause the and intertwined, which are and practices Wilson thatframework as institutionala set (1998)proposed, of and structures geopolitical identity.inis here integration rhetoric, understood In European sum, EU contested the in more a or, “culture” European termed commonly which are spheres, interactional those structure managing integrationonthe the settingof social institutional with that are ground WilsonWhat manages show inhisisto account connectionthe andmutually reinforcive integrationstudying European is in represented Wilson (1998,p.151): like Eurobarometer. property and city-twinningacquisition and projects, not only political meters participation emphasis of the empirical evidence of European action, such as cross-border shopping or of population.the Inacritical reviewofFligstein (2008),Favell (2008b) callsfor astronger itbecause andis project integration mostly mobile younger,educated better parts a concern of Fligstein part of numbershigh not of EUpopulation alsothe acknowledges that are this sphere, anotion willbethat challenged, and modified subsequently in thesis.this However, in EU the andidentification interaction between is inherentconnection an there implies that isthere for also toargue an ground advancedof state integration.social European As such,he integration businesses in supranational cooperation deepened crossnational to claims that due by football, from examples giving telecommunication and shoppinghabits. he Furthermore, mainstream already, broad into one been channelled has already lifeEuropeans of everyday Another branch of Another branch both bridging approach institutional of the on-the-ground of and the that bear the stamp of EU policy and administration. and policy of EU stamp the bear that schools theythe attend,walk, and the televisionthey they watch forests are but and a sample of the beaches conditionsthe of daily life travel, they roads the eat, Europeans foods of the need scientist to study social all any European social convince to formationsenough not within were the EU context, then consider Euro-information and that the Euro-image If the annual statistics of EU budgets, salaries, legislation, litigation, and dissemination of 3 CEU eTD Collection these legacies are also suppressed or condemned as remnants of an unpleasant past. unpleasant of an as remnants condemned or suppressed also are legacies these countries post-socialist the of many in that fact the to due also but Europe, Eastern over hegemony Western the calls (2009) Case what to related are that phenomena subsequent and transition the after EU of the assessment 7 approaches. 6 affect not hopefully will of language argument. the imperfections the category, this for denominator common a as democracies orliberal socialism state of either experience shared ofthe premise the given However, imply. would use generalized this than nuanced more much and diverse are that histories and of countries a number denote they that sense the in categories misleading even sometimes and huge are those that aware Iam EU-15. the thus EU, of the states member old the to a is reference Europe” “Western Consequently, EU. the accessing their Bulgaria). They have in common a past of socialist regimes and postsocialist transitions Europeanthat Unioneitherpaved 2004 in (EU-8, the without way Malta and Cyprus) orto 2007 (EU-2, namingly Romania and 5 topic. ofthe assessment different 4 Europeans,and how largely relate Westernto Eastern is evidence of discussion Europeans the project. in the European EU-8andEU-2 experiencesthe of overall the integration,numbers with andnot of possibility post-socialist the integrating of the and employment social security structures. Western for European living standards down-scaling of the West, to from East “welfare tourism” feared much the regardto with institutions, especially and EU economies overall the for its outcomes decades, and inpast the states postsocialist eight of impactof accession the on the is of vastnumber publications a there Certainly, in surprisingly anthropology understudiedthe sociology and European the of Union. identifications. possible of field in the are related two howthe or identification, national overcomes project integration EU the how one of the in is interested am I field the before, mentioned As surroundings. own in their processes identifyingfor with European the Union, and how individuals make can sense of biggerthe ininterested the historical and dispositions nation that current (andstates individuals) have This is not only due to the ubiquitously announced “end of history” that has dominated the social sciences’ See, forexample, Carrera (2005), DeGiorgio and Pellizzari (2006), or Sinn Ocheland (2003) foreconomists’ the joined that states member new to the is referring Europe” “Eastern of category the following, the In Forsome discussionon the topic, however,see Bruter (2004), Castano (2004); orSmith (1993) forvery a This literature, however, infused by economic premises, has mostly been concerned with beenconcerned hasmostly infused economic premises, by however, This literature, It is certainly not the aim of this work to onceLegacies of the againWest, legacies of the East reconstruct the debate, whether and post-welfare capitalistlegacies andpostsocialistpost-welfare 4 When I talk about EU integration, I am mostly 6 4 , because it is this field that is that field is this it because , 7 5 What is missing from the from is missing What countries or corroding of CEU eTD Collection European policies, but also the value and contribution of those countries in the history of Europe as such. as Europe of history in the countries of those contribution and value the also but policies, European West shaping in importance its downplaying thus and experience, socialist decades-long the mentioning 10 constructive potential forEU integration is much bigger. the cultural and political that integration concludes he potentialOverall, for results. East diverse and more West gets one bears little acomparative, groundas forframework pessimism, EU-15 larger since the the taking when Only states. member EC, then first, ofthe perceptions the to closest are examines he countries postsocialist six ofthe practices socio-cultural and attitudes political the research, inhis finds As he of Europe. perceptions 9 8 of Europe, states postsocialist the and Kalb Obviously,(2009). is there fielda whole that examines problems and potentials in exception by is work the approachesCase (2009),other canbe found inBuchowski (2006) way.One inahegemonic ones East European relate to states European Western how transnational level. It is in this light that the next theme will become crucial. become will theme next the that light in this is It level. transnational on being a supranational,negotiated thatare from or beingincreasingly processes derived class into theand the emergenceanalysis of nationalist2011) is integration in(2009, and theconnection of status European the economic a society, of andculture, populist sentiments. by has Onecountries. in beenproposed that Kalb theory internalized stereotypes postsocialist and He arguesalso and especially East”, “the regarding states member forEU in older prejudices false a reintroductionreconcile ofa – national is mediawedding”: the still “European a need to there the especially coverageof through or andlocal Maria Barroso, from TopanandPortuguese Maria of story retrieve the Romanian – culturepractices that and hegemonies. is and including present, the orientalizing past the of perceptions and“Western” “Eastern” And of cohabitation it shaky historically is the and exactlyexperiences these exactly consideration into taking characteristicspostsocialism and socialism of of legacies this theme that one canpopulation. also past of European the distinct of the substantial parts neglecting in outcomes of situation the Laitin (2000) is among the few optimists that doassert East European nationals to have thesame attitudes and See Hannet al. (2002),or Verdery (1996),for that matter. I am describing these legacies as “suppressed”, since a history of Europe is mostly told without further 9 It is one important aim Itis bring important one to backthis thesis of on agendathesuppressed the 8 however, not in light of EU integration and the possible 10 , because many EU debates can be explained when beexplained can debates many , because EU 5 CEU eTD Collection migration within EU(Favell,the 2008a). circular trend of and, thus, temporary massive emerging the to out-migration,despite depictleadswill theof this besituation to of a specific environment that EU.It part the work of bigthe puzzles,labor migration is only up by taken of parts population,the andhappensin might itexamined, for be for in taken granted mobilizedour world. andthisis However, one mobility labor for bere- will andcross-border abroad 2011). In employment sum, topicthe of Favell and Nebe,2009; etal.,Galgóczi 2009; Kahanec and Zimmermann, Kurekova, 2010; positions by migrantstaken from (European the Favell,Commission, East the 2009b; 2009; in the brainif waste, not and adeskilling, conditions, by working precarious is characterized that followsmigration apattern East-West is more the is that What remarkable even 2009b). migrant1,863,610 workers in year EU-2 2007, the of accession (European Commission, an increase, even steeper migrants with to 278,682 work EU-15in the 2000, toanenormous toEU-15frommigrants in 1,910,000893,000 in2003 to 2007. Numbers EU-2suggest for the migrantsremarkable increase perannum 250,000 of since 2004,with increasean of EU-8 WhenEU. actualmigration the flowsconsidering in numbers, can however,one find the the to formal accession before their in work the West Europeans to East enabled schemes that working there was since especially see migration, nota dramatic changeinthe overall does findings,heFavell confirmsfor (Hantrais,overall these also 2007). (2008a) – EU-25 – then of the notexceeddoes 1-2percent in EU that the lowmigration rate overall the despite EU, moreEuropeans than West Europeans East thattake workers’ mobilityup theirto in right the itis by of fact, far Asamatter and Maria Maria. between andfriendship interaction kind of geographic feature needs to be discussed and analyzed, since a core item of the above story is the Having introduced introduced Having themesthe integrationlegacies, andsystemicEU an of additional Labor andcitizenship. Migration patterns in an age ofneoliberalism mobility oflabor , andprior totaking upthejob migration post, enables that this 6 CEU eTD Collection worse in the UK than that of third-country nationals when it comes to job opportunities: EU- opportunities: job to comes it when nationals third-country of that than UK in the worse even nationals andEU-2 EU-8 of position the finds it as results, drastic more even presents (2009a) Report Commission Arecentlabormarket 69). EU intregated (Currie, 2008,p. same job andmigrants migratingpositions as do EU-8 third-country when within the For reasons that will be explored in later in the thesis, EU-15 nationals do not compete for the migrantson these between labor butrather grounds, nationals. EU-8andthird-country of the 2010; Soysal,(Joppke, However,asrecentresearch suggests, 1994). tension the notarisedoes nationals Europeand fortress between third-country but that memberany state, from citizens rights and equality economic muchis notof opportunity, so actually anissue betweenEU welfarism. andcontested of neoliberalism citizenship, and, especiallysoin social emergentthis space of in European the Union, an age national and migration, of labor, natures interrelated re-examine the to step seems alogical welfare hasbeen itsubsumed underthe (Marshall, headingof“social 1992), citizenship” and labor since closely provision andwelfare Since of the integration. areever connected, a background of economic issetagainst since Union whole the migration, especially labor focus on a with integration of European nature the reconsider to necessary highly and thus the less powerful one in socioeconomicin this constellation one can easily predict which of the two European terms.Marias is the employee, that Forsaying without allgoes It thestruggles”. “class even above and relations power on reasons,debates overloaded I render it onApril 18-19, 2011. “3 the during discussion a at provided employee relationships, without the social protection that dependent wage earners enjoy. This information was 11 relationship, employer-employee as a (2008) posts identificationprerequisite to most with frequently EU, the happensin an In spite of the tens of thousands of registered self-employed persons from CEE countries that de facto work in Most authors in the field have argued that access to social citizenship, thus to welfare After all, the story of integrationAfter mobility, all, basedonworkers European of story the Fligstein that rd European Public Policy Conference” which took place at CEU Budapest CEU at place took which Conference” Policy Public European 11 which again invokes immediately the traditionally the immediately invokes again which 7 CEU eTD Collection evaluations by the labor migrants negative themselves. personal some mentioned clearly he although EU, the in migration labor East-West increased EU generally developmentthis has many advantages. Assuch, he couldof the not name any losers in well-being this situation of economic the for as well as countries, receiving and of sending GDP the for that assessment the with however, sources, various from numbers similar presented Kahanec paper. of this draft earlier Wins, Who Loses?” within the curriculum of“3 curriculum the within Loses?” Who Wins, department of public policy at CEU,who held 90-minutea entitledlecture “Migration inan Enlarged EU: Who 12 with a socialist past and those states that were traditionally welfarist capitalist, whichFurthermore, again,has also the emphasis will be on differences and similarities of outcomes for states on EUcitizenrythe only,how they withinaccommodate and the European dimension. third-country nationals.no myknowledge,of there is account To situation this concentrating and immigratingis“fortress Europe” with to or states regard mostly patterns, nation on either and migration structure employment welfare, on ofneoliberalism the effects examining when focus usual the Again, migration. labor global and neoliberalism, global of context engaging legacy with and structural explanations of situation.the 2008b,with however, Favell focus, notthrough and 2009)and Nebe(2009) a similar Favell(2008a, movement, freedom of the concerning restrictions temporary transitional on focus asocio-legal the with though inCurrie canbefound (2008), literature, social science has date than to deserves morein attention been to them.attributed to rulethis Exceptions thus and varies, greatly nationals EU different for chances job of in terms countries EU economists the Union, European known of to level 6).GivenCommission, 2009b,(European long these chapter thathavebeen numbers natives, education equal compared again a comparable with to percent of income14.7 deficit an experience UK the to migrants global and nationals Third-country increase. income EU-15migratethe within EU,they the usually benefititinof terms of an average 2.3percent if from people example, As a comparative population. level education native the than better migrantsless tothe8+2 UK aslightly despite percent earn natives, than on average 42.5 On April On 19, 2011,I had theopportunity to participate in alecture by Martin Kahanec, professorin the A last aspectof themethe onlabor mobility citizenshipand will be highlighted in the rd European Public Policy Conference”, where I presented an I presented where Conference”, Policy Public European 12 8 it becomes clear that the relationship between relationship the clearthat becomes it CEU eTD Collection bravest and most popular achievement of integration popular bravest of process so far” achievement andmostthe of (Recchi European sociological of consequence politicalthis andpeaceful (r)evolution – arguably noblest,the most visible and immediate isthe citizens of EU movement “The free Integration”: European Recchi forwardFavell and in (2009) preface of the publicationtheir “Pioneers recent of the accession of ten postsocialist states in the past decade. Hence, Ifully embrace the idea that newfloor of academicnegotiations has andalsoin analysis up,evenmoreopened solight of a citizenship, Europe of concept the from West migrationEast to patterns existentalready dimension seems (Fligstein,currently fragmented 2008). Therefore, by establishing upon the previously predominantly economic political and into union aclearly social even if one, that the extended visibly also then Lisbon The agreement. societal and union of stage new a enter further and Treaty individualscitizens’ relations sincetheMaastricht even of work 1992-93, However, a direct comparison of postsocialist and postwelfarist neoliberalims is also missing here. patterns in the aftermath of transition and also in the field of accommodating neoliberalism in one’s life. 13 establishing a as work, will obviousbecome in followingthe subsection. cooperation, isevenmore redundant.Thisline of isargumentation highly inmy contested normative necessarily not and in economic grounded furthermore is which states, sovereign mightfurthermore arguethatdiscussingof issuesopportunity inand justice a union of society. One receiving the andnon-citizen beingto evenmore amigrant so democratic state, discuss thepossibility in anunequal,non-egalitarian,participation of butneoliberal in the study of postsocialism. also welfare, andpartly of studies studies or inEuropean both area remainedunderstudied an Studies of postsocialism actually have a numberof insightful case studies of labormigration, the shifting labor The premise I would like to baseCitizenship regimes inthe European Union my analysis – and my fourth theme – on, is that with a noveltyisOne this in itthat objection not common to understanding academia is to European Unioncitizenship 13 , and by along-the-way facilitating the movement of movement the facilitating along-the-way by and , 9 CEU eTD Collection allocation of allocation aim the not toprovide demandis andsupply.However, of work yetanother rights noand obligationsand in‘the market citizenship’ the inconcept, efficiency the reproachoflittle the identity component, the assumed deficit, the democratic mentioned, e.g. be will therefore and beaddressed to need discussion traditional ofthe aspects of the individualsfor EUintegration ground, on the the andfor asawhole.project some Certainly, different citizenship regimes, aims to reveal what the outcomes of EU citizenship policies are similarities and differences of specific EU citizenship rights and nation state citizenship. largely informed by economic and policy considerations. Alternatively, we have the debate on was citizenship EU on framework analytical traditional the – here myself repeating am I and – because fruitful, is especially approach time. chosen of The our as anew of citizenship type space for analysis with regard to possible interactions of the three, but also for EU citizenshipEuropean Union poses a thirdregime scenario, which type inthis will open up evenmore citizenship regimes. In fact, EU citizenship regimeand the way how citizens are created in the Europe every EU-citizen. to by rights forcountries, respectively andgrantssame EU-2countries, the 2013 and January EU-8 the for 2011 May by expire restrictions transitional when pressing more become especially so for migrantsitfact high its derives migrantfor relevance in but workers general, duetoabsolute numbers, from Eastern to From this state. from one’sown accessed outside whichbe exclusively can states, member Western Europe. And citizenship.the relevance Obviously,of the Union European in the enshrined thatare rights acquired recently the of some implications topic EU citizenship isandFavell, vii). 2009,p. precisely, More am I what intending doin to thesis,this is toreveal a citizenship open to every citizen of each of the This work will not repeat this debate in content or form, but, through the analysis of analysis the through but, form, or in content debate this repeat not will work This The theoretical emphasis, put more precisely, will be on , and how the capitalist West and the (post)socialist East have differed in their differed have East (post)socialist the West and capitalist the how , and 10 citizenship regimes inpost-war CEU eTD Collection interdependency of interdependency and work of citizenship willbe retrieved.Since much of wouldwhat I like to interweavedness and – obfuscated made the–sometimes and be explicit, regimes will citizenship on assumptions implicit that way in a beorganized will It labor. and citizenship of relations manifold the on scholarship and theory with deal will II Chapter ways. following health care sector. the in in qualified erosion low-fee education personnel domesticof infrastructures or terms the of to even speak of the social costs of disrupted family lives, deskilling or “brain waste”, and the not occur, frequently more more and in sectors some shortages labor where countries, sending in be The situationif will evenmore considers severe thesituation explored. gets one the from partialwage opportunities exclusion and professional same the triggerthat kindof this also more facilitated administratively as a matter of urgent demand. In a last step, mechanisms high-skilled migration schemes, which are more decoupled from prejudicesrank-and-file and in often most befound, then find. If easy are to they to not and rule arerare the to exceptions when compared to that of the local population – despite a higher or equal education level; markets labor inWest European workers European East of ofthe millions disadvantage the laborto for operates migration and connection inherentthe of EU citizenship will argue that analyzed in chapter II; therefore here I will leave the discussion here. discussion the leave Iwill here therefore II; chapter in analyzed bethoroughly will puzzle This state. and individual between relationship the describing for concept this use actually can one non-democracy of factual light one in whether arose question the 2011), (WS Zentai by Violetta 14 bearscitizenship” burdens. some uneasy intellectual “socialist although regimes, of inanyconcept citizenshipthe described connected three the of regime. citizenship with EU newer andthis legacies of citizenships national processes intertwined and outcomes, the analyses that approach an but above, the of evaluation The concept of ‘citizenship’ has evolved as a consequence of democratization and industrialization. In a class In industrialization. and democratization of consequence a as evolved has of ‘citizenship’ concept The In the next five sections I hope to synthesize the aforementioned four themes in the themes four aforementioned the synthesize to hope I sections five next the In by sectionoverview Section Throughout the thesis, I will focus on how work and citizenship rights and obligations are obligations and rights citizenship and work how on focus will I thesis, the Throughout 11 14 Consequently, and more importantly, I importantly, more and Consequently, CEU eTD Collection official EU documentsof rhetoric inclusionist and the to in contrast the practices interplay orientalizing with deal will Subchapters of EU and national citizenship regimes and with models. systemic nation itstate interacts how and becameneoliberal citizenship in an era of assumptions on the “modelintegration, be will revisiteda wider andputinto While context. implicit spelling out citizen” of EU citizenship policies, it will be depicted composition demographic migrantsof and societies receiving will be addressed. howthe least, not EU but last and, be outlined, will challenges and be revealed will migration from various discrepancieslabor the andproblems sources intra-European of current compilation data the East-Westof migration. Through of recent fluctuations anddestinations, of public policy and economics, and notsocial scientists –one finds information numbers,on in publications again by however, – somemostly very which are conducted researchers recent sources; systematicnot scarcethe inthisfield of data and problem the are Part their nationals. for acquired citizenship member EU states postsocialist when the from especially period the as otherEuropean flowsmigration find way intothepicture. their As part of this historical analysis, also former migration patternsnon-entitlement. to from equal as South non-work to North as wellconsequently and rights, and work of connection the isthisunderstand part to the logic of EUcitizenship the heavilyregime, builds which upon especially in the evolution of the EU freedom of movement and related policies. integration. of EU of art state the consequently, The aim of and, of Europe thesocial stratification imply for actually flows migration what the as to much clearer willbecome thepicture Europe, Eastern and legacies Central of and socialist the Europe Western legaciespostwelfarist of differentis tothe connected work achieve inthis In V,the mechanismslaborchapter migration, and problems EU of and thusalso EU andWest, to from East pattern migration theactual on data will IV compile Chapter Chapter IIIis analysisto the devoted in of EU integration institutional and terms 12 CEU eTD Collection citizenship, are minorities outside EU member states, withoutor livemember minoritiesmemberin outsidestates, are an citizenship, EU EU state EU can be harmful,for by this one disregards millions of individuals that have dual of theinside outside the mightargue thatbetween and differentiatingSchiller One (2002). byWimmeris in and Glick suggested way the nationalism that to overcome methodological a tool serves as EU Thus, the its opencharacter. dueto traits structural completely differing invoke butcanalso nation state, of any European bears characteristics not which can or from criteria usually ascribed to nation states. analysis,The the other concerned with the anthropologyEU of policy.here is understood field as a Union of European the with one dealingspecifically literature, anthropological as distinct entity,from calls methodological two introducing by do this to like would I perceived. be should theory and data way the on particularly approach, methodological and theoretical citizenship and work. migration, of connection theoretical the on and inquiry further for field a as EU the for as well as formulated, be will regimes citizenship and policies of study anthropological social more for a call Furthermore, neoliberalism. of age in an justice social of questions normative fact. isalready acknowledged that an one only transitory the structure (Favell,bears 2008) thedanger of phenomenon,becoming aperpetuated andnot practices migration of labor itself be toshowwill that addressed “dualthe market” labor existent and hurdles administrative Furthermore, project. integration overall the for outcomes which for East EU,might nothavethe Europeans’identification consequences with or severe the on elaborate particularly to like would I Here postsocialism. and neoliberalism The benefit of the former approach is that research on decoupled EUcanbefruitfully research the ison that formerthe The benefit approach of Iwill onthe some introductory this thoughts As concludingadd part, to remarks A sidenoteon understandings ofthe “EU” to beconnected of EU” will the “future the regarding considerations In theconclusion, 13 CEU eTD Collection Europe, and most parts of the world. Again, this perspective gives researchers theopportunity perspective ofthis givesresearchers Again, andmostEurope, world.the parts in capitalismcontemporary weencounter model” of this very for term culture “Market the coined Carrier andas an (1997) given. not essentialized social and alienated relations, neoliberalism asa set of featuresdistinct becomes thinkable asbeing in firmly rooted broader this, Through of “culture capitalism”. asone “neoliberal captitalism”, I havetermed earlier which encounter, currently we culture understandeconomic typeof the has one to same token By the Wilson, 2000). and oftheEU(Bellier layers cultural, andsocial economic greater interplay of the the of indicators are also they policy products, public as pureeconomic rationalize migration citizenshipand patterns – atfirstmightglance although –try EU to one Thus, isotherwise closed. space,which interpretational spheresopensupan disconnected embeddedandin asseparated 1944), alarger“culture” treating and them not (Polanyi, labor as regimes andlarger citizenship Understanding field sphere. this within practices of Wilson, 2000,p.8). it(Bellier give over timeand dependingoncontext and differentmeaningsactors to that As such, the EU is not staticin flux, but and ishighly of interpretationsthe dependent and evenbut soafield more national regional,supranational, andobjectof social andpractices. the local,between articulations fieldcultural of is alsoa EU Therefore, the 2000, p.3). policies, thoughmediated through national and nationalized channels (Bellier and Wilson, and partly social union, where few spheresoflife areleftunaffected by jurisdiction EU or entered political thishaveeconomic, not kindof regions in world that entity other than the asamoreintegrated EUmust or the closed still beunderstood holding However, citizenship. The EU labor marketThe institutionlabor is and as well EU concerning it, then, as policies akey the 14 CEU eTD Collection fluctuations as well as and to changes nuances to space gives and alliances that entities overtime. way perceiving of essentializing not actor-centered, An groups. ethnic 15 this situation, policy as a supranational instrument of governance is in itself. AsWilson (1998, p.155)puts justas EU incharacter, transnational is genuinely that data level,collect can EU the one on policy of with study the Furthermore, innature. inevitable as processes these essentialize sensitive situational tothe in production interaction,relatedness of cultural and doesnot thus be therefore can and “identity”, “culture” or of questions directly nottackle itdoes that andShore Wright, 1997;Wilson, 1998).One big of advantage in this approach policy is study (Parmann, of so-called the policy-making, as asstudies actors Eurocrats on the well 1998; policies, certain by affected as life communal on studies case generated has EU the in policy lives of individuals? Usually carried out in two distinct spheres,the affect anthropologicalpolicies do How study linguistically? of framed is policy How intended? as function to fail sometimes they do why and of governance, instruments as work policies do How follows: as (1997) are by andWright QuestionsShore approach this proposed can beanswered using that butanalyzecritically. itin bydocuments, makers and presented policy official to treat the EU as well as its key institutions and policies not as givens, and reify what is deviant in different settings (Shore and Wright, 1997, p.4). Therefore, also power relations also Therefore, power 1997,p.4). andWright, in (Shore settings deviant different or criminal, national, professional, citizen, subject, and as roles statuses given and categorized is individual analyze the how has to one tool apowerful EU, the regime of citizenship This is pretty waymuch the Brubakerthat (2004, introduction) proposes inorder to do onresearch nations or The latter of the two calls from anthropology then concerns the study study the in general. of concerns policy calls then The latter of two from anthropology the Furthermore, when studying specific policies, like in this case labor market policies and policies market labor case in this like policies, specific studying when Furthermore, of the frontiers between nations and states. and nations between frontiers of the where reduced barriers to commerce have not affected cultural and political constructions EU’s integration policies have resulted ostensibly in a ‘Europe without frontiers’, but transnationalism than attheinternationaland borders between ofthe states Europe, where the nationalism of processes the study to which in arena no better is there perhaps 15 15 CEU eTD Collection European integration European project. theoverall for chances subsequentfuture to understandthe EU’scitizenship regime and the dynamics of laborEuropean markets, policythe study of keyinstitutionthe of EU citizenship reifyingmeaning the is that ascribedby tothose incertain actors positions.power without of ground onthe acts governance and aspractices aswell discourses, shaping of written ratheritgrasps document, wholethe institutional range linguistic of arrangement, intended or not. “Policy”and in visible hierarchies written are made documents and existent practices, bethis legally in the anthropology of policy thus means much more than just a In sum, both approaches are very well-suited to analyze fruitfully the very complex very the fruitfully analyze to well-suited very are approaches both sum, In 16 CEU eTD Collection des Affen”. des 16 work in the earlier decades of 20 the of decades in earlier the work was isslowly inWestern Europe from decoupled aspect of thatcitizenship this argument A substantial lives. everyday of transnationalization and migration as such processes political substantial repositioning anddespite over time of the effect systemic legaciesandsocio- and continues tobe a crucial inelement despite citizenshipdefining status, minor or Ape to Human Ape Being”. to from the Process in Transformation the Labor of Role “The Essential alsoentitled therefore socialist, communist, finally and An early by citizenship. publication Friedrich is Engels meanstoachieve socialism andapractical end ideological prerequisite state an of remained whata person does to personis entitled Contrary to. to this work until development, very the the rise of welfarism a crucial of employmentstatus. In means words the Castles andDavidson (2000,p.43)this with that shift in the perception of the “citizen” occurred, from what a actually contain, and what constitutes the ideal neoliberal EU citizen? Furthermore, which Furthermore, neoliberal idealEU citizen? the what constitutes and contain, actually regime citizenship thecurrentEU does What thesis: mainthis of concern addressing the and regime,serve alsocitizenship supranational they hereas for mainthe ground preparatory form merged neoliberal legacies of are with another capitalist socialist and both citizenship few of reservations. our time with European countries (CEEC)adopting the neoliberal capitalist andcitizenship agenda regime and insocialist Central of the work and especially Eastern citizenship, light of understandings My translation. The original title of Engel’s essay (1876) reads “Der Anteil der Arbeit an der Menschwerdung der an Arbeit der Anteil “Der reads (1876) essay ofEngel’s title original The Mytranslation. As a starting point of the argument, in this section, I will demonstrate how work has been These differences alone are certainly highof analytical importance,but, since with the EU II Legacies of work and citizenship: post-war European 16 This different evolution has far-reaching implications for post- the implications hasfar-reaching This evolution different citizenship regimes th century and reached a universal quality regardless of 17 CEU eTD Collection Jenson (2007), sets out citizenshipsets Jenson out (2007), as“institutional regimes rules, and arrangements, and Lem (2008) would powerfully and plausibly Lem borrowingargue. heavily(2008), from citizenry,how include to and and excludelegal through provisions andstate practices. Bia and by Feakins aredefined regimes fashion, citizenship a comparable In Germany. France and outside,in much the same way that Brubaker (1992) asserts for nation-building in 19 inside, the tothe exclusive asinclusive and considers regimes Schmidtke citizenship Furthermore, the EU’scitizenship hold whenregime. to not applying the model truth ultimately the decouplethiswill two; that his isanotion to attempt regime, despite citizenship term. notion Schmidtke thereisa nationhood Inaddition, isintertwinedthat strong to of with also engage with boundary-constructioncitizenship regimes designate the stipulation of andrights of duties nationalthe butcitizenry, him, (2001)hasdefinition. To naturalizedamore Schmidtke citizens, elaborate assimilate of the society in the sensepersons into the domestic citizenry, in and ultimatelywhich concentrates on the state’s practicesLupo to usesexcludeinclude and are usedto that regulations regime asthe citizenship 68) understands the be to addressed.itself Firstof lacks p. all, afixed concept Whereas(2010, the Lupo meaning. need points several andwelfare arrangement, order social economy, of political organization byneoliberal practices. which increasingly characterized are both welfare state, Marshallian century will be reviewed in and theninterpreted light of post-socialism andthe post- 20 in the regimes citizenship socialist and capitalist of understandings classical chapter in solvethis following chapters, in citizenship questions to the these documents? order In isin EU enshrined that ideal type –liveuptothe potentially – can parts of citizenry the á However, among the recognized citizenry there are status differences, asJenson status (2007) among citizenry are recognized there the However, certain a of asoutcomes regimes citizenship systematizing of endeavor the For A differentapproach to dealing with citizenship: citizenship regimes asiewicz (2006), when they describe it as the privilege of the sovereign state itto define as the of state privilege whenthey the sovereign the describe (2006), asiewicz 18 th century th CEU eTD Collection addition, the focus is not exclusively bound to the study of policy documents and official and documents policy of study the to bound exclusively not is focus the addition, by reify thatareproposed powerful policy In understandings makers andother actors. analytical reading of policies and their impacts on the affected populations, and thus does not acritical for allows regime citizenship notion of the change, for temporal accounting more dynamics,conceptual and andit practical isJenson (2007) herself finds that framing the issuealso in this way enables the researcher captureto changes sensitive over time, which to shiftsgives families andtheoverall and markets, society. interplay with the the relation of boundaries of “responsibility mix” and state basicregulates values regulationsand regarding social stratification and citizenry andwhich situations andfor what provisions thestateis responsible is enshrined inthe regulations.in Lastly, question the fororder. need astable social tothe whichcorresponds participation, BesidesThe third is dimension institutional itthe anddesign enables how civic and political component. identity aforementioned also the then and entitlement, and recognition of notions citizenship regimesfourof consist of introduced first dimensions: different all, already the categories” (Jenson 2000,in Bjornson (2007,p.66)). these and within among social relations andlegitimate theproper of representations as well as the ‘model citizen’, the ‘second-class citizen’, and the ‘non-citizen’. Italso encodes Furthermore, it “encodes within ita paradigmatic representation of identities, of the ‘national’ 61). (p. turmoil or transformation economic and political of in times mechanisms new flexibly and react through tendto regimes citizenship As aconsequence, andstability.order function of citizenship regime(s) within the state is understood as a warranty to overall social problem definitionsand bystates citizens, and claims made bycitizens” The(pp. 60-61). understandings thatguide andshapepolicy concurrent andexpenditures decisions of states, There are a number of reasons why the concept of citizenship regime is very useful. is very regime citizenship of concept the why reasons of a number There are Yet anotherelaboration can befoundin 55-56) whofinds Jensen (2007, pp. that 19 CEU eTD Collection status of status individual,of the relationship that how and changed not– –or over time. addressed. Aspecial focus will be onhowcitizenship is defined through employmentthe be will regimes citizenship socialist and capitalist of content this exactly sections, following in the Therefore, regime. citizenship EU the with interconnection the for implications different very have citizenship and work of understandings socialist of differences and their ways regimes of citizenship associating postsocialist explaining to comes it when especially one, fruitful highly with EU citizenship. This islevel a EU the with regimes citizenship national interplay of so,this exactly Iconsider However, since conceptual and practical nationaladdress not regimes. sheinterplay the citizenshippoint, with EUcitizenship of does vantage as state a nation the take that notions static earlier from it of disconnecting context in the especially of EU, the in context the regime of citizenship of usage the advantages the legacies. explicitly issueAlthough (2007) spells out Jenson discussion, introduce to the the of temporal change andindividuals’ responses topolicies. of situation the parts of of differenta population without producing blindof spots the picture nuanced comprehensive and amuchmore can provide regimes citizenship analysis of the exclusion, and inclusion of policies the into insights crucial gives certainly regimes welfare benefitsin nominally without beingincluded While citizenry.the study the of welfare inanalytically (2001)observes, As have workers asociety Schmidtke useful. accessto can objection that the concepts of welfare regime and citizenship regime overlap too closelyA lastWilson,(Bellier mentioned, topre-emptin 2000). should and point beorder the to be likely to vary in content, with unexpected itcan grasp the agency outcomes and perceptions ofindividuals orsocial groups. in terms of for individual, acriticalthe shiftreactionstowards thepotential for creates but and actions, statements to these policies There is one modification to the concept of citizenship regimes that I would like to I would that regimes citizenship of concept the to modification is one There are policies welfare or citizenship of meanings since forward, step important an is This 20 CEU eTD Collection benefits, or2) unemployment benefits and other social assistance, which heavily rely on work uncoupled from employment, but gives little unemployment rights and other forms of state is that security social need-based of 1) either roughly share characteristics that clusters differentintroduced three counties.(1989) Esping-Anderson greatly defined,across varies itsfor citizens” (Esping-Anderson, 1989,p.183). How this living minimum hasthen been responsibility securing as welfare for modicum of some basic a history understood “state of society. and policies past the fifty over much very changed have entitlement practical and legal of years, circumstances the since thebut regimes, citizenship with incommon much have notion regimes welfare earlier, explained I As of citizenship andcitizenship. capitalistwork differences understandingsof socialist and between European crucial show to exercise this of aim the regimeis it since comparison, of frames broad in these can interested I ammostly fact, of accountmatter a As system. British or American the than deregulation more for underlyingthe premises andpolicies, they nevertheless show alesser potential and degreeof dynamicsin their each other and contradicted conflicted have continent European the on regimes of argues becomes Crouch visible.Furthermore, although(1999) inthat many welfare respects orderedand inlimited preference structured, capitalism for a West diversity European America, withNorth comparing of regions with world,the particularly Western other Europe subsequent citizenship legacies.However, regime taking over apointby when Crouch (1999), histories, and welfarist capitalist betweenEuropean variousthe remarkable differences World War II.The following section has by meansno incentivethe togeneralize and obscure after era inthe especially scholars, of number avast have engaged andexclusion entitlement In a very schematic definition, the western welfare-capitalist experience can be can experience welfare-capitalist western the definition, schematic very a In The evolutionCapitalist welfare states andnational citizenries of capitalist welfare states in Western Europe and the possibilities of 21 CEU eTD Collection 18 this cluster. 17 incomearehighly with diversified. an citizens welfare recipients, liberal,the mostly Anglo-Saxon model creates a relatively equal degree of poverty among stratification of the working and non-working population is obvious: firstly, whereas type one, performance,is need.nor much towork Theinherent for but connected everyone, not security grants universal that a social system 3) democratic or and employment, performance motherfamily protection, programs provisions ordisability aswell definitions oflaboras throughregulations on e.g. participants, market labor for the shaping asa functioned tool also traditionally have regimes welfare since interdependent, but unidirectional not is relationship This Esping-Anderson, 1992). market and participation labor(Kolberg degree on in late 19 welfare its emergence the fact hassince the that in inclusionAnother –quite varying patterns. social obvious be– conclusion drawnfrom can in citizenship whichis different regimes, social different the depicted and strata they produce, andSpain, Greece Portugal. like Italy, of countries type beEuropean” consisting “Southern the fourth type called can and the four, that but welfare types, notonly European three are there that (1998), Ferrera as a suggests, citingresultanalyzingp.81) of model. Esping-Anderson’s (2009, Handler citizens. welfareis mostly intouniversal and cantranslatethehighest degreeof equality among for most, the strata social the andbetween andmarket, state of of dualism the regulation but also very rich elites. The last regime cluster is the social democratic type, which favors middle class, working poor, the the strata: in threesocial is layered of that a society consists Austria, like and France, inmodel, Italy, Germany, is countries corporatist which represented Esping-Anderson Sweden,names Finland, Norway Denmark and as country examples in thiscategory. According to Esping-Anderson, US, the UK, the Canada, Australia, Denmark and Switzerland can be found in As a consequence, one can argue that different welfare systems have helped to shape have very to different helped welfare systems can one As aconsequence, argue that mostly classifications, different very have authors It isnot other that suggested surprising 18 22 th century a decisive century depended to 17 The second type, the CEU eTD Collection Finally, to andinformation association, andalso rightthe (Castles to and Davidson, 2000,p.110). Marshall itspecifically, was these rights include the rightsocial to vote or run for offices, the right to free assembly authority asan of elector or membersthe ofsuch a body”More (Marshall, 1992,p.8). rights political with invested body a of member a as power, that political of exercise in the participate to in right “the the contain rights Political introduced. were 20 participation economic and power-sharing rights as rights that an individual bears against the state. consequently(Marshall, p.105) Castlessumup andDavidson civil these 1992,p.8). (2000, faith, the rightindividual “rights necessary to freedom-freedom liberty theperson, of speech,of and thought to own propertyfacilitating freemen,burghers economic marketexchange andother andthus among as and to conclude end century Atthe onwards. of functioned rights feudal as the era, civil a means anddriver of valid contracts,in asingle thread, re-emerged as separate dimensions in the British society from the early 18 and the onceunified that, elements distinct of three consists citizenship more contestable, is this view right and to understanding, Marshall’s justice”In duties. certain entails also it while members, all for equality that entitles definition a citizenshipthat is demarcation the offullof a status membership ina community person to certainBrubaker, and 1992;Crouch, 2010)have Eder Tambini, 2001;Joppke, agreedupon thebasic (participation) rightsyears. in discussion earlier post-war the and is based on introduced the conceptMarshall, of social to citizenship is byT.H. connection who offered a principle ofprominently,Most a and bynow classic inboth citizenship and studies,welfare this basic and can work be framed in citizenship languageof citizenship, regimes.the consequently, and welfare isbe how considered then to needs question that next age. The andexitentry market During 19 the Following in the Marshallian field scholars tradition, all the of study citizenship (e.g. th century then, political rights as a way of alleviating class inequalities in inequalities class alleviating of way a as rights political then, century 23 th century helped to substantially th CEU eTD Collection subsequent state policies,subsequent state which mirrors waysinthe which (1989,1990) Esping-Anderson state-wide level. is result This of the successful the struggles labor unionsof emerging and a on also increasingly then but corporatism, Bismarckian in classical like corporations private participation of workingthe classand benefitsthe earnedfirstemployment through – within societies (Crowley, 1998; Turner,2009). class,more and status for allowing elaborate while employment differentiations within these did notquestion system the itself butbalanced insecurities thelifespanwithin of working the undermineinequality, capitalistbut rather helpedimplementit to more thoroughly,because it by others, and also by Marshall, social citizenship of by of andsocial also byMarshall, 20 the citizenship others, from as is and a huge prejudice, argued class.also step often However, emancipatory closure, marketinterpretsthe value Marshall’s Zincone of citizen. the (1999,p.3) social as citizenship of regardless sustenance minimum to right universal the plus community the of member each mitigating function for capitalist inequalities, and opens spaces for equality of foropportunity societal is system that built social upon inequality. His impliessolution citizenshipthat has a and economic an in flourish even and emerge can equality, to bound intrinsically principle markets and states. tension of the regulate reversible and (Castles Davidson,2000),since theyarereliantupon state’sthe willingness to aremuch more easily rights realms, social other the unlike However, community. national they were also meansbeing standardsprevailingsociety” As tothe in according such, p.8). that (Marshall,1992, to enhance the civil livelifea civilized of the heritage to and full in social the to share the right the to security and political everyparticipation citizen to enjoy of“the undermine theevils social of inequality inherentto theclass citizens society, becausethey allowed whole range withinfrom the rightthe to a modicum of social welfare and Historically evolution the citizenshipsocial labormarketthe linkedthen, isclosely of to The main puzzle that Marshall tries to solve is how citizenship, which he sees as a 24 th century did not substantially CEU eTD Collection which was mostly absent in Marshall’s approach, became more important in the social policy social in the important more became approach, in Marshall’s absent mostly was which citizenship, of within andobligations Through duties sphere the this, (Fraser,1997). interests decrease and manufacturingof the lobby sector groups hadinthat specifically mind labor the competition, international higher to due unemployed of numbers growing and crises economic react to had to policy social 1970s onwards from late is that the fact 2001) the labor andto participate. performance marketterms willingness of through entitlement in discussed newly and re-commodified became slowly now nationality, and gender of basis the on distributed was formerly that welfare Thus, accumulation. by flexible characterized connectionwinner family-based welfarism that allowedof for universal entitlement with a loweredpersonal“post-Fordism”. With denotes author the shiftpost-Fordism,the from national malebread- ties undermined this ideal universal welfareof in to right eraof the withwhatBjornson (2007) calls forces economic the global when discourse policy social and academic employment within citizenship status towards memberminimum of sustenance each society. forof the the of responsibility recognition a laborindividual market hardships might society within stem from actually structural not somuch from and problems, failure. that iseconomic factthat the towards acknowledgement meant asan welfare for entitlement As such it universal shiftPowelltowards especially post-war force. to According(2002), laborthe the equaled the universal becausepush it itwas less that womenin assumed entitlement, towards participate abatement marketparticipation and thus from labor ideologically level it state agendaand2)separate the of personal stigma and the state’s later in this chapter. 19 in political 20 the rights beginningthe of describes the evolution of the welfare state. Also the inclusion of women as holders of The era of post-Fordism is closely linked to the discussionof neoliberal citizenship regime, which isdiscussed One reason for this decline of One for “exclusive decline Marshallian the this reason universalism”(Schmidtke, of isThis forimportant understanding acknowledgment in differentdevelopments treating th century helped to 1) bringprovisions onto welfare helped to century 25 19 CEU eTD Collection failure, and not to structural forces. Gans’s (1995) chapter on the “undeserving” poor is especially informative in informative especially is poor respect. this “undeserving” the on chapter (1995) Gans’s forces. structural to not and failure, 20 more a with or, redistribution, ideational and material and recognition, identity of dilemmas with 2000), of Fraserminority (1997,discussion status,areobviously light of a nuanced citizenship in rights to equal access of justice question the and of matters with redistributive engage inwho thefield authors Other 2010). (Joppke, identity component butalso an rights, social and political civil, to entitlement legal and equality status of ideals carries only not was ledundermined. Consequently,expanding development this to citizenship the ideathat with society; however, mobility increased overthepastdecades,the peoples of this premise of Marshall’s social foraccount anational takes granted citizenship boundedand relatively minority identities. As becomes obvious fromvarious hints in the above discussion, discuss citizenship increasingly social in inequalities and cultural of ethnic, terms gender or citizenshipFordist regime (Evans, 2001). valueand systemlike amorepressingly work-related asa one describedabove the post- and alsofor their unemployment well-being, for their self-responsibility towards educated againare once citizens policies that European the Community It is(Offe, 2004). partof this neoliberalization contemporary of of development in the as well as states, national in European regimes citizenship of direction informed has the general rights andworking although citizenship of marketization the onwelfare, debates policy social determine the ceased to not since hasever solidarity idea of universal and budgetsocietal the welfare and in opportunities resources employment of betweenscarcity Thetension 2001). andTambini, Eder of citizen (Crouch, side the demand from for that the a“contribution” of interms “services” especially welfare, welfare of accompanied bya andwassubsequently discourse citizenship, on re-commodification Thestigma of unemployment and subsequent poverty and material exclusion is thus ascribed to individual Another indicator Another of ina shifting is Western regime citizenship Europe tendency the to 20 in an ever-growing situation of competition in markets job 26 CEU eTD Collection populations in a way that they perceived themselves as bounded nations, which, as we can see affected the shaped hadalready capitalism in when atime Europedid emerge Eastern can be utilized fruitfully. First of all, state socialismin socialism. incitizenship” the“socialist countries of Central and Centralsupport industrial analytical of the this notconcept will use the emergencethe capitalism, of first problematic assumption is thatsince all of aspects citizenship are intrinsically linked to socialism out of another phase of capitalism,several issues need tobe taken intoaccount. The benefits changing retirement increased duetothe demographics. as such targets, redistributive changing of result the or neoliberalism, in specificity European which mightbe welfare bythea state, on by less expenditure accompanied necessarily experience the age.However, of our citizenship forimplications understanding which hassevere of the asadecisive Marshall oncedescribed befrom that stepaway socialcitizenship understood the neoliberalization stratifying in citizens marketshouldtowards to theirlabor according development success the job in competition. tighter of decades times of the citizenshipnormative way while less culturally stillless and national, gender-biased in define less theircitizenry struggle to trying to keepregime up and countries immigration become have all them of Practically huge challenges. face systems the level of welfarewas that gradual,has emerged over and Taylor (1992). the and is focusso muchpronounced onidentity, Kymlicka(1995) not and access, socio-economic on not I disagree and with assessment, this would usedin arguethat, way,a cautious concept the When comparingEast legacies: insocialism Citizenshipregimes the emergence of Fordist welfarism with the emergence of state the that state can one legacies, Western capitalist to conclusion As apreliminary Also in light of increased migration across EU member states, the West European welfare 27 CEU eTD Collection development and the shape of developmentin not inandonly the shapeof butcertain also comparativerights, terms, their the speak about in can mind,one Having concept this state. certain “citizenship”a of the not comparativeis framework the shift towards definingdiscussion of citizenship and regimes, at thesamepointsin time. states capitalist to more comparable such as the oil crisis became a macro-influences foreign loans since the1970s,also increasing 2010).With the ever (Böröcz, domestic concern of socialista quarter states, of world economies, and was tightly embeddedwhichinto the otherwise capitalistmakes world them even foritaccounted contrary, tothe globe, hemisphere quite isolated the a disembedded on or not was world” “the socialist that thefact alsoconfuses but era, War andthetransition Coldthe define isnot only the terms.This theminantithetical of rhetoric politicized reifying attitude preempts the use of an ideological tendency to antagonize capitalism and socialism, and developments. democraticitself hadenough ground citizenship tomanifest historical different despite account for the whole region that I am discussing. cannot thus and centers urban in present not was serfdom second the be that would theory his to response “second serfdom” that assumingly paved the way forsocialism better than forany othersystem. However, my 21 empires. similarmanner elsewhereeven in as though multinational with andEurope, a delay as partof a in emerged rights political and civil that believe to reason gives stratum (citoyen) burghers thriving a with centers urban and capitalism pre-socialist of legacy very the Furthermore, given. certainly is “as-we-know-it” citizenship for precondition one Thus, engineering. social for authorities by state used actively was but under socialism, extinct not become did notion it then,citizenship. Arguingof with Brubakerbecomes (1996) clear that nationhood from Marshall authors’ works, isimportantand other avery internalize predisposition to the Thisobviously contradicts Szelenyi’s (1981) claim fora delayed modernization in Eastern Europe due to the Yet another reason for discussing citizenship regimes of socialism and capitalism in a in capitalism and socialism of regimes citizenship discussing for reason another Yet it that fact is the socialism state of context the in citizenship using for reason Another 21 In sum, there is substantial reason to believe that the concept of of capitalist- concept the that believe to reason is substantial there Insum, 28 CEU eTD Collection Union or just a “satellite Soviet state”.of the part were states whether country, the into of Russophones influx the for e.g. difference, crucial a played also It ofdisobedience. case in ofpersecution extent the and policies travelling restrictive very with 22 historical to subjects were socialisms state of types existent earlier the also Thus, followers had developed in mid-19the his Karl Marx and critique the subscribedthat capitalism to they of nominally factthat the all individual. tothe granted liberties the or in bio-politics, e.g. engineering, in social emphases different legacies, socialist typesdifferent of regimes likein citizenship European countries, basedonnational East pre- were there fact that the stress to necessary itis also understanding, commonsensical this overthrow of the market economy and the leading role of one political party”. And yet against advocate complete the not did population the benefits to services and social while providing different This was Europe. Eastern in postwar existed that from system welfare andsocial economic, the sociallike Massinoandp. 221, Penn endnote (2009, 1) do, thuswith regard to “the type of political, democracy socialism” “state use term the I category. underthis subsumed were that states of different practiced in Westernwere engaged bystate officials and have played socialism. outin state European and“citizenship” “work” see howthespheres of it to be will possible regimecitizenship then, democracies, of lens the Through societies. European in Western developments the of story an oppositional which,engineering accomplish and attempts to social –asacomplementary,order somuch not and agency state –through economy,in Europe realmspolitical and of the social Eastern should understand the evolution of citizenship regimes in the former socialist states of Central itself. one the general In then, concept questioning of socialism the appropriateness without absence. Like this, one can define the dimension of civil rights as severely limited under state I am referring here to the very extreme Romanian policies regarding contraception and abortion, or the GDR the or abortion, and contraception regarding policies Romanian extreme very the to here referring Iam However, what is more important for the comparison with capitalist Western Europe, is thereareavariety socialismsince itself,big of issuestate The next definition the iswith 22 th century, but in mostbutsucceed. timesat century, didnot reality 29 CEU eTD Collection productions into the hands of the workers through collectivization of private property private collectivization of through workers hands of the the into productions as understood a precondition for individual well-being, butthey bringtried to the means of is that right universal a as employment meaningful provide to only not was then states socialist of aim The possible. becomes employment meaningful so that be restructured should be and called exploitative areto class working of the conditions working the circumstances, from and meansof the aswellthe final products production, Due profits oflabor. to these inmodeHowever, sois ofproduction capitalist worker, the Marx’s the alienated argument, modecapitalist of production, that assumed meaningful is work an essential human activity. in society. Marx, who developed his version of socialismmaximization marketeconomies,of butpossibilities on andplanning efficient of production. based on the shortcomingsplaced on idealbalance the of demand supply, and and consequently profit-on the of the as hoarding planned and production – tothe sphere of consumers. Also isnot efficiency such andshortages characteristics systemic but– becausematerial of products, andof variety side on As not the competition it such,producers from of places needs workers. basic the of revolution. socialist and mode of amarket-oriented remain within production the West was one tool of the state to avoid more substantive restructuring of state institutions enhance in provisions to welfare decision political Hence, the insocieties. century European enhance political and social forthe working rights citizenship classinthe 19 reasons, it was due Among other be acknowledged. to to needs states welfare Western of shaping the on ideology Marxist socialism thatpractical the workers’ movements contingenciesimpact across Europeon othercould that states. Marx did notAs a predictconsequence, (Böröcz, also2010), the as historicalwell as their ideologicalforce of Marxist and It is work that is the universal right of the socialistcitizen, and enables active participation Verdery (1996) points out socialism that has an emphasis on productivity is that derived 30 vis-à-vis the threat of an expansive an of threat the th and 20 th CEU eTD Collection nature of nature of was vs.rights state the against duty differentin socialist countries and therefore fundamental the Therefore, policies. official with andcomply authorities with state cooperate the willingness to tightly connectedto butwhich were and grounds, on quasi-universal provisions in socialist despite Szalai welfare that generous freedoms of nature. argues also political and civil states, these were not rights that one could claimshare hisconclusion. I traditions, of democratic citizenship social the as a free individual just to socialistnotfor anequivalent are provisions proposed welfare refuting the claimthat infrastructure andsocialist projectspension of social provisions in cheap housing, workers’ protection,schemes. elaborate could sakein huge easilyabandoned the for bemore of the form proposed Marshall that While I do not agreenever thoroughly therefore carried abolishmentthe out, substantial of civil and political rights with were theentitlement political and civil reasons of threads rights’ citizenship the of evolution successive that Bottomore in1992) argues Europethe (in that citizenship.Eastern Bottomore Marshall and Bottomore, sense should not be equated with the socialist welfare system of closely connecting work and ideal wereperceived threats tothesocialistthat of citizenship. as elements “dangerous” as “asocial” and to referred weretherefore conditions local working to adapting labor orhad difficulties –inproductive –for reason whatever participate did not People that (Humphrey,local 1997). place to working the wereconnected provisions welfare spheresprivate p. (Burawoy, 1984, 40). politics for their capitalismwith whereas standsproduction, in separation the publicand (Burawoy, Thus, as 1984;Grabb, 1997). canbe socialism fusionthe understood of state Being a meaningful member of the socialist state largely meant giving up individual up giving meant largely state socialist the of member meaningful a Being alldespite compare However, to in two,social grounds the Marshallian the citizenship Since work was the essential form of participating in the society, also all entitlements and 31 CEU eTD Collection Laitin (1995). On the position of womenin socialism, cf. Massino and Penn (2009). participating in society, although with limitations regarding the general position in society. For Roma, see 24 e.g. 23 intreatment thesedifferences discourse in public However, services. bysecret surveillance massive and in direct resulted and officials socialist by despised were minorities of practices often in themost but process, in equally the production minorities and officially who participated other least prestigious 2002).The same (Sandole-Staroste, of kind standardin wasapplieddouble of case Roma the least mid-1970s emphasis until femaleascareprovider continuedput at on the –an the to and most elementarylegacies– and,in West, domestic aswasprescribed thathadput bythepre-socialist the work, workingprofessions. hierarchies. men; of inlower ranks the placed also than inthe they were a lesser degree workforce In addition, to participate women only did not promised: they what terms inpractical accomplish actually In addition the fullHowever, towards inclusionmostly attempts andequality and diddiscursive, were not culturalto formal beingemployment, built upon the assumption of basic equality of all humans capable and willing work.to citizenship socialist of result the was policy This incorporated. later much and hesitantly they also “minorities” such as carriedwomen and ethno-cultural groups, which in capitalistsystems were more out all of the be resistance. could realized, ascould “sabotage” – or, more mildly expressed, anof through Western, goods,or attitude economy consumer-oriented obtaining or “non work” – acts of second in the distinctionparticipating thatthrough notes (1996) case.Verdery the overwhelmingly within the system ideologically informed regulations however,and policies, has ashistory shown,this not was these with comply would socialism state of “ideal citizen” the that argue might one way. inbe adifferent framed should Especially for women and Roma the effects were tremendous in terms of emancipation and ways of and of emancipation terms in tremendous were effects Roma the and women for Especially atCEU. 2010 Term Fall Perspective” Comparative in State Welfare “The class the during lecture Ina From early on, socialist citizenship regimes were more successful in integrating in successful more were regimes citizenship socialist on, early From 23 Framing this argument in terms of in of argument terms regime, citizenship Framing this 32 24 CEU eTD Collection Central and Eastern European states found themselves in after the events of events of the found1989-90. inafter themselves states andEuropean Central Eastern national majority the society. within practices cultural minoritarian of oppression the or threat, and surveillance of use the economy, second the through like informally, more performed were female in equality the production inprocess and thus society.forms Other of stratifications willingness, patriarchalthe or through in dominance society the explicitdespite goal of to citizenship, werestill social there means toproduce the inequalities, logic e.g.through of ideology with the distinctmeaningful work access of despite distinction. However, equating new formerlyby aswell of a setof strategies as rural urbanization populations of the creating policies byincluding women and into minorities the laborforce, industrialization and through power. of positions into socialism from capital social their translate could in of transition managersalso period the in 1980s.These the “managerial especially class” the emergence of ledtothe companies, which bigover state-owned inpower as managers people distinct form of stratificationproved towithin be a powerfulthe “classless“nasi” as qualification the capital, social ofenhanced enjoyed system the supporters andother tool societies”of exclusion took andplacebe not foundto party members knowledge the Alongside within that political the profession. inclusion in the shift usually was which person, apart called so the to towardssense common fromnon-ideological and credibility of official rhetoric. Union, which means “ours”. If one wasdescribed as“ours”, Yet inevitablythis ascribed some sort a Soviet the yearsof “nasi” inthelate use of with the Yurchak(2006)describes profession, as feeling ofmoral and material superiority in this comparison. were neglected or played down for the sake of a false capitalist-socialist dichotomy and the Finally, some thoughts should be mentioned also on the postsocialist condition that the that condition postsocialist the on also mentioned be should thoughts some Finally, socialist real in shaping role a decisive played ideology Marxist how see can one sum, In Other forms of stratification among groups of citizens were enacted through the type of 33 CEU eTD Collection non-existence of the neoliberalization of European societies. A more pronounced take on this point will be will point this on take presented pronounced in chapterV.more A societies. of European neoliberalization of the non-existence of evidence to thatargue this is due to changes in plenty calculation is and there redistribution, and However, per se decade. an argument forlast the the over declined not have expenditures welfare terms absolute in policies, 25 length insecurity in increased terms andof hours,rights, of temporariness, easier working asin householdproviding decades,butby reproduction meansto the early after-war the layer expenditures. thin welfare of social facilitate efficient to inorder markets of deregulation and enterprises the state-owned of overall the privatization market operation,by itis characterized Moreover, markettransactions. uses “optimization” of term whichthe context is often but not higher ratio in of always,efficiency allocatingand resources increasingin Ong profit. (2006) this accompaniedit Carrier, 1997;Clarke,denotes 2008), a strong belief in powerof the marketandits the by only a (Ong, 2006).Furthermore, and asHerod Aguiar (2006)argueinline many with (e.g. others operates on different scales,in different territories, and through different power structures global,is neoliberalism of albeit phenomenon the that extent the to agree neoliberalism on working authors with the limitation Most be neoliberalismKeynesianFordist proposed. adefinition needsto of orsocialist ones, that it produces national and local adaptations, era. postsocialist and thus and actual will the turningin before beintroduced discussed concept social to changes the the agenda, impactof a neoliberal strong the era wasunder postsocialist the Since states. capitalism in the postsocialistwas often proclaimed,countries as of BöröczEurope history”“endsuperiority Although liberal andthesubsequent of democraticthe of capitalism (2010) when criticizes, compared one to canthe still older find EU verymember different forms of While most of the other characteristics of a neoliberal social policy can be easily traced in Europeanstate Working conditions in neoliberalism are characterized by limitedthe possibility of to in contrast regimes citizenship neoliberal of specificities theoretical to turning Before Neoliberalism and idealcitizens Neoliberalism 25 34 CEU eTD Collection necessarily correlated, the same accounts for income equality. Thus, the argument of argument the income Thus, for equality. same the accounts correlated, necessarily flexibleargues, levels employability,work turn-out decreasedsocial and not security are employability”“future (Crouch,and Eder Tambini, asOlafsson However, 2001). (1992) sphere mightof citizenship rights then be anexpression also secure measuresof remedial to workers’ rights in security in of inemploymentand decent working provisions the conditions to previously perceived evils, such as economic stagnation and high Ceasingunemployment. neoliberalpoint, ingovernance should its beunderstood functionality, asaremedial thus tool and governing However, andhereLem important representations. stresses a very (2008) insteadnew“adimension of discursivegovernance classdivision” of through practices, and fragmentationthe through labor borrowing unions.of Clarke(2008), from Harvey,adds the rights for workers’ groups especially for in weaker society, state function the of protection individualismHerod and inneoliberalism what undermines, Aguilar(2006)see asthe pronounced The “non-citizens”. or “secondary” as exclusion, symbolic and social cannot comply with these “rights”. that Individuals state-protected linkedto loosely and only “interests” of personal norms sphere inin the anchored is terms citizen neoliberal the such, As failure. their for of also but skillswell-being, or agency, or and pension care, health for own their simply responsibility take and to or“entrepreneur”, contractor” luck,“independent an to haveis close that ideal an internalize to tois called worker fear citizen neoliberal the Thus, and of Aguiar,p. 3). sorts collectivism 2006, (Herod agency andcontends all against retraining as wellasfurther(Martin, 1997). education necessity “lifelongof learning” whichfits continuous flexibilitydemandthe for and constant (Pattison, 2008, p. 93). In addition higherto levels of job insecurity, an emphasisis put on the flexibility only leadsforce onalimited basis, tothepermanent and provided labor of the dismissal from the position. Protection against all sorts of accidents, sickness and disability is The “model citizen” (Lem,in neoliberalism 2008) adapts tothis norm of individual 35 CEU eTD Collection will be addressed in as by turn, proposed sinceCerami (2007), all of above the have living below the poverty line. Below, changes the in the economic, political and social sphere increase welfare of andpopulations sudden dismantling the system generous socialistthe of years. in early postsocialist of the numbers unemployed education housinghealth and care or largely remained exploding despite universal provisions enterprises. Furthermore, some of the benefits like child and family allowances, free states, welfare transition. the Asafter argue,inalloftheEuropean postsocialist andGreskovits(2006) Bohle was organizedstructural similarities had animpactontheorganization of welfare and citizenship regimes Theseinitial 2005). inafter EUright the for1993(Vachudova, the candidates transition, centrally, in West the andwere historical proximity andbecamerelativeto geographical accession as dependentthey War.Furthermore, World Second before the statehood sovereign of experience and their on employment socialism state four of decades of experience intheir be seen share can countries European East Central all that similarities indeed, And regimes. citizenship countries’ andpostsocialist through different across and differences similarities of and postsocialism, “nature” the regarding state bereached some will citizenship Asaconsequence, and conclusions regimes. past present forms. new triggering while contradictions, older some to antidotes as well as exclusion, and interaction of new spaces opens that of contradictions is afield – economy political p. 64). opportunities and astrong work ethic increase levelswork inthe same way (Olafsson, 1992, neoliberalism as andsecuring employment high levelswork canbe refuted basison the that Huge challenges were faced in light of the closure of most state-owned companies, the immediate the for legacies socialist the of impact the on be will section in this focus The to Europe? return The Postsocialism. form of –asanyother neoliberal capitalism that state can one conclusion As apreliminary 36 CEU eTD Collection “communist legacy”“communist (Bandelj, 2010,p.482). from the and escape the growth economic following successes of electoral prospect the financial and prospectof markets, the lucrativeassistance, in EU the impacts to connection formutual CEECwereof hoping positive of financial sincethe governments process, the a results measures as adopted the shouldone see from Rather, outside. the enforced exclusively and completely years as postsocialist inthe developments neoliberal see these to assumption itwouldfalse be a capital. However, holdersthe of the which werealso Worldthe Bank, carry insufficiently changes the prepared to withoutforeignout from economists IMF the and knowledge in fieldthe waslargelymissing anddomestic politicians and scholarswere since imported, was but phenomenon, endogenous an not was such as neoliberalism that despiteAdam possibility the argues (1999)thus of informedactors, alternatives. transnational opportunities (Böröcz, 2010, p.146f.). economic individual for in search adjustments social significant make to willingness the supplythe human of inand natural the e.g. resources, levelshigh of education, and discipline in opportunities sawgreat they because asstrategic, actors of transnational these interest the of the of foreigninstallingof accessingCEEC on investment and the EUwhile the rules the prospect the of dependence the means which out, played EU-conditionality actors, these For UN. NATI, the Council OSCE, the also but transformation, in the role ofmajor a played Europe, EU the only Not region. the in EFTA, OECD, the World toEurope”with thesymbolic “return large facilitated financial andinvestments Banktransactions and the IMF, as well and scene enteredthe actors supranational of ascollection whole a transition the with of all, the First installed enacted. and were that regimes citizenship of the character the for implications A strategy that involved a radical shock therapy involved favored byneoliberally A strategy shocktherapy was a these that radical acquis communautaire (Vachudova, 2005; Verdery, 1998). Böröcz (2010) understands Böröcz(2010) Verdery, 1998). (Vachudova,2005; 37 CEU eTD Collection Furthermore, specific skills could not be and specific tothe requirements newlabor not skills could transferred Furthermore, policy. social socialist-inclusivist formerly the of neoliberalization the towards shift a indicators also it while employment, new find to workers manual skilled the of parts large Thep.186). explicit flexibility towards turn and individualization of failure madehard itfor by early 1990s, accompanied in increase and (Böröcz,2010, an private service sectors the in Cerami (2007). reflected is also that point a continuum; income the of bottom the to closer themselves found suddenly middle butalsothe earners income became poorer, part of population poorest the in in substantial inequalities. This increase besocial can interpreted waythatnotonly the the inleddecline dependentincrease arapid in employment inself-employment turn to anda rapid find thatthe and Szelenyi(2001) Hanley in (Cerami,problems 2007). of theseverity an increaseforaccounting and for newrisks in old population alargerpartof the to addition for risknew groups.This isnosurprise, broader faced CEEC the and taskof the double of emergence the to led which influenced, also was sphere policy social the transformations, practical alsoeffectiveness. but legitimacy, since totheauthorsitis notonly isdemocracy procedural anindicator that of political systems, democratic prolonged and up effective set able to not were countries postsocialist most of the by whoargue that anddeGayFortman inthe (2001), reflected Tarifa argument werenotinThat thesenecessarily quests is (Cerami, performed manner, 2007). a exhaustive investors foreign for also but citizenry, the among system political new the of legitimacy newFurthermore,loyaltyarising ensure theyhad when emerged. risk to groups and thatwere social tamingconflicts in to addition feable economies, stabilize the transition and inthe bymassdismissals highly affected agriculturewere industry of and The sectors large andpolitical economic tothe legacies due and socialist As aconsequenceof Politically tomanage then, task postsocialist had governments of the theoutcomes the 38 CEU eTD Collection social vulnerability social is invulnerability alsoreflected rates mortality, of increasing andthe drug alcohol accompanied by much largerinsecurity and financial as well vulnerability.as social This isunemployment much lower thanin theWest European countries andinevitably (Bohle andGreskovits, 2006,p.282).As benefitsa consequence, social in of cases spendlesshousing EU-15 much EU-8+2 than tend areasof the to the andunemployment, in However, countries. postsocialist in the allowances disability and family on spending more and the new member states, with the same parities on old age and sickness support, but much member states. Nevertheless,overall thedid notemphases exceed 18.7on welfarepercent of arethe moreGDP, inor contrastless the to 27.6samedeprivations in economic, social and cultural capital 2009). (Greskovits, percent in the inold the older EU countries were pushed theRomain all However, these income inequality. of relative and poverty decreased risks to the margins of theGreskovits (2009)argues thisthat policy high incomparatively social resulted cohesion with system and now face the generousquite welfare tothe otherspendings countries incompared when the area. situation of multiplefor had countries, fromthey still postsocialist path choseanother other the countries Visegrad speaking,the Generally (Cerami, more it2007). Slovak effectively Republics be could treated in and countries Hungary, wasmuchhigher, Czech inother the population poverty-affected whereas the outcomes: very huge different and implications bore countries postsocialist for In start-ups. support this situation, in welfare differences amongthe regimes the aimed that re-skillingmonetarization andprograms risks, “activation” at of the at access first tobedismissed. the most often who were minorities, ethnic resulted in high percentagesin especially membersstill unemployment, of among women and Compared EU-15,in the to welfare2001 the spendingof postsocialistthe countries and failure of individualization towards directed was policies employment in the A change 39 CEU eTD Collection the transition through granting early retirement and generous family transitionthe generous allowances.Furthermore, early and retirementgranting through of outcomes worst somethe of fought successfully states welfare European transformed East structural for postsocialistproblems the Nevertheless, countries. hastoacknowledge one that pervasive and from fashion whicha very pointof bigger inmuch departure, different resulted so, the neoliberal flexibility changes towards happenedand individualization in amuch more more Even perspective. European Eastern an to compared when comprehensive more still is it states, welfare European in Western entitlement of universality declining the over mourning facilitating privileges. exclusivecitizenship populations tootherwise through access same the are-ethnization refersof transnationalizationsituation to as Joppke(2010) practices. in citizen inlight rights Hungary,nationalization (1998) speaksof Verdery of nation states who can prove regulations, allowother Hungarianthe citizens of which Verdery, With 1998). regard to their ethnic affiliation with the Hungarian state, to claim some produced several hundred thousands stateless residents (Feakins Bia and stateless severalresidents hundred thousands produced andLatvianRepublicsbecame 1940off Estonian citizenship after residents and of the Latvia and Estonia implementedhardmeasures stripped that Soviet former who citizens Especially populationwith in regardtothe Russian-speaking states. Baltic the performed, e.g. signs ofwhatBrubaker (1996)calls large “nationalizing states”, actsof were exclusion education or funds for minority associations. However, since most of the states also carry minoritywhen claiming minority e.g.with based status, theirrights languageon regards to situation easier much a faced minorities liberties, political and civil basic of introduction emerging policies regarding nationality and cultural minority Firststatus. of all, re- the with limited exit (Cerami,options 2007). perpetuation of with and poverty infectious increased diseasesand suicides the addiction, In conclusion to the section on postsocialist legacies, one can find that, despite the Another aspect within the postsocialist citizenship regime can foundregimein re- can be new thepostsocialist aspectwithin or Another citizenship the 40 á asiewicz, 2006; asiewicz, CEU eTD Collection the worse, also the citizens’ possibility for identifying with the workplace was dramatically was altered. Thisis onlya not result highnumbersthe of staff suspensions of the during workplace the with identifying for possibility citizens’ the also worse, the for changed security not only system,social socialist the for breakdown of with the countries, socialist formerly from nationals for severe more much is level EU and national both on regimes citizenship neoliberalizing of light in fragmentation social and disempowerment systems. security comparable to the socialnationalities,but also arange of social rights that are, though blurry in theirformulations, still rights that markets, which between notlabordifferentiate not only integrated indicators of does a fully nation states offer have EUdoes several in the nextchapter, aswill be the argued sense. However, social in that civil-political- full they in the citizenship fully-fledged a as offerintended not is and states member access the of citizenships tonational persistent nationalvery still the to complementary just is citizenship EU hasits because flaws Certainly,claim this country. of host the legislations national subject to free movement of labor and only some thin layer of civil, political and social rights, which are to the is EUcitizenshipthat mostly neoliberal citizenship devoted aprototypical argument as for successive the provide theground here presented Theconsiderations working classes? the andwork of struggles to successive bound very historically closely is citizenship that elites, especially foreignwhen deciding about investment. direct she argues, this interplay helpcan alsoshape to discoursive andstrategy for domestic options Assuch, ideational resources. butcreate constraints structural as function simply not they do in where legacies,cases especially socialist fruitfullyinthe with tandem work agenda can with EUand thatthe neoliberal transnational Bandelj argues an explicitother actors (2010) The point that I would like to develop in the next chapters is that the reality of political findings the from drawn be can regimes citizenship contemporary for conclusions What Implications and conclusions 41 CEU eTD Collection by locals of the old member states. substandard thatareconsidered occupations upcertain taking secondly, and, migrating firstly, into, workers legacydrives that socialist ethic and work entitlement-based of certain type labor migration for the former female workers from the weaver factory in factory from weaver the workers female former forthe migration labor incomePine as for the money need (1998)asserts catalysers gapthat and East-West the for welfareinitnot system 2007).Thus, (BohleandGreskovits, is Slovenia only a question of aneo-corporatist or likein region neoliberalism Visegrad the asystem embedded others of states, Baltic like in the neoliberal agenda, astrictly adopted Some countries the East. of the minimumis of certain standards whereasthis provision, picture welfare in muchmore diluted of universality the about consensus political and public some still is there societies European West the of most in However, experience. degrading a nevertheless probably though gradual, in economic situation. necessity or similarities “objective” willing jobs despite these on take arenot nationals to fact countries these of that the jobs in Western European labormarkets despite relatively high individual qualifications and many upveryexplain mechanismsEuropeans take why arewilling East skill so elementary to across countries and also sometimes of temporary nature. oftemporary sometimes also and countries across participation, because they are legally granted as sustenance minimum. However, this is not universally the case 26 citizenship. entitlements and thus prerequisite to welfare, social security and declining for thus responsible playsindividual the holds citizens” – ironically“secondary and citizens” “model with – well in line with the socialist logic neoliberalbecause of newcitizenship suddeninfluxof regime the global the agenda. This of work as a intoalsoentities, companies market-efficient but transformation of state-owned transform One has to acknowledge the fact that some welfare provisions are still not dependent on labor market on labor dependent not still are provisions welfare some that fact the toacknowledge has One In Western European societies, the transformation towards neoliberalism was much more wasmuch neoliberalism towards transformation the societies, European In Western 42 26 This argument will be essential to be essential will argument This à ód Ĩ , but also a , butalso CEU eTD Collection Maastricht and Lisbon Treaty as well as the Charter of Fundamental Rights and how they are they how and Rights Fundamental of Charter the as well as Treaty Lisbon and Maastricht latest developments –also social rights when enacting one’s right to mobility. a the understanding comprehensive includes to notion civil,political andwhich –due towards labor last away movement andmoved from of over the decades citizenry” a pure itwillcontrary, how becomeobvious EUactually notion “European the its expanded of only aiming at enhancing byderegulating marketdynamics mobility. human the Quite inEU citizenship that 1995, 2001,p.93), is‘market citizenship’, is Downes, which apure EU migration in chapter IV. Ihave nointention to argue, as some EU-pessimists do (Everson, Maastrichtthe Treaty inin to 1992-3, order it confrontthen with regardingactual data intra- prerequisite evolutionfinallythe to EU citizenshipof which established policies, got through by migration holder of the a membercitizenship. state’s EU citizenship status “citizenship shallbe andreplace of Union the national additional to not Thus, citizenship”. and rights that reads (1) 20 Article gains Treaty, Lisbon the in which context the is This theiranother. to state relevance from thefeasible in the mobility,act of and most prominently in actthe moving of fact from one member and act of cross-borderand becomesonly migration.iscitizenship that citizenshiprelevant of concept a – EU a third connection and work of citizenship will be presentedand analyzed, through however, lens the insocialist inthiscapitalist another Europe, after-war and dimension chapter, the of citizenshipin andaccess to between work relationship of the Based analysis preceding the on migration regulate European to newest tool andcitizenship, EUcitizenship. Union, andits The focus in the first part willinThe focus thefirstbe part before on key the actual developments provisions in the It is the aim of the chapter to highlight the connection of the mobility of labor as a the powerful one hasomitted actor, legacies far, national andsystemic story So the of III Labor migration patterns in light of EU citizenship: Evolution and symptoms 43 CEU eTD Collection transparency and distribution of informationon the EU citizens’ rights. 27 wasonly active citizens of non-economically themovement regulates thatalso legal guideline permanently explicitlywithout being entrepreneur,worker adependenthowever,or abinding migratefirst it temporarily for timeIn principlethe becameor Recchi, possible to 2008). in important implications its terms andof the for citizens’ lives relevance 2010; (Joppke, most as voiced been the has freely thereside territory move theright to and within literature the In have. citizens EU that rights the defines also but state, member any of nationality e.g.forboundariesnothold third-country of nationals status, citizenship whodo the not only of of onEUcitizens. community European the presents It and provisions rights the of established for rights claim-making and the actual situation. inEuropean citizenshipbasis the regimepost-enlargementUnion era willbedelivered onthe as sectors. aswell construction cleaning and gastronomy agriculture, care, employmentsecurity, aremarkable mismatch actual with andqualifications mostly in the lack bya in thatarecharacterized positions work highskilledand medium areto migrants workers mostlythat in biggerwork locations of production industry,and now butthat migrationcurrent aslabor isnot, migration in previous low decades,the movement skilled of East toNorthern Europe. However, through the chapters IIIand IVit will become clear that and South- from migrations South earlier just like pattern avery specific follows migration intra-European of wave newest the bethat and shown it will then bewill reconstructed labor evolution of EU citizenship from the provisions that facilitated certain kinds of movementsinframed forEU publications public. abroader Throughout this discussion, historical the of This heading is borrowed from the European Youth Portal, a website which aims at enhancing the The Maastricht Treaty, in Article 8a-e, regulates as the first legal document in history legal the first asthe document in Article regulates 8a-e, Treaty, The Maastricht “Your rights–European (EU)” In sum,a picture of and self-selected the structurallyenforced “ideal citizen” of the 27 44 CEU eTD Collection testify the existence of a social union in a much stricter sense than treaty. preceding senseany than stricter much ina a social union of existence testify the grounds of nationality shall be prohibited. be shall of nationality grounds on discrimination any Treaties, ofthose provisions special the to prejudice without and Union, European on Treaty of the and Community European the establishing Treaty ofthe application of scope the Within 2(2) birth, disability, age orsexual orientation shall be prohibited. features, language, religionor belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, 29 State. Member any in services provide to and establishment 15(2) Every citizen of the Union has the freedom to seek employment, to work, to exercise the 15(1) Everyoneright has of the to right engagethe in work and to pursue a freely orchosen accepted occupation. to. referring Iam that articles of the wordings 28 Article 21 with regard to the rightrights which are truly socialto rights in the Marshallianwork sense. Especially Article 15 (1) and (2) and the righteffectinto of a number brings butalso described above, thatwere rights names thecitizenship of citizensonly not Charter The binding. tolegally became choose Union European the of Rights Fundamental of their profession freely, rights, only in 7 10 EUcitizensidentify are able to this newly established right. EU implemented earlier their identify can citizens of majority overwhelming the whereas so theFlashThe 294(2010)wording. Eurobarometer same public surveyfinds that, opinion million propose a 1 inviting new EU citizens Commission measure”,to the policy European least byat signed arequest initiative, inacitizens’ “toparticipate right thelist –the added to Ombudsman. the or Parliament European the petition to and world in the elsewhere staying while by state diplomaticby memberto any rightprotection the provisions wereaccompanied elections inlocalvote andEuropean to politicalright (Hantrais,established 2007).Maastrichtthe as well as unwantedEU-citizens movementof torestrict states member andthusgives resources, the rightrgulations for restriction the movement, such of as proof of sustenance care and health to run for in directive blurry released Also,the form several entails the Directive 2004/38/EC. of political offices while residing abroad. These 21(1) Any discrimination based on any ground such assex, race, colour, ethnic orsocial origin, genetic exact the here provide will I citizenship, EU on literature the in reflected yetwell not are provisions the Since Together with the (Lisbon) Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, the Charter the Union, European the of Functioning the on Treaty (Lisbon) the with Together With the Lisbon Treaty becoming effective on Decmber 1, 2009, a fifth citizens’ right was 29 on non-discrimination and the whole chapter IV, which is entitled “Solidarity”, is entitled which IV, chapter whole the and non-discrimination on 45 28 CEU eTD Collection migrant-worker/qualifications-for-employment/index_en.htm?profile=0> [Accessed 23 May 2011]. 36 policies_citizenship_intro_en.htm> [Accessed 23May, 2011]. 35 .eu/social/main.jsp?langId=en&catId=457> [Accessed 23May 2011]. 34 ensured in the definition and implementation of all Unionpolicies and activities. the conditions established under by treatment national medical lawsfrom and practices. benefit to right the A and care high level health of human preventive to health ofaccess protection right the has shall Everyone be 33 with the rules laid downby accordance in Community resources, law and sufficient national lack who laws those all and for practices.existence decent a toensure soas assistance housing and social to right the respects and recognizes Union the poverty, and exclusion social combat to order In (3) practices. and laws national and law Community with in accordance advantages social (2) Everyone residing and moving legally within the European Union isentitled to social security benefits andof employment, in accordance with the rules laid downby Community law and national laws and practices. protection in casesproviding such services as social maternity, and benefits illness, security social to industrial entitlement the accidents, respects and dependencyrecognizes Union The (1) or old age, and in the case of loss 32 law and national laws and practices. 31 leave. of paid period annual an (2) Every worker has the right to limitationof maximum working hours, to daily and weekly rest periods and (1) Everyto worker has the right toworking conditions which respect or his her health,safety dignity. and 30 months.four up can take to that process site found on websitesthe Socialon Employment, Affairs andInclusion various institutions to facilitate information for job seekers. Guidance for these issues can be abroad, which is only known by a minority of EU citizens, despite the attempts by the EU and even supported with transportable social benefits for times of unemployment and job search the European level, if one remains in one’s home state. over policies states’ nation of high prevalence still of the because and then developments the been in very mind, not firstall, of because public recentness of the of consolidated well have provisions and rights these However, practices. and laws national and law community assistance social and security bargaining, from protection workingunjust conditions Among the most relevant social security provisions are the rights to information, collective European Commissionwebsite Your Europe. Available at: [Accessed 23 May 2011]. 37 state. EU another information migrating public, for forrights abroader preparation the guides e.g.through to of provideinformation EU citizens’ on to attempts areserious there problems. Furthermore, a planproposes “25enhanceon stepsto in citizenship rights” totackleorder the addressed EU Citizenship issued Commission Report by European the (2010a), whichin response European Commission (2010b). A guide to your rights asan EU citizen. Available at: The legal definingtextis what known now as EUcitizenship is finalthe of product ofcitizens oflabor,movements Movement However, that the EU citizenship regime still carries some problematic burdens as well as From legalbasis provisionsbecomes above a the the itobvious that and examples, of 37 Finally,for 2013a“Year of European the Citizen” is announced for the 47 CEU eTD Collection included more categories of persons: first certain categories of in categories firstcertain includedof manufacturing and morecategories workers of persons: economic crisis then ended this specific intra-European migration surge (Recchi, 2008). and subsequent the shock The 1973oil years. after some millions returned three about Germany. The total number of labormigrants in this wave amounted to 4.5 millions, however, war periodupuntil most1970, the common migrantwas Italian likelymoveand was to to Spanishthe followed inthe then Recchi As55) pointsearly 1960s. out,in (2008, p. after- the migration by Luxemburg. Driven worker scheme, economic thedomestic guest problems and for the economic collaboration of Italy,West Germany, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and membership in European the andCoal Steel Community, hadbeen which established in 1951 in line early movers, with their post-war the of avant-garde werethe sametime.the Italians around at started from that migration labor Turkey well-known the into addition andGreece, Spain from e.g. Italy, Portugal, migrants, intra-European wereactually Many of migrants the p. 54). (Recchi,2008, wasfacilitated servicesector the and industry, construction heavy into demandinlabor for economicallythe flourishing states labor of migration Northern Europe, and the about 2.7 million migrants, who had leftfor the US in the 1950s. In order to fulfill the hadWorld losses in duetothe War changeddramatically demographics Second the Europe of on European the Economic Community forLevel thesemigrantworkers (Maas, 2007). in wereintroduced already 1958detailed permits.residence Nevertheless, social provisions and work for apply to needed and migrants, other like just policies immigration national and notas citizens as pools for rights (Recchi, 2008, p.57). As such, workers were subjects to factor, aslabor migrants of understanding the which reflects right, the ascarriers of workers to explicitly referred intheTreatyof as Rome in1957.It as early introduced employed was and interest(Maas, 2007;Wiener, and Thefreedom movement groups for 1998). workers of The freedom The freedom movementprovisions were overtheof years gradually enhanced and since the labor, of shortage pressing then the to werereactions legal developments These 48 CEU eTD Collection far asdescribing the ECJ as “supranational lord over national legislations” and alsoas main shaping themovementand then provisions.citizenship Favell and Geddes(1999,p.5)goas in role hadadecisive (ECJ) of Justice Court European the elites, by European integration 2000, p.124). (Neveu, category established institutions of citizen was andthenewly the created between EU a directrelationship moment” termed “constitutional of the 2008), EU citizenship (Recchi, hasbeen Treaty, of which Maastricht in the Treaty 1992.With Maastrichtsigning the 38 in 1980s, the of accession nextround Inthe states. olderthe EC to level compared low wage very had a which Greece, from mass migration fear of the of result adirect stalled, was residence freedom of the discussion and tothe enhancement of freedom of movement. Thus, the 1979 draft directive on enlargement, when Ireland, the UK and Denmark accessed the EC,put atemporary end tothe 1973 the that argues Maas(2007) approached. rounds new enlargement peoples whenever goods, capital and services, and obviously of that human labor. of freely,movement should sorts circulate all area capital of since European inthe reason, inout, therewasAs (2009)pointstarted Woods also astructural Steiner and 1970s. the stress itsattempt to identity more, which,component aprocess Neveu to according (2000), national populations intopopulation could that movefurther without limitations. The inclusion of moreever parts of the right for free movement into “inactive”the retired individuals was launchedthatincluded students, other and can be seenan extension in 1986, Act as Single the of theimplementation the and resultmid-eighties the By families. of the EC’s industry, most then professional andworkers self-employed persons, then workers’ the Greece accessed the EC in 1981, and Spain and Portugal in 1986. in Portugal and Spain and 1981, ECin the accessed Greece In addition to the economic interests of member states and also political will for further for will political also and states member of interests economic the to addition In That this process was not uncontested is shown in the discussions over the freedom of freedom the over in thediscussions is shown uncontested not was this process That 38 however, the topic gained new precedence and paved the way to the andpaved topic gainednewprecedence however, the 49 CEU eTD Collection discrimination on several grounds, among them sexual orientation, age or disability, which has so far been not been Poland. far like so has legislations which national several in case the disability, been or age orientation, sexual them among grounds, several on discrimination 39 phenomenon of commutingAlsothe trace. harder to and are thus local authorities be announcedneed to to not is hard to document.citizenship providedmore the for flexibleground movements under three months, which do A last reason is the EU Then, of inlightaccessions. movements of picture anappropriate capture to statistics fact that many of theEU. Thus, thereis a problem of movers,categorizing and the subsequent problem for the to accession before Poland’s andPoland Germany between schemes seasonal working the directlymainly not legislation, bybilateral triggered of agreements andasubject wase.g. EC was pre-Maastricht First of all, movement has the inmigrantpopulations several reasons. This increase percent. uneven with development morespectacular33 of thatan period, during 1990s only 10percent.Themigration increased of rate third-country is nationals seemingly dramatically for number the duringchange, member livingin of EU citizens state another the than national legislations. unique structure of institutions, EU whichinare morecases many progressive and inclusive individual hasmigrant claimsnot sending only andto nation but resident alsostates, tothe the asphere where created they since should beemphasized rights social supranational more ever of introduction the Especially alike. movers willing and states for possibilities economic it integration,shaped greatly since for European be asuccess called can union citizenship nationality.All in all, thehistory of freedom the movementof andfinal introduction the a of European Community with a strong legal of practice anti-discrimination on grounds of ECJprovidedthe Furthermore, the inpaid the1980s. apprentices werein the1970s,as freedom movement inthe were included of self-employed jurisprudence the due toECJ that itwas that (2008)argue (2010)andRecchi Joppke Both articles”. of Treaty the “interpreter Forexample, see Art. 21 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, whichprohibits However, with the introduction of citizenship the migration structure in the EU did not 39 50 CEU eTD Collection welfare support is still on asustenance level. looking when structure migration at the sendinglower for location: both find that, explanation despite prove to higheasy unemployment surprisingly in Europeanand societies, other (2011), some migration find Kurekova is low and however, if the (1999) Bertola USA. homogenous culturally more the in as overcome to easy as not are that identities national “deep-seated” the and states member fast between the EU [sic!] the in differentials wage of migration low convergence for reasons as names Recchi b). 2009a, Commission, (European population citizens from the EU-8 countries,overall documented EU mobility in 2007did not exceed 0.5 percent of the 2008, p. 75), even in light of the latest upsurge of migration since the opening of the labor markets for EU 40 lowmigration. quo of status over the mobility is actually preferable and arethusnot counted as ‘foreign population stock’. former labor migrants from South Europe chose to naturalize in their country of residence, enlargements. East-Westmigration least migration, since the2004and2007 with regard to at European intra- of reality the suit not does scenario this currently implies, argument my As individuals. supply, the and integration couldprocess increased be between interaction deepened through and demand labor their regulate efficiently can market labor EU integrated EU in the states and cultural capital economic and gain individuals have EU: the in migration the labor of winners flexibility only be could there scenario to return or move on as they please, consequently 2003; Recchi, inabest-case (Fligstein, 2008).Thus, 2008; Geddes, endorsed the member for interaction only through integration the beagenda can perceived positively and mobility, enhance to necessary is it citizens its and EU the of integration social and political 2006). Others have argued, with the classical sociological contact theory, that for aflourishing force’s work contributions (Kahanec and 2010; Zimmermann, Martin, Abella Kuptsch, and of fund current the likeout their pensions that Germany states especially innation resource, scarce a becomes labor and areaging societies since theEuropean immigration, increased in incentive demographic and economic an have states EU all all, of First intentions. actors’ and investigation these actors of thorough it the presupposes because easily, answered that In numbers this means that whereas intra-state mobility in the USA accounts for3.1 percent in 2002 (Recchi In this context, one can also pose the normative question, whether increased intra-EU increased whether question, normative the pose also can one context, this In 51 40 This can not be not can This CEU eTD Collection lifelong-learning-programme/doc80_en.htm> [Accessed 23May 2011]. 41 migration. circular or borders, across commuting even flexibility, by is characterized and communication, meansmuch of transportation cheaper to waves and,due spendstudents to time EUcountry. inanother million two around introduction, enabled its years since past23 the has, over exchange that here, migration. prominently the educational and students’ hementions Most Erasmus which is the extended stay of pensioners in popular vacation destinations, and also the form of migration, resort and retirement the migrations: citizens’ EU typical as qualifies also he which third-country nationals (Messina, which 2007), notdealtare with herein detail.greater butmigrants, also refugees, postcolonial migrants or other types ofmobilityinvolve that driven economically only not is there then, EU the of history the In tracks. migration and ofnetworks in importance the similarity and regularity because of the migration of type aparticular as mentioned be should which relationship, labor informal an into migration Yet isinformal another(1968). pattern agreements the with Yugoslavia (1964) and Portugal on withtemporary labor contractors in the Romania 2000 or German government’s which is the case in earlier as well as current waves of migration, e.g. Italy and Spain agreeing theform butalso discussedcontracts, bilateral manifold above, of agreements supranational migration hasmind only in not that traditionally European the taken of Europe way the from East to West is common,it willchapter. Againstthis migration background focus of nextcurrent be the that revealed but not the only pattern.classification of migrants surgeoflaborthe from postsocialist countries, which be will the Secondly, it is important to bear in migration of 21 migration the of Please see the website of the Lifelong Learning Progamme. Available at: Towards Turnin a Mobility European Citizenship Studies. [Accessed 25May, 2011]. http://www.enacting-citizenship.eu/index.php/sections/deliverables_item/284/> Citizenship between UniversalRightsandthe‘Mob’ Press. Macmillan Countries. TheCases ofPoland,theCzech Republic and Hungary. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. Oxford and NewYork:Berg Publishers,1-30. pp. Social Costsof Transformationto a MarketEconomyinPost-Socialist Focaal –EuropeanJournal ofAnthropology The Citizen andthe Alien. Dilemmas ofContemporary Membership. Intimations of Postmodernity New Patterns ofLabourMigration in CEE Intereconomics 30(3), pp. 443-466. Grammars of Identity/Alterity: A Structural Approach Mobilizing European Democracy: Mobilityand Bibliography , 43 (6), pp., 43(6), 371-376. Europe-Asia Studies . Nd: Editura AMM,pp.7-20. Houndsmill and New PalgraveYork: 94 Mobile Actsof EuropeanCitizenship: . London: Routledge. . Berlinand Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, (1), pp. 3-25. Making European Citizens. Civic EUI WorkingPapers . [pdf] Available here: < , 3(May),pp. 481-501. , 49,pp.65-80. . Nd:Editura AMM,20- pp. [pdf] Available at: < Studies in Houndsmill: EU Labor , RSC No.99 New West An . CEU eTD Collection Crouch, C.; Eder, K. and Tambini, D.,eds. 2001. Crouch, C,1999. Clarke,Living J.2008. with/inneo-liberalism. and without Cerami, A., 2007. Social Change and Welfare State Developments in CEE and Russia. Castles, S.and Davidson, A., 2000. Castano, E., 2004. European Identity: A Social-Psychological Perspective. In: R.K. Herrmann Cook, D. and Ciladrich, A. (2009). The Problem With Similarity: Ethnic Affinity Migrants in Case, H., 2009. Being European: East and West. In: J.T. Checkel and P.J. Katzenstein, eds. Carrier,G. J.1997.Introduction. In: J.Carrier,ed. 1997. Caminda, K.; Goudswaard, K., and Van Vliet, O., 2010. Patterns of Welfare Indicators in the Burdelnii, E.,2004. In Search of New Guidelines for East-West Migration in the Light of Carrera, S., 2005. What Does Free Movement Mean in Theory and Practice in an Enlarged Canoy,al., M.et 2010. Post-Enlargement Migration and Public inPerception European the Burawoy,1984. The contours M., of production politics.C., In:Bergquist, ed.1984. J., 2010. Böröcz, Buchowski, M., 2006. The Specter of Orientalism in Europe: From Exotic Brother to Bruter, M., 2004. Civic and Cultural Components of a European Identity: A Pilot 2004.Brubaker, R., 1996.Brubaker, R., 1992.Brubaker, R., Böröcz, J., 2006. Goodness is Elsewhere: The Rule of European Difference. Anthropology, EU? Oxford University Press. _vortrag_WZB.pdf> [Accessed 15May 2011]. 16.5.2007]. Paper available Area=0&subCategory=0&country=0&year=2009&advSearchKey=transitional+arrang [Accessed 152011]. [Accessed Available at: German]. New York: Continuum,93-106. pp. Warleigh, 2001. Costs of a Harmonised Social Assistance. Social of a Harmonised Costs Enlarged Europe. and Ashgate Burlington: Publishing. (5), pp.803-823. Professionals andin Graduates London. Studies < http://europa.eu/youth/your_rights/index_eu_en.html> [Accessed 19May, 2011]. jsessionid...?fileID=500> [Accessed May 20 2011]. [pdf] 2011]. rights as an EUcitizen docs/com_2010_603_en.pdf> [Accessed23May 2011]. Citizens’ Rights. , 2(2), pp.165-178. London: Center for Economic Policy Research. Policy Economic for Center London: Migration, Work, andCitizenship in the Enlarged EuropeanUnion On European Identity: Nationalism, CultureandHistory Der Anteil der Arbeitan Menschwerdung des Affen The Divisionof Laborin Society Citizenship andGovernance inthe EuropeanUnion. [pdf] Available at [Accessed20January 2011]. Uncertain Transition: . Cambridge, UK: Polity 2094,Bonn. [pdf] Available at: . [online, in . [online, , Brno: Masaryk London and London Citizenship [pdf] Canadian . Surrey , 34 CEU eTD Collection Glick Schiller, N.; Basch, L. and Szanton Blanc, C., 1997. From immigrant to transmigrant: Giesen, B. and Eder, K., 2001. European Citizenship: An Avenue for the Social Integration of Fredman, S., 2002.Fredman, S., Geddes, A.2003. Gans, H.J.,1995. Policies Against Policies and Undeservingness.In: Galgóczi, B. Leschke, J. and Watt, A. eds., 2009. 2000.Fraser, Rethinking N., Recognition. Fraser, N., 1997. From Redistribution to Recognition? Dilemmas of Justice in a Fligstein, 2008. N., Flash Eurobarometer, 2010. Flash Eurobarometer, Feakins, M. and Bia Favell,A. and Nebe, T.M., 2009. Internal and External Movers: East-West migration and the Favell,A. and Hansen, R., 2002. Markets against Politics: Migration, EUEnlargement and Favell,A. and Geddes, A., 1999. European Integration, Immigration and the Nation State: Favell,A., 2009. Immigration, Migration, and Free Movement in the Making of Europe. In: J. Favell,A., Feldblum M. and Smith M.P., 2008. The Human Face of Global Mobility: A Favell,A., 2008b. Euroclash: Towards a Sociology of the European Union. In: Favell,A., 2008a. The New Face of East-West Migration in Europe. Evans,Relationships K.,2001. between andwork life. In: B.Crick, ed.2001. Baden-Baden: NomosVerlagsgesellschaft,121- pp. 140. Theorizing transnational migration, in: Pries, L., ed. 1997. Legacies and Postnational Projects. In:Europe. K. and Eder B.Giesen, eds.2003. Publications. The Poor Trends, ImpactsandPolicies Press. Condition” Age.In: “Postsocialist” Oxford University Press. fl_294_sum_en.pdf> [Accessed:23May 2011]. Flash EB294.[pdf] Available< http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash/ at: 647-661. Ideal. theEuropean to Challenges MA:Northampton, EdwardElgar,205-223. pp. European Integration.Citizenship andMobility in theEU. impact of EU enlargement. In: E. Recchi and Favell,A., eds. 2009. the Idea of Idea of the Europe. Action? (32). Political Transnational Institutionalizing 1-28. T. Checkel and P.J. Katzenstein, eds. 2009. and theAsia-Pacific. GlobalMobility: International Highly Skilled Migration inEurope,North America Research Agenda. In: M.P. Smith and A. Favell, eds. 2008. Journal ofSociology University Press, pp.167-192. Migration Studies, Publishing, Blackwell Publishers. Towards a citizenship culture. . NewYork: Basic Books, pp.103-133. The . London and Routledge, NewYork: pp.11-40. Discrimination Law Euroclash. TheEU,EuropeanandtheFuture ofIdentity, Europe. á asiewicz, L., 2006. “Trouble in the East”: The new Entrants and Politics of Migrationand Immigration inEurope 34 (5), pp. 701-716. Journal of Ethnicand Migration Studies , 49(3), pp.495-501. 2 European UnionCitizenship. Summary nd Justice Interruptus: CriticalReflectionson the “Postocialist ed. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, pp. . Farnham, Publishing.Ashgate UK: Oxford, UK and Malden, MA: Political Quarterly . Oxford, UK and New York: Oxford University Eurasian Geography andEconomics New Left Review Oxford: University Oxford Press, pp. 1-16. 97 EU LabourMigration sinceEnlargement. European Identity. European Citizenship between National EUI WorkingPapers , 3, pp., 3, 107-120. Cheltenham and Cheltenham Transnationale Migration The HumanFace of , 28(4), pp.581-601. . European Commission, European . The War Against Journal of and Ethnic Cambridge: Cambridge . London: Sage Pioneers of , Citizens: , 47 (6), pp. RSC No. 99 European Oxford: . CEU eTD Collection Kalb, 2011.Headlines D., of Nations, of Subtexts Class:Working ClassPopulism and the Kalb, 2009.Conversations D., with a PolishTracing populist: hidden histories of Kahanec, M.; Zaiceva, A. and Zimmermann, K., 2010. Lessons from Migration after EU Joppke, C.,Joppke, 2010. Jessop, B., 2003. Changes in Welfare Regimes and the Search for Flexibility and Jenson,2007. The J., European Union’s Regime.Citizenship Creating Norms and Building Humphrey, C., 1997. Traders, 'Disorder', and Citizenship Regimes in Provincial Russia. In: Herod, A. and Aguiar, L.LM., 2006. Introduction: Geographies of neoliberalism. In: Hart, K. and Hann, C. 2007. A Short History of Economic Anthropology. Hantrais, L.,2007. Grabb, 1997. E.G., Herod, A. and Aguiar, L.LM., 2006. Introduction: Cleaners and the dirty work of Hann, C.M.; Humphrey, C, and Verdery, K., 2002. Introduction: Postsocialism as a topic of Hanley, andSzelenyi, E. 2001. Changing I., Structure During Social MarketTransition: The Habermas, J., 2011.Merkels vonDemoskopie Opportunismus. geleiteter Greskovits, B., 2009. The Visegrad States: A Region of Rivals. In: K. Dyson and A. Sepos, Handler, J.F.,2009.Welfare, Workfare, and Citizenshipin Developedthe World. Burawoy, M. Verdery,and K.,eds.1999. the Return ofthe Return inNeoliberalEurope theRepressed (forthcoming). Return of the Repressed in Neoliberal Europe. In: D. Kalb and G. Halmai, eds. 2011 Ethnologist, In: beyond). (and in postsocialism dispossession and class, globalization, After Post-Enlargement Migration Enlargement. In: M.Kahanec andK. eds.2010. Zimmermann, (Un)Employment Question Employment. European Integrationand the Transnationalizationthe of Employability. In: H. Overbeek, ed. 2003. Practices. Rowman andLittlefield Publishers, pp. Publishers, pp.11-15. dirty workneoliberalism. of Cleaners inthe global economy Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, pp.1-10. Palgrave Macmillan. Routledge, pp.1-28. 3 neoliberalism. In: neoliberalism. anthropological investigation. In:C.Hann, ed.2002. Studies, pp.101-148. the EmergingPost-Socialist Order. Case of Central Europe. In: F. Tarifa, ed. 2001. anthropology/> [Accessed: 15 January anthropology/> [Accessed: 15January 2011]. Available at Zeitung rd ed. Toronto: Harcourt Brace. Harcourt Toronto: ed. , [online] 7April.Available 15May 2011].